1

POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

DR D STEPHEN

Introduction
Earlier on we learnt about indices. After understanding that, we can now look at polynomials
and thereafter polynomial functions.

1. Polynomials
We will start off with polynomials in one variable. Polynomials in one variable are algebraic
expressions that consist of terms in the form axn where n is a non-negative (i.e. positive or
zero) integer and a is a real number and is called the coefficient of the term. The degree of a
polynomial in one variable is the largest exponent in the polynomial.
Note that we will often drop the “in one variable” part and just say polynomial.
Here are examples of polynomials and their degrees.
5x12 − 2x6 + x5 − 198x + 1 degree: 12

x4 − x3 + x2 − x + 1 degree: 4

56x23 degree: 23

5x − 7 degree: 1

−8 degree: 0
So, a polynomial doesn’t have to contain all powers of x as we see in the first example. Also,
polynomials can consist of a single term as we see in the third and fifth example.
We should probably discuss the final example a little more. This really is a polynomial even
it may not look like one. Remember that a polynomial is any algebraic expression that consists
of terms in the form axn . Another way to write the last example is
−8x0
Written in this way makes it clear that the exponent on the x is a zero (this also explains the
degree. . . ) and so we can see that it really is a polynomial in one variable.
Here are some examples of things that aren’t polynomials.
4x6 + 15x−8 + 1

√
5 x − x + x2

2
+ x3 − 2
3
The first one isn’t a polynomial because it has a negative exponent and all exponents in a
polynomial must be positive.
1Department of Mathematics and Physics, Technical University of Mombasa, P.O. Box 90420, 80100 Mombasa,
Kenya.
1
2 DR D STEPHEN

To see why the second one isn’t a polynomial let’s rewrite it a little.
√ 1
5 x − x + x2 = 5x 2 − x + x2
By converting the root to exponent form we see that there is a rational root in the algebraic
expression. All the exponents in the algebraic expression must be non-negative integers in order
for the algebraic expression to be a polynomial. As a general rule of thumb if an algebraic
expression has a radical in it then it isn’t a polynomial.
Let’s also rewrite the third one to see why it isn’t a polynomial.
2
+ x3 − 2 = 2x−1 + x3 − 2
x
So, this algebraic expression really has a negative exponent in it and we know that isn’t
allowed. Another rule of thumb is if there are any variables in the denominator of a fraction
then the algebraic expression isn’t a polynomial.
Note that this doesn’t mean that radicals and fractions aren’t allowed in polynomials. They
just can’t involve the variables. For instance, the following is a polynomial
√ 7 1 √
5x4 − x2 + √ x − 5 113
3 14

12 8
There are lots of radicals and fractions in this algebraic expression, but the denominators of
the fractions are only numbers and the radicands of each radical are only a numbers. Each x
in the algebraic expression appears in the numerator and the exponent is a positive (or zero)
integer. Therefore this is a polynomial.
Next, let’s take a quick look at polynomials in two variables. Polynomials in two variables
are algebraic expressions consisting of terms in the form axn y m . The degree of each term in
a polynomial in two variables is the sum of the exponents in each term and the degree of the
polynomial is the largest such sum.
Here are some examples of polynomials in two variables and their degrees.
x2 y − 6x3 y 1 2 + 10x2 − 7y + 1 degree: 15

6x4 + 8y 4 − xy 2 degree: 4

x4 y 2 − x3 y 3 − xy + x4 degree: 6

6x14 − 10y 3 + 3x − 11y degree: 14

In these kinds of polynomials not every term needs to have both x′ s and y ′ s in them, in fact
as we see in the last example they don’t need to have any terms that contain both x′ s and y ′ s.
Also, the degree of the polynomial may come from terms involving only one variable. Note as
well that multiple terms may have the same degree.
We can also talk about polynomials in three variables, or four variables or as many variables
as we need. The vast majority of the polynomials that we’ll see in this course are polynomials
in one variable and so most of the examples in the remainder of this section will be polynomials
in one variable.
Next, we need to get some terminology out of the way. A monomial is a polynomial that
consists of exactly one term. A binomial is a polynomial that consists of exactly two terms.
Finally, a trinomial is a polynomial that consists of exactly three terms. We will use these terms
off and on so you should probably be at least somewhat familiar with them.
Now we need to talk about adding, subtracting and multiplying polynomials. You’ll note that
we left out division of polynomials. That will be discussed in a later section where we will use
division of polynomials quite often.
 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 3

Before actually starting this discussion we need to recall the distributive law. This will be
used repeatedly in the remainder of this section. Here is the distributive law.

a(b + c) = ab + ac

We will start with adding and subtracting polynomials. This is probably best done with a
couple of examples.

