Lecture 4

Sensors - Temperature Measurement

by
Dr. Damith Chathuranga
Introduction

• Almost all industrial processes need

accurately controlled temperature.
• It will determined the desired quality
of products (chemical, steel, plastic,
nuclear and food industries)-
temperature dependent products and
processes.

2
 Temperature and Heat
• Temperature is the measure of the thermal energy in
a body, which is relative hotness or coldness of a
medium and is normally measured in degrees, using
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin scale.
• Heat is a form of energy; as energy is supplied to a
system the vibration amplitude of its molecules and
its temperature increases. Example unit of heat is BTU
and calorie unit.
• temperature gives a measure of the average kinetic
energy of particles in a sample
• The temperature increase is directly proportional to
the heat energy in the system.
3
 Temperature units and international temperature
scales
Since 1954 the adopted unit has been the kelvin (K), which is defined by assigning the
value 273.16 K to the triple-point of water, the unique temperature at which the liquid,
solid and vapour phases of pure water are in equilibrium.

For most everyday purposes, temperatures are still measured in degrees Celsius, using
the definition that the temperature t in °C is the temperature 𝑇 in kelvins minus 273.15:
𝑡 / °𝐶 = 𝑇 / 𝐾 – 273.15

The Fahrenheit scale is formally obsolete, but is occasionally used. Relative to Celsius
temperatures, Fahrenheit temperatures are defined such that

𝑡 / °𝐹 = (9/5)(𝑡 / °𝐶) + 32
International Temperature Scale of 1990, ITS-90, makes use of ‘fixed points’ whose
temperatures have been established in careful experiments and which can be used as
reference values up and down the scale.

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Fixed points

Fixed points are temperatures at which a pure substance changes its phase. In
the ITS-90 they are

• melting and freezing points of metals such as tin and zinc, in which the solid
and liquid phases are at equilibrium at one standard atmosphere pressure,
with heat slowly entering or leaving the sample

• boiling (vapour pressure) points of hydrogen and helium at low

temperatures, where the liquid and vapour are at equilibrium

• triple points, e.g. of water, mercury and argon, where the solid, liquid and
vapour phases are all at equilibrium. They are the melting or freezing points
at the vapour pressure

5
 Temperature measurement
• Temperature measurement method can be broadly classified
as follows;
1) Non-electrical method
2) Electrical method
3) Radiation method

• These types of methods can be again classified to

1) Contact type temperature measurement
2) Non contact temperature measurement

6
 Non-electrical Method
• Example of non-electrical temperature measurement method;
1) Bimetallic thermometer
(based on the principle of solid expansion)
2) Liquid in glass thermometer
3) Pressure thermometers (based on the principle of fluid expansion)

low expansion material

high expansion material

7
 Electrical temperature measurement methods
• Electrical methods are in general preferred for the
measurement of temperature as they furnish a signal which
can be easily detected, amplified or used for control proposes.
• Example of temperature measurement by electrical methods
are;
1) Thermocouple
2) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
3) Thermistor
4) IC Sensor

Fiber-optic sensors, while more specialized, are growing in popularity for temperature
measurements.

8
 Comparison of electrical temperature measurement methods

10/25/2020 KVDSC 9
 Radiation Method
• The main advantages of
radiation method in
temperature measurement is
because of non contact with
the subject of measurement.
So it is applicable to high
temperature, moving object..
• Example of radiation method
temperature measurement
instrument are pyrometer.

10
 Thermocouples
• Seebeck effect
• If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends
and one end is heated, current will flow.
• Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
• For small DT’s, the relationship with temperature is
linear DV = DT
• For larger DT’s, non-linearities may occur.

11
12
Measuring the Thermocouple Voltage
• If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you will have problems.

• You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be proportional
to the difference between J1 and J2 (and hence T1 and T2). Note that this is “Type T”
thermocouple.
External Reference Junction

• A solution is to put J2 in an ice-bath; then you

know T2, and your output voltage will be
proportional to T1-T2.
Other types of thermocouples

• Many thermocouples don’t have one copper wire.

Shown below is a “Type J” thermocouple.

