Transient Conduction

ℎ𝐴
𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞ −(𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑠 )𝑡
=𝑒 𝑝
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
Or
𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞
𝑡= ln
ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞
*𝜏 𝑖𝑠 Thermal time constant and its equal to
𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝
𝜏= = 𝑅𝑡 𝐶𝑡
ℎ 𝐴𝑠
𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝜏 )

Biot Number Characteristic Length

ℎ𝐿𝑐 𝑉
𝐵𝑖 = 𝐿𝑐 =
𝑘 𝐴𝑠
For a wall
Fourier Number 𝐿𝑐 = 𝐿
𝛼𝑡 For a cylinder
𝐹𝑜 =
𝐿𝑐 2 𝑟𝑜
𝐿𝑐 =
2
For a sphere
𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝐵𝑖 𝐹𝑜 𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝐿𝑐 =
3

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 External Forced Convection

Reynolds Number Prandtl Number

𝜌 𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝑢∞ 𝑥 𝜈 𝑐𝜇
𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑃𝑟 = =
𝜇 𝜈 𝛼 𝑘

Nusselt Number Local Friction Coefficient

ℎ𝐿 𝜏𝑠
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑘 𝜌 𝑢∞ 2 /2

Flow Over a Flat Plate

Laminar Flow (𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 ) :
𝐶𝑓 = 0.664 𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝐶𝑓 = 1.328 𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
ℎ𝐿
𝛿 = 5𝑥𝑅𝑒 −0.5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.664 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑘
For Liquid Metals:
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.565 𝑃𝑒 0.5 , 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑁𝑢𝑥
Mixed Flow (5 × 105 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 1 × 108 , 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 60 ) :
−1⁄
𝐶𝑓 = 0.074 𝑅𝑒 5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = (0.037𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 − 871)𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
Turbulent Flow (𝑅𝑒 ≥ 5 × 105 ):
𝐶𝑓 = 0.0592 𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝐶𝑓 = 0.074 𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.03 𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3

ℎ𝐿
𝛿 = 0.37𝑅𝑒 −1⁄5 , 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = = 0.037𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑘

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 Special Cases for Flow Over Flat Plate
1-Unheated starting length (𝜁):
Laminar Turbulent
0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 0.0296𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁
[1−( )3⁄4 ]1⁄3 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁
[1−( )9⁄10 ]1⁄9
𝑥 𝑥

2-Uniform heat flux:

Laminar (0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ) Turbulent ( 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 60)
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3

Flow Over a Cylinder

𝜌 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 = =
𝜇 𝜈
0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑛 = 0.37 → 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 10
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝜁 ⁄4 1⁄3
[1−( )3ℎ𝐷 ]
𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑚 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 𝑛 = 0.36 → 𝑃𝑟 > 10
𝑘

*For all 𝑅𝑒𝐷 and 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.2 use:

0.62𝑅𝑒𝐷 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝑅𝑒𝐷 5 ⁄8

𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.3 + [1 + ( ) ] 4 ⁄5
0.4 282000
[1 + ( 𝑃 )2⁄3 ]1⁄4
𝑟
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 Flow Over a Sphere

ℎ𝐷 1⁄4
0.5 2⁄3 0.4 𝜇
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 2 + (0.4𝑅𝑒𝐷 + 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷 )𝑃𝑟 ( )
𝑘 𝜇𝑠
𝜇 8
0.71 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 380 , 1 ≤ ≤ 3.2 , 3.5 ≤ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 8 × 10
𝜇𝑠

9
 Flow Over Bank of Tubes
Aligned Staggered

𝑆𝑡 𝑆 2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 𝑆𝐷 = √𝑆𝑇 2 + ( 𝑇 )
𝑆𝑡 −𝐷 2

𝐴1 = 𝑆𝑇 𝐿 𝐴𝐷 = (𝑆𝐷 − 𝐷)𝐿
𝑆𝑡
𝐴 𝑇 = (𝑆𝑇 − 𝐷)𝐿 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 , (2𝐴𝐷 < 𝐴 𝑇 )
2(𝑆𝐷 −𝐷)
𝑆𝑡
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉 , (2𝐴𝐷 > 𝐴 𝑇 )
𝑆𝑇 −𝐷

0.25
ℎ𝐷 𝑚 0.36 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 ( ) , 𝑁𝐿 ≥ 20, 0.7 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 500
𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑠
10 ≤ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 ≤ 2 × 106
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑅𝑒𝐷 =
𝜈

10
If 𝑁𝐿 < 20 :
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐹 𝑁𝑢𝐷𝑁
𝐿 ≥20

−𝜋𝐷𝑁ℎ
𝑞 ′ = 𝑁(ℎ𝜋𝐷𝛥𝑇𝑚 ) 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑠 − (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑖 ) exp ( )
𝜌𝑣𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐶𝑝
* NT is the number of tubes in each row.

