CHAPTER 7: CONTROL & COORDINATION

Introduction to control & coordination

 Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrient
food, etc.
All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and
endocrine systems.
 Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carryin
g ou various functions. They are secreted by endocrine glands.
 Hormones in plants coordinate the movements.

 Control and Coordination in Animals

It is brought about in all animals with the help of two main systems
a) Nervous System(b) Endocrine System

Nervous System : Consists of Brain, Spinal network and a huge network of nerves

Functions

 (i) To receive the information from environment

 (ii) To receive the information from various body parts. (Stimuli Response)

 (iii) To act accordingly through muscles and glands.

 Stimulus : Any change in environment to which the organisms respond is called

stimulus
.E.g., touching a hot plate.

 Response : The reaction of our body to a stimulus. E.g. withdrawal of our hand on
touching hot plate.

 Coordination- The working together of various organs of the body of an organism

in a proper manner to produce appropriate reaction to a stimulus is called as
coordination.

 Receptors : Are specialized tips of some nerve cells that detect the information from
the environment.

 Electric Impulse: Self propagated electric current that runs along the nerve fiber for
passing information.
Neuron

Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Neuron: Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve
impulses. The neuron consists of the following parts

(i) Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair-like
structures protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites. Dendrites
receive the nerve impulses.

(ii) Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon
terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.

(iii) Myelin sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath.
The myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulse from the surroundings.
Each neuron has three main parts: dendrites, cyton/soma/cell body and axon.
 Dendrites receive impulses from other neurons.
 Cyton /cell body processes the impulse.
 Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron or to muscles/glands, .
 Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.

The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.

Synapse: The point contact between the terminal branches of axon of one
neuron with the dendrite of another neuron is called synapse.

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): At synapse, information carrying neuron's axon

end, electrical impulse sets off the release of some chemicals (neurotransmitter).
These chemicals cross the gap or synapse and reach to dendrites of the next neuron and
start electrical impulse there.
Transmission of nerve impulse: Nerve impulses travel in the following
manner from one neutron to the next.

Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip of axon →

synapse → dendrite of next neuron.

Reflex Action (Refer book page 116,117,118)

Reflex action is a nerve-mediated, automatic, involuntary and spontaneous response to stimuli
acting on a specific receptor without consulting the will.
Reflex Arc: The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from receptor organ to effector organ is
known as reflex arc.
Reflex actions happen through the reflex arc, which is a neural pathway that
controls the reflexes.
Types of Neuron
 Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense
organ.
 Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a
gland.
 Association or Relay neuron: These neurons relay the
signals between sensory neuron and motor neuron.

Functions of the nervous system

 Nervous system receives information from the environment.

 To receive the information from the various body.
 To act according to through muscles and glands.
 Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
1. Originates from the thoracic and 1. Originates from the cranial region of
lumbar region (lower back) of this the brain and the sacral region(below
spinal cord. the lumbar and above the tailbone) of
this spinal cord.
2. Both of them have nerve cells. 2. it has 43 pairs of nerves among which
12 pairs are cranial nerves and 31 pairs
are spinal nerves.
3. Brain and spinal cord receive 3. the cranial nerves carry information to
information. the sense organs and spinal nerves from
organs to spinal cord.
4. CNS coordinates all neural functions. 4. PNS supply information required for
the movement of the muscles.
2 Types:
1. Autonomic nervous system
2. Somatic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system Somatic nervous system

Regulates involuntary responses. Regulates voluntary responses.
example heart beats faster blood vessels example Muscle movement.
change size.
2 Types:
1. Sympathetic nervous system
2. Parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system

Active during stressful conditions Active during relaxing times restoring
preparing the body to face them normal activity after a stress

It is considered as the “flight or fight It is considered as “The Rest and digest

system”. system” or “The feed and breed system”.
Human Brain/Encephalon:

- On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg.

- Cognitive psychologists, sometimes called brain scientists, study
how the human brain works — how we think, remember and learn.
 HUMAN BRAIN

Fore brain Mid brain Hind brain

Olfactory Cerebral peduncles Pons

Cerebrum Corpora
Cerebellum
Quadrigemina
Diencephalon Medulla
Oblongata
FORE BRAIN:
1. Olfactory Lobes:
- A pair, each lobe as an anterior olfactory lobe and a posterior stalk.
- has receptors for sense of smell.