Example 1.1. Perform the indicated operation for each of the following.
(1) Add 6x5 − 10x2 + x − 45 to 13x2 − 9x + 4.

(2) Subtract 5x3 − 9x2 + x − 3 from x2 + x + 4.

Solution
(1)

(6x5 − 10x2 + x − 45) + (13x2 − 9x + 4) = 6x5 + (−10 + 13)x2 + (1 − 9)x − 45 + 4

= 6x5 + 3x2 − 8x − 41.

(2)

x2 + x + 4 − (5x3 − 9x2 + x − 3) = x2 + x + 4 − 5x3 + 9x2 − x + 3

= −5x3 + 10x2 + 4.

Example 1.2. Multiply each of the following.

(1) 4x2 (x2 − 6x + 2)

(2) (3x + 5)(x − 10)

(3) (1 − 7x)2

(4) (4x2 − x)(6 − 3x)

(5) (2x + 3)(x2 − x + 1)

(6) (3x + 7y)(x − 2y)

(7) (3x + 5)(3x − 5)

(8) 4(x + 3)2

(9) (−6x2 − 3x)(4x3 − 2)

Solution
(1) 4x2 (x2 − 6x + 2) = 4x4 − 24x3 + 8x2

(2) (3x + 5)(x − 10) = 3x(x − 10) + 5(x − 10) = 3x2 − 30x + 5x − 50 = 3x2 − 25x − 6 − 50

(3) (1 − 7x)(1 − 7x) = 1(1 − 7x) − 7x(1 − 7x) = 1 − 7x − 7x + 49x2 = 49x2 − 14x + 1

Work out the remaining ones.

4 DR D STEPHEN

2. Factoring Polynomials
Let’s start out by talking a little bit about just what factoring is. Factoring is the process
by which we go about determining what we multiplied to get the given quantity. We do this all
the time with numbers. For instance, here are a variety of ways to factor 12.

12 = (2)(6) 12 = (3)(4) 12 = (2)(2)(3)

1
12 = ( )(24) 12 = (−2)(−6) 12 = (−2)(2)(−3)
2
There are many more possible ways to factor 12, but these are representative of many of
them.
A common method of factoring numbers is to completely factor the number into positive
prime factors. A prime number is a number whose only positive factors are 1 and itself. For
example, 2, 3, 5, and 7 are all examples of prime numbers. Examples of numbers that aren’t
prime are 4, 6, and 12 to pick a few.
If we completely factor a number into positive prime factors there will only be one way of
doing it. That is the reason for factoring things in this way. For our example above with 12 the
complete factorization is,

12 = (2)(2)(3)
Factoring polynomials is done in pretty much the same manner. We determine all the terms
that were multiplied together to get the given polynomial. We then try to factor each of the
terms we found in the first step. This continues until we simply can’t factor anymore. When we
can’t do any more factoring we will say that the polynomial is completely factored.
Here are a couple of examples.

x2 − 16 = (x + 4)(x − 4)
This is completely factored since neither of the two factors on the right can be further factored.
Likewise,

x4 − 16 = (x2 + 4)(x2 − 4)
is not completely factored because the second factor can be further factored. Note that the
first factor is completely factored however. Here is the complete factorization of this polynomial.

x4 − 16 = (x2 + 4)(x + 2)(x − 2)

The purpose of this section is to familiarize ourselves with many of the techniques for factoring
polynomials.
2.1. Greatest Common Factor. The first method for factoring polynomials will be factoring
out the greatest common factor. When factoring in general this will also be the first thing that
we should try as it will often simplify the problem.
To use this method all that we do is look at all the terms and determine if there is a factor
that is in common to all the terms. If there is, we will factor it out of the polynomial. Also
note that in this case we are really only using the distributive law in reverse. Remember that
the distributive law states that

a(b + c) = ab + ac
In factoring out the greatest common factor we do this in reverse. We notice that each term
has an a in it and so we “factor” it out using the distributive law in reverse as follows,
 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 5

ab + ac = a(b + c)
Let’s take a look at some examples.
Example 2.1. Factor out the greatest common factor from each of the following polynomials.
(a) 8x4 − 4x3 + 10x2

(b) x3 y 2 + 3x4 y + 5x5 y 3

(c) 3x6 − 9x2 + 3x

(d) 9x2 (2x + 7) − 12x(2x + 7)