𝜌𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑚̇𝛥𝑃
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑁𝐿 𝑓 𝑋 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛥𝑃 = 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑣 (𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐿)
2 𝜌
𝑄 = 𝑣 (𝑁𝑇 𝑆𝑇 𝐿)

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13
 Forced Internal Convection

Reynolds Number Entrance Length:

4𝑚̇ 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷𝜇 = 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑅𝑒 < 2300)
𝜈

𝑥𝑓𝑑 = 0.05𝑅𝑒 𝐷
Hydraulic diameter 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2300)
4𝐴𝑐
𝐷ℎ = 𝑥𝑓𝑑 = 10𝐷
𝑝

𝑞̇ = 𝑚̇ 𝛥ℎ = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 )
𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 = ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑞 ′′ 𝑠 𝑃 ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 )𝑃
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝
Constant heat flux:
𝑞′′ 𝑠 𝑃
The mean temperature: 𝑇𝑙𝑚 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑚𝑖
𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝

Total heat: 𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑚𝑒 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 )

Constant surface temperature:

𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚𝑒 −𝑃ℎ𝑥 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑚𝑒 −𝑈𝐴𝑠

= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑚𝑖 𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑝
𝛥𝑇𝑒 −𝛥𝑇𝑖
In general: 𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 𝛥𝑇 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝛥𝑇𝑙𝑚
ln ( 𝛥𝑇𝑒 )
𝑖

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 Internal Forced Flow
Laminar flow (𝑅𝑒 < 2300)
Fully developed region

ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 3.66 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝑘
ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 4.36 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 )
𝑘
Entrance region

ℎ𝐷 0.0668(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 3.66 +
𝑘 1 + 0.04[(𝐷⁄𝐿)𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ]1⁄3

Turbulent flow (𝑅𝑒 > 2300)

ℎ𝐷 n= 0.4 (heating)
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = = 0.023𝑅𝑒 4⁄5 𝑃𝑟 𝑛
𝑘 n=0.3 (cooling)
For great difference in temperature
𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 1⁄3 𝜇 0.14 0.6 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 16700
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 ( ) ( )
𝐿 ⁄𝐷 𝜇𝑠 𝜇
0.044 ≤ ( ) ≤ 9.75
𝜇𝑠
𝜋𝐷2
𝑞𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣ℎ𝑠𝑓 = 𝜌𝐿(𝑤𝐻 − )ℎ𝑠𝑓
4
Pressure Drop
𝐿 𝜇𝑉 2
𝛥𝑃 = 𝑓 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑄𝛥𝑃
𝐷 2

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 Natural Convection
Grashof Number for ideal gas

𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿𝑐 3 1
𝐺𝑟𝐿 = 𝛽=
𝜈2 𝑇
Rayleigh Number
3
𝑔𝛽(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )𝐿𝑐
𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 =
𝜈𝛼
For a Vertical Plate

ℎ𝐿 Laminar (C=0.59, n=1/4)

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑛
𝑘 Turbulent (C=0.1, n=1/3)

2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄6
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = {0.825 + 9⁄16
8⁄27
}
[1 + (0.492⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

For a Horizontal Plate

Upper surface of a Hot plate or Lower surface of a Cold Plate
1⁄4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.59𝑅𝑎𝐿 (104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 107 , 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.7)
1⁄3
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.15𝑅𝑎𝐿 (107 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 , 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑟 )

Lower surface of a Hot Plate or Upper surface of a Cold Plate

1⁄5
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.52𝑅𝑎𝐿 (104 ≤ 𝑅𝑎𝐿 ≤ 109 , 𝑃𝑟 ≥ 0.7)

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 For a long Horizontal Cylinder

ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = = 𝐶𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑛
𝑘

Or
2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄6
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = {0.6 + 9⁄16
8⁄27
}
[1 + (0.559⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

For a Sphere
0.589𝑅𝑎𝐿 1⁄4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 2 + 9⁄16
4⁄9
[1 + (0.469⁄𝑃𝑟 ) ]

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