2. Cerebrum:
- Largest part of the brain (80%).
- Thick outer layer – grey matter - cerebral cortex and
inner layer - white matter - cerebral medulla.
- The cortex has elevations called Gyri &
depressions called Sulci.
 - The right cerebral hemisphere controls the function of left part and vice
versa.
- Four parts of the cerebrum includes:

 Frontal lobe: It is associated with intelligence, memory, reasoning,

problem-solving and movements.
 Parietal lobe: Taste, touch, pain, pressure, temperature.
 Temporal lobe: Hearing, smell
 Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing- sight.
3. Diencephalon:
 - Diencephalon acts as a relay-centre for motor and sensory impulses
between spinal cord, brain stem and various areas of cerebral cortex.
- The hypothalamus helps manage your body temperature, hunger and
thirst, mood, blood pressure and sleep.
- Located above the midbrain and below the thalamus, the hypothalamus
makes up the ventral diencephalon.

MID BRAIN:
1. Cerebral Peduncles: assist in refining motor movements, learning new
motor skills.

2. Corpora Quadrigemina: controls the position of the head and eyes in

response to visual, auditory, and somatic stimuli as well as transmits
auditory signals to the auditory center in the cerebral cortex.

HIND BRAIN

1. Pons:
- connects cerebrum, medulla and cerebellum.
- functions as Relay-center among different parts of the brain.
- regulates respiration.
- possesses pneumotaxic area of respiratory center (balance of
air preventing from collapsing)
2. Cerebellum:
- Second largest part of the brain (12.5%).
- coordinates the muscular activity of the body (Voluntary
actions).
- Maintains equilibrium or posture during riding a cycle, walking,
 jumping, etc.,
3. Medulla Oblongata:
- Controls involuntary actions like breathing, heartbeat, blood
pressure, swallowing, vomiting, peristalsis, etc.,

The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord. It is made up of
the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.

How are these tissues protected?

- The brain is covered by a three-layered system of

membranes, called meninges.
- Cerebrospinal fluid is filled between the meninges.
- Function:The CSF provides cushion to the brain
against mechanical shocks.

3 Parts of Meninges:
1. INNER PIAMATER
2. MIDDLE ARACHNOID MEMBRANE
3. OUTER DURAMATER
 The space between inner piamater and middle arachnoid are
filled with clear, slightly-alkaline fluid called as cerebrospinal fluid.

- It has little protein and few cells.

- Normally it is 150mg.
- It supplies useful material to the brain.
- The meninges and CSF give support to brain and
protect it from external pressure, shocks and other
hazards.

How does the Nervous Tissue Cause Action?

- Nervous tissue collect the information and makes

decision based on information and conveys to muscles
for action.
- Muscle cells do action by changing shape when they
receive nerve impulses.
- Muscle cells have special protein (Actin & myosin- work
together to generate muscle contractions and movement),
these proteins change shape and arrangement in
response to nerve electrical impulse.

Co-ordination in Plants

Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system.

Plants use chemical means for control and co-ordination.
Many plant hormones are responsible for various kinds of movements in plants.
Movements in plants can be divided into two main types :

* Nastic movement (Growth independent)

* Tropic movement (Growth dependent)

1. Nastic Movement / Immediate response to Stimulus:

The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in
which the direction of response is not determined by the direction of
stimulus is known as Nastic movement.
For example, when someone touches the leaves of Mimosa pudica,
the pinnules (sensitive plant) droop down.
- The drooping is independent of the direction from which the leaves
are touched. Thigmotropism/ Haptotropism
- Using electrical-chemical means, the message is communicated
from cell to cell.
- Such movements usually happen by changing water balance in the
cells. When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves
 lose- water and become flaccid, resulting in drooping of leaves.
-

2. Tropic Movement / Movement due to growth:

- The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the

stimulus are called tropic movements.
- Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant part in a
particular direction.
- There are 5 types of tropic movements.
1. Phototropism: Movement of plants towards a light.
2. Geotropism: Movement of plants towards the gravity of earth.
3. Chemotropism: Movement of plants towards chemicals.
4. Hydrotropism: Movement of plants towards the water.
5. Thigmotropism/ Haptotropism: Movement of plants towards a response to
the touch of an object.
Phototropism
Geotropism

Chemotropism is known as growth or movement of a complete plant or

plant parts towards the chemical stimulus.
For example: the growth of pollen tube down to the ovule in the ovary
through the stigma and style during fertilization in order to respond to the
presence of sugars in the style.
Hydrotropism

Thigmotropism / Haptotropism.

- The growing or developing movements made through plants in response

to contact with a solid object are called thigmotropism.
- These types of movements are usually seen in tendrils and twiners.
 Plant hormones/ Phytohormones
Plant hormones are chemical which help to co-ordinate growth, development and
responses to the environment.

Phytohormones are naturally synthesized by plants.