Solution

(a) 8x4 − 4x3 + 10x2 = 2x2 (4x2 − 2x + 5)

(b) x3 y 2 + 3x4 y + 5x5 y 3 = x3 y(y + 3x + 5x2 y 2 )

(c) 3x6 − 9x2 + 3x = 3x(x5 − 3x + 1)

(d) 9x2 (2x + 7) − 12x(2x + 7) = (9x2 − 12x)(2x + 7) = 3x(3x − 4)(2x + 7)

2.2. Factoring By Grouping. This is a method that isn’t used all that often, but when it can
be used it can be somewhat useful. This method is best illustrated with an example or two.
Example 2.2. Factor by grouping each of the following.
(a) 3x2 − 2x + 12x − 8

(b) x5 + x − 2x4 − 2

(c) x5 − 3x2 − 2x2 + 6

Solution
(a)
3x2 − 2x + 12x − 8 = (3x2 − 2x) + (12x − 8)
= x(3x − 2) + 4(3x − 2)
= (3x − 2)(x + 4).
(b)
x5 + x − 2x4 − 2 = (x5 + x) − (2x4 + 2)
= x(x4 + 1) − 2(x4 + 1)
= (x4 + 1)(x − 2)
(c)
x5 − 3x2 − 2x2 + 6 = (x5 − 3x2 ) − (2x2 − 6)
= x3 (x2 − 3) − 2(x2 − 3)
= (x2 − 3)(x3 − 2)
6 DR D STEPHEN

Factoring by grouping can be nice, but it doesn’t work all that often. Notice that as we saw
in the last two parts of this example if there is a ” − ” in front of the third term we will often
also factor that out of the third and fourth terms when we group them.

2.3. Factoring Quadratic Polynomials. First, let’s note that quadratic is another term for
second degree polynomial. So we know that the largest exponent in a quadratic polynomial
will be a 2. In these problems we will be attempting to factor quadratic polynomials into two
first degree (hence forth linear) polynomials. Until you become good at these, we usually end
up doing these by trial and error although there are a couple of processes that can make them
somewhat easier.
Let’s take a look at some examples.
Example 2.3. Factor each of the following polynomials.
(i) x2 + 12x − 15

(ii) x2 − 10x + 24

(iii) x2 + 6x + 9

(iv) x2 + 5x + 1

(v) 3x2 + 2x − 8

(vi) 5x2 − 17x + 6

(vii) 4x2 + 10x − 6

Solution
(i) Given x2 + 12x − 15, the first term is x2 . we know that the factoring must take the form.

x2 + 12x − 15 = (x + )(x + )
We know that it will take this form because when we multiply the two linear terms the first
term must be x2 and the only way to get that to show up is to multiply x by x. Therefore, the
first term in each factor must be an x. To finish this we just need to determine the two numbers
that need to go in the blank spots.
We can narrow down the possibilities considerably. Upon multiplying the two factors out
these two numbers will need to multiply out to get −15. In other words, these two numbers
must be factors of −15. Here are all the possible ways to factor −15 using only integers

(−1)(15) (1)(−15) (−3)(5) (3)(−5)

Now, we can just plug these in one after another and multiply out until we get the correct
pair. However, there is another trick that we can use here to help us out. The correct pair of
numbers must add to get the coefficient of the x term. So, in this case the third pair of factors
will add to ” + 2” and so that is the pair we are after.
Here is the factored form of the polynomial.

x2 + 12x − 15 = (x − 3)(x + 5
Again, we can always check that we got the correct answer by doing a quick multiplication.
 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 7

Note that the method we used here will only work if the coefficient of the x2 term is one. If it
is anything else this won’t work and we really will be back to trial and error to get the correct
factoring form.
Factor out the remaining polynomials.
2.4. Special Forms. There are some nice special forms of some polynomials that can make
factoring easier for us on occasion. Here are the special forms.

a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2

a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2

a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
Let’s work some examples with these.
Example 2.4. Factor each of the following.
(a) x2 − 20x + 100

(b) 25x2 − 9

(c) 8x3 + 1
Solution
(a)x2 − 20x + 100 = (x − 10)2

(b)25x2 − 9 = (5x)2 − (3)2 = (5x − 3)(5x + 3)

(c)8x3 + 1 = (2x)3 + 13 = (2x + 1)(4x2 − 2x + 1)