• If the two terminals aren’t at the same temperature,

this also creates an error.
Isothermal Block
• The block is an electrical insulator but good heat
conductor. This way the voltages for J3 and J4
cancel out. Thermocouple data acquisition set-ups
include these isothermal blocks.

• If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal

block temperature is our reference temperature
V =  (T1 − Tblock )
Software Compensation
• How can we find the temperature of the block? Use a thermister or
RTD.
• Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated with that
temperature can be subtracted off.
• Then why use thermocouples at all?
• Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and rugged, and
operate over a wider temperature range.
• Most data acquisition systems have software compensation built in. To
use Labview, you’ll need to know if you have a thermister or RTD.
Hardware Compensation

• With hardware compensation, the temperature of

the isothermal block again is measured, and then a
battery is used to cancel out the voltage of the
reference junction.
• This is also called an “electronic ice point
reference”. With this reference, you can use a
normal voltmeter instead of a thermocouple
reader. You need a separate ice-point reference for
every type of thermocouple.
 Thermocouples – Other considerations
Thermocouple linearization - In addition to requiring cold-junction compensation,
thermocouples are also highly nonlinear, and thus require linearization.
Two techniques of linearization are common:
1. Look-up tables
2. Polynomial compensation:

Thermocouple types and standards - Thermocouple standards specify the voltage vs

temperature characteristics, color codes, error limits and composition of standard
thermocouples.

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Thermocouples – Standards (BS Standard)

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Making Thermocouple Beads

• Soldering, silver-soldering, butt or spot or beaded

gas welding, crimping, and twisting are all OK.
• The third metal introduced doesn’t effect results as
long as the temperature everywhere in the bead is
the same.
• Welding should be done carefully so as to not
degrade the metals.
• If you consistently will need a lot of thermocouples,
you can buy a thermocouple welder; you stick the
two ends into a hole, hit a button, and the welding
is done.
Making Thermocouple Beads

22
Time Constant vs. Wire Diameter
Time Constant vs. Wire Diameter, cont.
Thermocouple Types

If you do your own

calibration, you can
usually improve on the
listed uncertainties.
Thermocouple Types, cont.
• Type B – very poor below 50ºC; reference junction temperature not
important since voltage output is about the same from 0 to 42 ºC
• Type E – good for low temperatures since dV/dT () is high for low
temperatures
• Type J – cheap because one wire is iron; high sensitivity but also high
uncertainty (iron impurities cause inaccuracy)
• Type T – good accuracy but low max temperature (400 ºC); one lead is
copper, making connections easier; watch for heat being conducted
along the copper wire, changing your surface temp
• Type K – popular type since it has decent accuracy and a wide
temperature range; some instability (drift) over time
• Type N – most stable over time when exposed to elevated temperatures
for long periods
Sheathing and SLE

• “Special Limits of Error” wire can be used to improve accuracy.

• Sheathing of wires protects them from the environment (fracture,
oxidation, etc.) and shields them from electrical interference.
• The sheath should extend completely through the medium of interest.
Outside the medium of interest it can be reduced.
• Sometimes the bead is exposed and only the wire is covered by the
sheath. In harsher environments, the bead is also covered. This will
increase the time constant.
• Platinum wires should be sheathed in non-metallic sheaths since they
have a problem with metallic vapor diffusion at high temperatures.
Sheathing, cont.

• From J. Nicholas & D. White, 2001, Traceable Temperatures: An Introduction to

Temperature Measurement and Calibration, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons.
 Thermocouples - Wiring configurations
As the voltage levels from thermocouples are very small, typically in the order of μV/ºC,
temperature measurements using thermocouples are susceptible to the effects of noise.
Thermocouple with no shielding

Thermocouple with thermocouple sheath and ungrounded junction

Thermocouple with thermocouple sheath and grounded junction

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Potential Problems
• Poor bead construction
• Weld changed material characteristics because the weld
temp. was too high.
• Large solder bead with temperature gradient across it
• Decalibration
• If thermocouples are used for very high or cold
temperatures, wire properties can change due to
diffusion of insulation or atmosphere particles into the
wire, cold-working, or annealing.
• Inhomogeneities in the wire; these are especially bad in
areas with large temperature gradients; esp. common in
iron. Metallic sleeving can help reduce their effect on
the final temperature reading.
Potential Problems, cont.