1. Auxin:
* Helps in growth of plants
* Synthesised at shoot tip of plant body in the presence of light.
* Cell elongation, cell division, respiration.
* Development of seedless fruit
* Apical dominance (apical buds inhibits lateral buds growth)
* induce formation of seedless fruits without fertilization (parthenocarpy)
* Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is the major naturally occurring auxin and one of the major
growth factors in plants.

How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?

Ans: Auxin is plant hormone which is synthesized at the tip of the
shoot. It helps the cell grow longer. When a tendril comes in contact
with a support, auxin stimulates faster growth of the cells on the
opposite side that’s why the tendril forms a coil around the support.

2. Gibberellins:
*Promote stem elongation or growth
*Seed germination and flowering
*Maximum concentration found in fruits and seeds (increases the size of the fruit)
*Overcome apical dominance
*induce parthenocarpy

3. Cytokinins:
*Produced in dividing cell throughout the plant (Cell division)
* In mature plant it is produced in root tip and transported to shoot.
*Breaks apical dominance
* Regulates phloem transport
*Prevents senescence and wilting of leaves flowers, vegetables and fruits (delay the
aging
of plant organs, ie.,remain young for long time)
*inhibit apical dominance and allow growth of lateral buds.

4. Ethylene/Ethene (gaseous plant hormone)

*Promotes transverse growth but inhibits longitudinal growth.
*Breaks dormancy in buds and seeds
*promotes senescence of leaves(promotes aging), Fruit ripening
*stimulates abscission (natural detachment) of flowers, fruits and leaves.

5. Abscisic Acid-ABA (STRESS HORMONE)

*Inhibits growth
*causes falling (abscission) of leaves, flowers, fruits
*inhibits seed germination and development.
*Wilting(drying or decaying)

- Auxin Promotes root initiation, Cytokinin Induces growth of

 shoot, Gibberellins Stimulates cell elongation
- Abscisic acid is a plant hormone that inhibits growth in plants.

What are the limitations of the nervous system in the human

body?
ANS: 1. The electrical impulses reach only those cells that are connected
by the
nervous tissue and not each and every cell of the body.
2. Cells cannot continuously create and transmit electrical
impulses, once an
electrical impulse is generated and transmitted, the cell will
take some time to
reset its mechanism and create a new electrical impulse.

HORMONES IN ANIMALS
How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the
blood/during emergency situation?
OR
State the sequence of changes takes place in a human body when
it prepares itself to protect from are scary or dangerous situation?

Scary situation
Adrenaline is secreted by adrenal gland
Adrenaline is released in the blood stream

Target organ is heart – speeds up the heart beat

More O2 to the muscles

Blood to the digestive system & skin is reduced due to contraction of

 muscles around arteries

Blood is diverted to our skeletal muscles

Breathing rate and blood pressure increases

Ready to deal with the situation

TABULATION
Endocrine
Location Hormones Functions
Gland Produced

Pituitary gland At the Growth hormone GH stimulates/regulates

(also known as base of (GH). growth and development
the master the brain Thyroid stimulating of the body.
gland) hormone (TSH).
(Hypersecretion:
Follicle stimulating Gigantism.
hormone (FSH) Hyposecretion:
Dwarfism)
-----------------------------------
-----------
TSH stimulates the
functioning of the thyroid
 gland.
-----------------------------------
---------
FSH stimulates the
follicles during ovulation.

Iodine is necessary to
make thyroxine
hormone.
Controls carbohydrate,
protein and fat
Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine metabolism and growth
in the body to promote
the best balance for
growth.
Deficiency: Goitre
Symptoms: Swollen neck

Prepares the body for

emergency situations
Above
Adrenal gland Adrenalin and hence is also called
kidneys
‘Fight and flight’
hormone.

Near Controls blood sugar

Pancreas Insulin
stomach level

Sperm production,
development of
Testis (male) In Scrotum Testosterone secondary sexual
characters during
puberty.

Ovary (female) Near Oestrogen Egg production,

uterus development of
secondary sexual
characters during
 puberty.

Diabetes mellitus results when your body isn't able to take up sugar (glucose) into
its cells and use it for energy. This results in a buildup of extra sugar in your
bloodstream.

Insulin secreted by the pancreas (Beta cells of islets of Langerhans), helps blood
sugar enter the body's cells so it can be used for energy. Insulin also signals the liver to
store blood sugar for later use.

Blood sugar enters cells, and levels in the bloodstream decrease, signaling insulin to
decrease too.

Poorly controlled diabetes can lead to serious consequences, causing damage to a wide
range of your body's organs and tissues – including your heart, kidneys, eyes and nerves.

Feedback mechanism:

A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one

substance in body influences the level of another.
-------------------------xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx----------------