2.5. Factoring Polynomials with Degree Greater than 2. There is no one method for
doing these in general. However, there are some that we can do so let’s take a look at a couple
of examples.
Example 2.5. Factor each of the following.
(1) 3x4 − 3x3 − 36x2

(2) x4 − 25

(3) x4 + x2 − 20

Solution
(1)
3x4 − 3x3 − 36x2 = 3x2 (x2 − x − 12)
= 3x2 (x − 4)(x + 3)
8 DR D STEPHEN

(2)

x4 − 25 = (x2 )2 − (5)2
= (x2 + 5)(x2 − 5)

(3) For x4 + x2 − 20, let u = x2 . Then u2 = (x2 )2 = x4 and so,

x4 + x2 − 20 = u2 + u − 20
= (u − 4)(u + 5)
= (x2 − 4)(x2 + 5)
= (x − 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 5)

3. Polynomial Functions
Definition 3.1. Polynomial functions are among the simplest, most important, and most com-
monly used mathematical functions.

These functions consist of one or more terms of variables with whole number exponents.
(Whole numbers are positive integers and zero.) All such functions in one variable (usually x)
can be written in this type of format:

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + ax + a0

In fact, polynomial functions are not too dissimilar to our whole number system. We count
with and use a base 10 (decimal) system. Polynomials such as the function above are a ”base
x” system.
The graphs of polynomial functions have predictable shapes based upon degree and the roots
and signs of their first and second derivatives. Higher level derivatives do impart behavioral
information into the graphs of fourth degree or higher polynomials, but these effects are usually
too subtle to notice, so would seem to have very limited usefulness.

3.1. Zero Degree Polynomials.

y=a

Definition 3.2. Zero degree polynomial functions are also known as constant functions. This
is because the function value never changes from a, or is constant. These always graph as
horizontal lines, so their slopes are zero, meaning that there is no vertical change throughout
the function.

Constant functions have these characteristics:

• No roots, unless y = 0, in which case every real number is a root.
• No extrema.
• No inflection points.
• Line and point symmetry everywhere.
• Range is the set of real numbers.
• Does not increase or decrease.
• Can be constructed from one point or one piece of information.
• One fundamental shape.

Example 3.3. Plot a graph of y = 1.

 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 9

Solution
5

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

−2

3.2. First Degree Polynomials.

y = ax + b
Definition 3.4. First degree polynomials are also known as linear polynomials. The name
”linear,” of course, comes from the fact that they are lines. In particular, first degree polynomials
are lines which are neither horizontal nor vertical.
More often, letter m is used as the coefficient of x instead of a, and is used to represent the
slope of the line. Slope describes the rate at which a line rises or falls, comparing vertical change
to horizontal change. Such rates can have much physical application and meaning, and the use
of slope is a critical element in calculus.
Letter b, the additive constant, is often referred to as the y-intercept, the location on the
y-axis through which the line passes.
Linear functions have these characteristics:
• One real root.
• No extrema.
• No inflection points.
• Line and point symmetry everywhere.
• Range is the set of real numbers.
• Constant rate of increase or decrease.
• Can be constructed from two distinct points or two pieces of information.
• One fundamental shape.
• Roots are solvable by a rational equation. (Quadratic Formula.
Example 3.5. Plot the graph of y = 23 x − 1
10 DR D STEPHEN

Solution
6

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2

−3

−4

3.3. First Degree Polynomials.

y = ax2 + bx + c

Definition 3.6. Second degree polynomials are also known as quadratic polynomials. Their
shape is known as a parabola. Long before the language of algebra was developed the ancient
Greeks recognized the parabola as a conic section, and were also able to define it as the collection
of all points equidistant from a point (focus) and a line (directrix).

The object formed when a parabola is rotated about its axis of symmetry is known as a
paraboloid, or parabolic reflector. Satellite dish antennas typically have this shape. All incoming
energy reflects off the dish into the paraboloid’s focal point where the signal collection hardware
is placed.
Quadratics have these characteristics:
• Zero, one, or two real roots.
• One extreme, called the vertex.
• No inflection points.
• Line symmetry through the vertex. (Axis of symmetry.)
• Rises or falls at both ends.
• Can be constructed from three non-colinear points or three pieces of information.
• One fundamental shape.
• Roots are solvable by radicals. (Quadratic Formula.)

