Chapter 4 Structures

Part II

Yilma T. Birhane, PhD

Associate Professor at Addis Ababa University
Adjunct Professor at Ethiopian Aviation University
1
 4/5 Space Trusses
• A space truss is the three-dimensional counterpart of the plane
truss described in the previous section.

• The idealized space truss consists of rigid links connected at their

ends by ball-and-socket joints (such a joint is illustrated in Fig. 3/9 in
Art. 3/4).
• In Fig. 4/13a the two bars AD and BD joined at D require a third support CD to
keep the triangle ADB from rotating about AB.

• In Fig. 4/13b the supporting base is replaced by three more bars AB, BC, and AC
to form a tetrahedron not dependent on the foundation for its own rigidity.

FIGURE 4/13
• To form a new rigid unit we extend the structure with three
additional concurrent bars whose ends are attached to three fixed
joints on the existing structure.

• Thus, in Fig. 4/13c the bars AF, BF, and CF are attached to the
foundation and therefore fix point F in space. Likewise, point H is
fixed in space by the bars AH, DH, and CH.

• The three additional bars CG, FG, and HG are attached to the three
fixed points C, F, and H and therefore fix G in space. The fixed point
E is similarly created hence now the structure is entirely rigid.

• The two applied loads shown will result in forces in all of the
members.
• A space truss formed in this way is called a simple space truss.

• Ideally there must be point support, such as that given by a ball-and

socket joint, at the connections of a space truss to prevent bending
in the members.

• As in riveted and welded connections for plane trusses, if the

centerlines of joined members intersect at a point, we can justify
the assumption of two-force members under simple tension and
compression.
 Statically Determinate Space Trusses

• When a space truss is supported externally so that it is statically

determinate as an entire unit, a relationship exists between the
number of its joints and the number of its members necessary for
internal stability without redundancy.

• Because the equilibrium of each joint is specified by three scalar

force equations, there are in all 3j such equations for a space truss
with j joints.

• For the entire truss composed of m members there are m unknowns

plus six unknown support reactions in the general case of a statically
determinate space structure.
• Thus, for any space truss, the equation m + 6 = 3j will be satisfied if
the truss is statically determinate internally. A simple space truss
satisfies this relation automatically.

• Starting with the initial tetrahedron, for which the equation holds,
the structure is extended by adding three members and one joint at
a time, thus preserving the equality.
• As in the case of the plane truss, this relation is a necessary
condition for stability, but it is not a sufficient condition, since one
or more of the m members can be arranged in such a way as not to
contribute to a stable configuration of the entire truss.

• If m + 6 > 3j, there are more members than there are independent
equations, and the truss is statically indeterminate internally with
redundant members present.

• If m + 6 < 3j, there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss

is unstable and subject to collapse under load.
More on Space Trusses
• An elementary space truss consists of 6 members
connected at 4 joints to form a tetrahedron.

• A simple space truss is formed and can be

extended when 3 new members and 1 joint are
added at the same time.

• In a simple space truss, m = 3n - 6 where m is the

number of members and n is the number of joints.

• Conditions of equilibrium for the joints provide 3n

equations. For a simple truss, 3n = m + 6 and the
equations can be solved for m member forces and
6 support reactions.

• Equilibrium for the entire truss provides 6

additional equations which are not independent of
the joint equations.
6-9
Various structures can be designed Space Frame system.
 The space frame is especially an ideal and economic roofing solution for structures with
wide spans such as
• aircraft hangars,
• factories,
• warehouses,
• conference halls,
• sports halls, Tensile structure metal truss
• shopping centers,
• showrooms,
• telecommunication towers,
• domes,
• tube
• walkways,
• pedestrian overpasses,
• industrial buildings,
• swimming pools,
• resort centers,
• atriums,
• car parks,
• shades etc.

The Space Frame system is not only used as roofs but also as facades and entrance canopies.
 Method of Joints for Space Trusses
• The method of joints developed in Art. 4/3 for plane trusses may
be extended directly to space trusses by satisfying the complete
vector equation for each joint.

ΣF =0 (4/1)

• Begin the analysis at a joint where at least one known force acts
and not more than three unknown forces are present.
• Adjacent joints on which not more than three unknown forces act
may then be analyzed in turn.
• we may also write 3j joint equations by applying Eq. 4/1 to all joints
of the space frame.

• The number of unknowns will be m+6 if the structure is

noncollapsible when removed from its supports and those supports
provide six external reactions.

• If, in addition, there are no redundant members, then the number

of equations (3j) equals the number of unknowns (m + 6), and the
entire system of equations can be solved simultaneously for the
unknowns.