• Shunt impedence
• As temperature goes up, the resistance of many
insulation types goes down. At high enough
temperatures, this creates a “virtual junction”. This is
especially problematic for small diameter wires.
• Galvanic Action
• The dyes in some insulations form an electrolyte in the
water. This creates a galvanic action with a resulting
emf potentially many times that of the thermocouple.
Use an appropriate shield for a wet environment. “T
Type” thermocouples have less of a problem with this.
Potential Problems, cont.
• Thermal shunting
• It takes energy to heat the thermocouple, which results in a small decrease
in the surroundings’ temperature. For tiny spaces, this may be a problem.
• Use small wire (with a small thermal mass) to help alleviate this problem.
Small-diameter wire is more susceptible to decalibration and shunt
impedence problems. Extension wire helps alleviate this problem. Have
short leads on the thermocouple, and connect them to the same type of
extension wire which is larger. Extension wire has a smaller temperature
range than normal wire.
• Noise
• Several types of circuit set-ups help reduce line-related noise. You can set
your data acquisition system up with a filter, too.
• Small-diameter wires have more of a problem with noise.
Potential Problems
• Conduction along the thermocouple wire
• In areas of large temperature gradient, heat can be
conducted along the thermocouple wire, changing the
bead temperature.
• Small diameter wires conduct less of this heat.
• T-type thermocouples have more of a problem with this
than most other types since one of the leads is made of
copper which has a high thermal conductivity.
• Inaccurate ice-point
Data Acquisition Systems for Thermocouples
• Agilent, HP, and National Instruments are probably
the most popular DAQ systems
• Example National Instruments DAQ setup for
thermocouples and costs
item part number cost $
16-bit temperature data acquisition card PCI 6232E 1495
analog input module for thermocouples SCXI-1112 695
chassis SCXI-1000 695
terminal block for thermocouples SCXI-1303 275
shielded cable SH68-68-EP 95
Total cost: 3255
Things to Note During System Assembly
• Make sure materials are clean, esp. for high temperatures.
• Check the temperature range of materials. Materials may degrade significantly
before the highest temperature listed.
• Make sure you have a good isothermal junction.
• Use enough wire that there are no temperature gradients where it’s connected
to your DAQ system.
• If you’re using thermocouple connectors, use the right type for your wire.
• If you’re using a DAQ system, use the right set-up for thermocouples.
• Check the ice-point reference.
• Provide proper insulation for harsh environments.
• Pass a hair-dryer over the wire. The temperature reading should only change
when you pass it over the bead.
• Mount a thermocouple only on a surface that is not electrically live (watch for
this when measuring temperatures of electronics).
Thermocouple applications
➢ Plastic injection molding machinery
➢ Food processing equipment
➢ Deicing
➢ Semiconductor processing
➢ Heat treating
➢ Medical equipment
➢ Industrial heat treating
➢ Packaging equipment

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Thermopiles

37
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are temperature sensors generally made from a
pure (or lightly doped) metal whose resistance increases with increasing temperature
(positive resistance temperature coefficient).

The most popular RTD is the platinum film PT100 (DIN 43760 Standard), with a nominal
resistance of 100 Ω ± 0.1 Ω at 0ºC.

In comparison to other temperature measuring devices such as thermocouples and

thermistors, the change in resistance of an RTD with respect to temperature is relatively
linear over a wide temperature range.
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KVDSC
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

10/25/2020 KVDSC 39
Linearity of RTDs
RTD is defined with a temperature coefficient called 𝛼 (alpha) and represented as:

From the expression of alpha (α) it is easily derived that the resistance 𝑅𝑇 of an RTD, at
temperature 𝑇 can be found from the expression:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0(𝑙 + 𝛼𝑇)
Where:
R0 = Resistance at 0ºC
Example: A PT100 (DIN 43760 Standard), with nominal resistance of 100 Ω ± 0.1 Ω
at 0ºC has an alpha (α) of 0.00385 Ω / Ω / ºC. Its resistance at 100ºC ?
Answer: 138.5 Ω.