Example 3.7. Plot the graph of y = − 12 x2 + x + 7

2
 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 11

Solution
8

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

−2

−3

4. Polynomial Division
Suppose d(x) and p(x) are nonzero polynomials where the degree of p is greater than or
equal to the degree of d . There exist two unique polynomials, q(x) and r(x) , such that
p(x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x), where either r(x) = 0 or the degree of r is strictly less than the degree
of d.
All of the polynomials in Section4 have special names. The polynomial p is called the dividend ;
d is the divisor ; q is the quotient; r is the remainder. If r(x) = 0 then d is called a factor of p .
The proof of Section4 is usually relegated to a course in Abstract Algebra, but we can still use
the result to establish two important facts which are the basis of the rest of the Section.

4.1. Remainder Theorem. Suppose p is a polynomial of degree at least 1 and c is a real

number. When p(x) is divided by x − c the remainder is p(c) .
The proof of The Factor Theorem is a consequence of what we already know. If (x − c) is a
factor of p(x) , this means p(x) = (x−c)q(x) for some polynomial q . Hence, p(c) = (c−c)q(c) = 0
, so c is a zero of p . Conversely, if c is a zero of p , then p(c) = 0 . In this case, The Remainder
Theorem tells us the remainder when p(x) is divided by (x − c) , namely p(c) , is 0 , which means
(x − c) is a factor of p . What we have established is the fundamental connection between zeros
of polynomials and factors of polynomials.
Of the things The Factor Theorem tells us, the most pragmatic is that we had better find a
more efficient way to divide polynomials by quantities of the form x − c . Fortunately, people
have already blazed this trail. We shall use long division when working out the remainder
theorem.
12 DR D STEPHEN

Example 4.1. X 2 + 2X + 2
X3 + X2


X −1 −1
3
−X +X 2

2X 2
− 2X 2 + 2X
2X − 1
− 2X + 2
1
Example 4.2. X +2
X2 X3


− 2X − 7X − 6
− X 3 + 2X 2
2X 2 − 7X
− 2X 2 + 4X
− 3X − 6
Example 4.3. X +6
X2


X −4 + 2X + 3
− X 2 + 4X
6X + 3
− 6X + 24
27
Example 4.4. 5X 2 + 19X + 76
5X 3 − X 2


X −4 +6
− 5X 3 + 20X 2
19X 2
− 19X 2 + 76X
76X + 6
− 76X + 304
310
Divide the folowing polynomials using remainder theorem.
(1) Divide 2X 3 − 3X − 5 by X + 2.
(2) Divide 4X 4 − 10X 2 + 1 by X − 6.
Example 4.5. X +6
X2


X −4 + 2X + 3
− X2 + 4X
6X + 3
− 6X + 24
27
Example 4.6. Use remainder theorem to evaluate f (X) = 6X 3 –5X 2 + 4X–17 at X = 3.
6 − 5 4 − 17
3 18 39 129
6 13 43 112
 POLYNOMIALS AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS 13

1 1 0 −1
Example 4.7. Use remainder theorem to evaluate f (X) = X3 + X2 − 1 at X = 1. 1 1 2 2
1 2 2 1
Evaluate
(1) If f (X) = 5X 3 − X 2 + 6. Find f (4).
(2) If f (X) = 2X 3 − 3X − 5. Find f (−2).
(3) If f (X) = 4X − 10X 2 + 1. Find f (6).
4.2. Zeroes/Roots of Polynomials.
Definition 4.8. We say that x = r is a root or zero of a polynomial, f (x), if f (r) = 0. In other
words, x = r is a root or zero of a polynomial if it is a solution to the equation f (x) = 0.
The process of finding the zeroes of f (x) really amount to nothing more than solving the
equation f (x) = 0 and we already know how to do that for second degree (quadratic) polyno-
mials. So, to help illustrate some of the ideas were going to be looking at let’s get the zeroes of
a couple of second degree polynomials.
Example 4.9. Find the zeroes of f (x) = x2 + 2x − 15.
Solution

x2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(x − 3) = 0 =⇒ x = −5 x = 3
Example 4.10. Find the zeroes of f (x) = x2 − 14x + 49.
Solution

x2 − 14x + 49 = (x − 7)2 = 0 =⇒ x=7

Exercise
Find the zeroes of each of the following polynomials.
(a) P (x) = 5x5 − 20x4 + 5x3 + 50x2 − 20x − 40 = 5(x + 1)2 (x − 2)3 .
(b) Q(x) = x8 − 4x7 − 18x6 + 108x5 − 135x4 = x4 (x − 3)3 (x + 5).
(c) R(x) = x7 + 10x6 + 27x5 − 57x3 − 30x2 + 29x + 20 = (x + 1)3 (x − 1)2 (x + 5)(x + 4).