• Because of the large number of coupled equations, a computer

solution is usually required. With this latter approach, it is not
necessary to begin at a joint where at least one known and no more
than three unknown forces act.
 Method of Sections for Space Trusses
• The method of sections developed in the previous article may also
be applied to space trusses. The two vector equations
ΣF =0 and ΣM=0
must be satisfied for any section of the truss, where the zero
moment sum will hold for all moment axes.

• Because the two vector equations are equivalent to six scalar

equations, we conclude that, in general, a section should not be
passed through more than six members whose forces are
unknown.

• The method of sections for space trusses is not widely used,

however, because a moment axis can seldom be found which
eliminates all but one unknown, as in the case of plane trusses.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4/5
 4/6 Frames and Machines

• A structure is called a frame or machine if at least one of its

individual members is a multiforce member.
• A multiforce member is defined as one with three or more forces
acting on it, or one with two or more forces and one or more
couples acting on it.

• Frames are structures which are designed to support applied loads

and are usually fixed in position.

• Machines are structures which contain moving parts and are

designed to transmit input forces or couples to output forces or
couples.
• Because frames and machines contain multiforce members,
the forces in these members in general will not be in the
directions of the members.

• Therefore, we cannot analyze these structures by the

methods developed in Arts. 4/3, 4/4, and 4/5 because these
methods apply to simple trusses composed of two-force
members where the forces are in the directions of the
members.
 Interconnected Rigid Bodies with Multiforce Members
• In Chapter 3 the equilibrium of multiforce bodies of single rigid
body was discussed.

• Here, the equilibrium of interconnected rigid bodies which include

multiforce members will be discussed. Although most such bodies
may be analyzed as two-dimensional systems, there are numerous
examples of frames and machines which are three-dimensional.

• The forces acting on each member of a connected system are

found by isolating the member with a free-body diagram and
applying the equations of equilibrium.
• The principle of action and reaction must be carefully observed
when we represent the forces of interaction on the separate free-
body diagrams.

• If the structure contains more members or supports than are

necessary to prevent collapse, then, as in the case of trusses, the
problem is statically indeterminate, and the principles of
equilibrium, though necessary, are not sufficient for solution.

• Although many frames and machines are statically indeterminate,

in this article we will consider only those which are statically
determinate.
• If the frame or machine constitutes a rigid unit by itself when
removed from its supports, like the A-frame in Fig. 4/14a,

 the analysis is best begun by establishing all the forces external to the
structure treated as a single rigid body.

 then dismember the structure and consider the equilibrium of each part
separately.

• The equilibrium equations for the several parts will be related

through the terms involving the forces of interaction.
• If the structure is not a rigid unit by itself but depends on its
external supports for rigidity, as illustrated in Fig. 4/14b, then the
calculation of the external support reactions cannot be completed
until the structure is dismembered and the individual parts are
analyzed.
 Force Representation and Free-Body Diagrams
• It is important that a force be consistently represented on the
diagrams for interacting bodies which involve the force in question.

• For two bodies connected by the pin A, Fig. 4/15a, the force
components must be consistently represented in opposite
directions on the separate free-body diagrams.

• For a ball-and-socket connection between members of a space

frame, we must apply the action-and-reaction principle to all three
components as shown in Fig. 4/15b.
• The assigned directions may prove to be wrong when the algebraic
signs of the components are determined upon calculation.

• If Ax, for instance, should turn out to be negative, it is actually acting

in the direction opposite to that originally represented, then reverse
the direction of the force on both members and to reverse the sign of
its force terms in the equations. Or leave the representation as
originally made, and the proper sense of the force will be understood
from the negative sign.
• If we choose to use vector notation in labeling the forces, then we
must be careful to use a plus sign for an action and a minus sign for
the corresponding reaction, as shown in Fig. 4/16.
• SAMPLE PROBLEM 4/6
• SAMPLE PROBLEM 4/7
• SAMPLE PROBLEM 4/8
• SAMPLE PROBLEM 4/9
 Sample Problem 6.3
SOLUTION:
• Take the entire truss as a free body.
Apply the conditions for static equilib-
rium to solve for the reactions at A and L.
• Pass a section through members FH,
GH, and GI and take the right-hand
section as a free body.
• Apply the conditions for static
equilibrium to determine the desired
member forces.
Determine the force in members FH,
GH, and GI.

6 - 27
 Sample Problem 6.3
SOLUTION:
• Take the entire truss as a free body.
Apply the conditions for static equilib-
rium to solve for the reactions at A and L.