KVDSC 40
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range
and has excellent stability. Nickel or nickel alloys are used as well, but
they aren’t as accurate.
• In several common configurations, the platinum wire is exposed directly
to air (called a bird-cage element), wound around a bobbin and then
sealed in molten glass, or threaded through a ceramic cylinder.
• Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or metal-glass
slurry film is deposited onto a ceramic substrate. The substrate is then
etched with a laser. These RTDs are very small but aren’t as stable (and
hence accurate).
• RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than
thermocouples.
RTD geometry

From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures.

• Sheathing: stainless steel or iconel, glass, alumina, quartz
• Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are best
below 250ºC.
• At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to
prevent contamination.
Measurement circuits for RTD: Two-wire RTD
measurement
Since the RTD is a passive resistive device, it requires an excitation current to produce a
measurable voltage across it.

Any resistance, RL, in the lead wires between the measuring device and the RTD will
cause a voltage drop on the leads equal to (RL × IEX) volts. The voltage drop on the wire
leads will add to the voltage drop across the RTD, and depending on the value of the lead
wire resistance compared to the resistance of the RTD, may result in a significant error in
the calculated temperature.
KVDSC 43
Measurement circuits for RTD: Two-wire RTD
measurement
Since the RTD is a passive resistive device, it requires an excitation current to produce a
measurable voltage across it.

This indicates that if voltage measurements are made using the same two wires which
carry the excitation current, the resistance of the RTD must be large enough, or the lead
wire resistances small enough, that voltage drops due to the lead wire resistances are
negligible. This is usually true where the leads are no longer than a few (<3) meters for a
100 Ω RTD.
KVDSC 44
Measurement circuits for RTD: Four-wire RTD
measurement
A better method of excitation and measurement, especially when the wire lead lengths are
greater than a few meters in length

RTDs are commonly packaged with four (4) leads, two current leads to provide the
excitation current for the device, and two voltage leads for measurement of the voltage
developed. This configuration eliminates the voltage drops caused by excitation current
through the lead resistances (RL1 and RL4). Since negligible current flows in the voltage
lead resistances, (RL2 and RL3) only the voltage drop across the resistance RT of the RTD
is measured.
KVDSC 45
Measurement circuits for RTD: Three-wire RTD
measurement
A reduction in cost is possible with the elimination of one of the wire leads.

only one lead RL1 adds an error to the RTD voltage measured

KVDSC 46
Resistance Measurement
• Bridge circuit can be used to determine the
resistance. Bridge circuits help improve the
accuracy of the measurements significantly. Bridge
output voltage is a function of the RTD resistance.
Resistance/Temperature Conversion
• Published equations relating bridge voltage to
temperature can be used.
• For very accurate results, do your own calibration.
• Several electronic calibrators are available.
• The most accurate calibration that you can do easily
yourself is to use a constant temperature bath and NIST-
traceable thermometers. You then can make your own
calibration curve correlating temperature and voltage.
Accuracy and Response Time

• Response time is longer than thermocouples; for a

¼ sheath, response time can easily be 10 s.
Potential Problems
• RTDs are more fragile than thermocouples.
• An external current must be supplied to the RTD. This current can heat
the RTD, altering the results. For situations with high heat transfer
coefficients, this error is small since the heat is dissipated to air. For
small diameter thermocouples and still air this error is the largest. Use
the largest RTD possible and smallest external current possible to
minimize this error.
• Be careful about the way you set up your measurement device.
Attaching it can change the voltage.
• When the platinum is connected to copper connectors, a voltage
difference will occur (as in thermocouples). This voltage must be
subtracted off.
RTD Applications

➢ Air conditioning and

refrigeration servicing
➢ Furnace servicing
➢ Foodservice processing
➢ Medical research
➢ Textile production
Thermistors
• A cheap form of temperature sensing, which is a thermally sensitive semiconductor
resistor formed from the oxides of various metals.
• The type and composition of the semiconductor oxides used (i.e. manganese, nickel,
cobalt etc) depend on the resistance value and temperature coefficient required.
• Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more
than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also
very fast.
• More commonly used thermistor devices exhibit a negative temperature coefficient
and have a high degree of sensitivity to small changes in temperature, typically 4% / ºC.
• Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very
small temperature differences must be detected.
• They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides).
• The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-linear and directly
useful over typical temperature ranges of –80ºC up to 250ºC. With regard to this,
modern microprocessor based systems (either PCs or stand-alone data loggers) can be
used to relieve some of the limitations caused by non-linearities, by modeling the non-
linearities with quadratic equations.