 M A  0  5 m 6 kN   10 m 6 kN   15 m 6 kN 

 20 m 1 kN   25 m 1 kN   25 m L
L  7.5 kN 
 Fy  0  20 kN  L  A
A  12.5 kN 

6 - 28
Sample Problem 6.3
• Pass a section through members FH, GH, and GI
and take the right-hand section as a free body.

• Apply the conditions for static equilibrium to

determine the desired member forces.
MH  0
7.50 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m   FGI 5.33 m   0
FGI  13.13 kN
FGI  13.13 kN T

6 - 29
Sample Problem 6.3
FG 8 m
tan     0.5333   28.07
GL 15 m
 MG  0
7.5 kN 15 m   1 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m 
  FFH cos  8 m   0
FFH  13.82 kN
FFH  13.82 kN C

GI 5m
tan   2  0.9375   43.15
HI
3
8 m 
ML  0
1 kN 10 m   1 kN 5 m   FGH cos  10 m   0
FGH  1.371 kN
FGH  1.371 kN C
6 - 30
Analysis of Frames
• Frames and machines are structures with at least one
multiforce member. Frames are designed to support loads
and are usually stationary. Machines contain moving parts
and are designed to transmit and modify forces.
• A free body diagram of the complete frame is used to
determine the external forces acting on the frame.
• Internal forces are determined by dismembering the frame
and creating free-body diagrams for each component.
• Forces on two force members have known lines of action
but unknown magnitude and sense.
• Forces on multiforce members have unknown magnitude
and line of action. They must be represented with two
unknown components.
• Forces between connected components are equal, have the
same line of action, and opposite sense.
6 - 31
Frames Which Cease To Be Rigid When
Detached From Their Supports
• Some frames may collapse if removed from
their supports. Such frames can not be treated
as rigid bodies.
• A free-body diagram of the complete frame
indicates four unknown force components which
can not be determined from the three equilibrium
conditions.
• The frame must be considered as two distinct, but
related, rigid bodies.
• With equal and opposite reactions at the contact
point between members, the two free-body
diagrams indicate 6 unknown force components.
• Equilibrium requirements for the two rigid
bodies yield 6 independent equations.
6 - 32
 Sample Problem 6.4
SOLUTION:
• Create a free-body diagram for the
complete frame and solve for the support
reactions.
• Define a free-body diagram for member
BCD. The force exerted by the link DE
has a known line of action but unknown
magnitude. It is determined by summing
moments about C.
Members ACE and BCD are connected • With the force on the link DE known, the
by a pin at C and by the link DE. For sum of forces in the x and y directions
the loading shown, determine the may be used to find the force
force in link DE and the components components at C.
of the force exerted at C on member
BCD. • With member ACE as a free-body,
check the solution by summing
moments about A.
6 - 33
Sample Problem 6.4
SOLUTION:
• Create a free-body diagram for the complete frame
and solve for the support reactions.
 Fy  0  Ay  480 N Ay  480 N 

 M A  0  480 N 100 mm   B160 mm 

B  300 N 

 Fx  0  B  Ax Ax  300 N 

Note:
  tan 1 150
80  28.07

6 - 34
 Sample Problem 6.4
• Define a free-body diagram for member
BCD. The force exerted by the link DE has a
known line of action but unknown
magnitude. It is determined by summing
moments about C.

 M C  0  FDE sin  250 mm   300 N 60 mm   480 N 100 mm 

FDE  561 N FDE  561 N C

• Sum of forces in the x and y directions may be used to find the force
components at C.
 Fx  0  C x  FDE cos   300 N
0  C x   561 N  cos   300 N C x  795 N

 Fy  0  C y  FDE sin   480 N

0  C y   561 N  sin   480 N C y  216 N
6 - 35
 Sample Problem 6.4

• With member ACE as a free-body, check

the solution by summing moments about A.

 M A  FDE cos  300 mm   FDE sin  100 mm   C x 220 mm 

  561cos  300 mm    561sin  100 mm    795220 mm   0

(checks)

6 - 36
Machines
• Machines are structures designed to transmit
and modify forces. Their main purpose is to
transform input forces into output forces.

• Given the magnitude of P, determine the

magnitude of Q.

• Create a free-body diagram of the complete

machine, including the reaction that the wire
exerts.

• The machine is a nonrigid structure. Use

one of the components as a free-body.

• Taking moments about A,

a
 M A  0  aP  bQ Q P
b

6 - 37
 End of Chapter 4
Tutorial problems and Assignments for this chapter will follow