KVDSC 52
Thermistor non-linearity

53
Resistance/Temperature Conversion
• Standard thermistors curves are not provided as
much as with thermocouples or RTDs. You often
need a curve for a specific batch of thermistors.
• No 4-wire bridge is required as with an RTD.
• DAQ systems can handle the non-linear curve fit
easily.
• Thermistors do not do well at high temperatures
and show instability with time (but for the best
ones, this instability is only a few millikelvin per
year)
Thermistor applications

• Most are seen in medical

equipment markets.
• Thermistors are also used
are for engine coolant, oil,
and air temperature
measurement in the
transportation industry.
IC sensor

• Are small and result from the fact that

semiconductor diodes have voltage-current
characteristics that are temperature sensitive.
• Temperature measurement ranges that are small
compared to thermocouples and RTDs, but can be
quite accurate and inexpensive.

56
Semiconductor Applications
• Hard Disk Drives
• Personal Computers
• Electronic Test Equipment
• Office Equipment
• Domestic Appliances
• Process Control
• Cellular Phones
Thermal Sensor Vendors
➢Minco
➢Pyrotek
➢Omega
➢Watlow
➢Texas Instrument
➢National Semiconductor
➢Maxim
Determining Factors

➢Low Power Extras

➢Serial Interface ➢I2C Interface
➢Small ➢Temperature Alarms
➢Accurate
➢Wide temperature
range
Texas Instrument Specs TMP 100/101

➢ I2C Interface
➢ -55º to 125ºC range
➢ ±1º accuracy (±3º max)
➢ ±0.0625ºC resolution
➢ 2.7 to 5.5 operating voltage
➢ 45 to 75 µA operating current, 0.1
to 1µA shutdown current
➢ 40ms/320ms conversion rate(9/12
bit)
➢ 25/3 conversions per second (9/12
bit)
➢ Online sample request
➢ 6 pin SO23 package
➢ Needs 400kHz clock for I2C
Interface
Maxim MAX6625/MAX6626

➢ I2C Interface
➢ -55º to 125ºC range
➢ ±1º accuracy (±2º max)
➢ ±5/0.0625ºC
resolution(625/626)
➢ 3.0 to 5.5 operating voltage
➢ 250µA to 1mA operating
current, 1µA shutdown current
➢ 133ms conversion rate
➢ Online sample request
➢ 6 pin SO23 package
National Semiconductor LM75/LM76

➢ I2C Interface
➢ -55º to 125ºC range
➢ ±2/ ±1º accuracy
➢ 9 bits/ 12 bits or ±0.0625ºC
resolution
➢ 3/3.3 to 5.5 operating voltage
➢ 0.25 to 0.5 µA operating current,
4/5µA shutdown current
➢ 100ms/400ms conversion
rate(9/12 bit)
➢ Online sample request
➢ 8 pin SOP package
➢ Needs 400kHz clock for I2C
Interface
Infrared Thermometry
• Infrared thermometers measure the amount of radiation emitted by an
object.
• Many types Optical Pyrometers, Radiation Pyrometers, Total Radiation
Pyrometers, Automatic Infrared Thermometers, Ear Thermometers,
Fiber optic Thermometers, Two-Color Pyrometers, Infra-Snakes, and
many more.
• Reflection from other objects can introduce error as well.
• Surface whose temp you’re measuring must fill the field of view of your
camera.
Infrared Thermometry

64
Benefits of Infrared Thermometry

• Can be used for

• Moving objects
• Non-contact
applications where
sensors would affect
results or be difficult to
insert or conditions are
hazardous
• Large distances
• Very high temperatures
Field of View

• On some infrared thermometers, FOV is

adjustable.
Pyrometers

67
Infrared Applications
• Manufacturing process like metals, glass,
cement, ceramics, semiconductors,
plastics, paper, textiles, coatings.

• Automation and feedback control

• Improve safety in fire-fighting, rescues

and detection of criminal activities.

• Used to monitor and measure human

body temperatures with one second
time response.

• Reliability and maintenance needs from

building heating to electrical power
generation and distribution