SUBJECT:BEE

INDEX
unit no page no
1 1
2 51
3 116
4 195
5 245
BH curve 278
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 D.C. NETWORK THEOREMS
Introduction:

These are

1. THEVENIN’S THEOREM ,2. NORTON’S THEOREM, & 3. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

1. Thevenin’s Theorem :
Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit
into a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in series with a
source voltage.

STATEMENT:
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several
voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series
with a single resistance connected across the load“. In other words, it is
possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in
series with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Theorems (BEE) Page 1

Prepared By K. Mahammad Rafi, Asst.Prof, EED, MJCET.
Page 31
 As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port”
network consisting of multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources
can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance RTH and one single
equivalent voltage VTH. RTH is the source resistance value looking back into
the circuit and VTH is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.

Example: consider the below circuit find the current through 40 ohm resistor
using thevenin’s theorem.

Firstly, to analyze the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor
connected across the terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance
associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by shorting out all the
voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any
connected current sources making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want
to have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source for the circuit
analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total
resistance looking back from the terminals A and B with all the voltage
sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Theorems (BEE) Page 2

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The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the
terminals A and B when there is an open circuit between them. That is
without the load resistor RL connected.

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and
as VS = VAB the current flowing around the loop is calculated as:

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the

voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated
as:

VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

Or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance

of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected
back into the circuit we get:

Theorems (BEE) Page 3

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Page 33
and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

Thevenin’s Theorem Summary

We have seen here that Thevenin’s theorem is another type of circuit
analysis tool that can be used to reduce any complicated electrical network
into a simple circuit consisting of a single voltage source, VTH in series with a
single resistor, RTH.
When looking back from terminals A and B, this single circuit behaves in
exactly the same way electrically as the complex circuit it replaces. That is
the i-v relationships at terminals A-B are identical.
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as
follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RTH by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the
current sources.
3. Find VTH by the usual circuit analysis methods.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Theorems (BEE) Page 4

Prepared By K. Mahammad Rafi, Asst.Prof, EED, MJCET.
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2. Norton’s Theorem:
Norton’s theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a
simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in parallel with a current
source

STATEMENT:
Norton’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy
sources and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current
generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the
value of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current
sources open circuited and ISis the short circuit current at the output terminals
as shown below.

Norton’s equivalent circuit:

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output
terminals where shorted together while the source resistance would be
measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin).
Example: consider the, below circuit find the current through 40 ohm resistor
using Norton’s theorem.

Theorems (BEE) Page 5

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Page 35
To find the Norton’s equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove
the centre 40Ω load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us
the following circuit.

When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are
connected in parallel across their two respective voltage sources and the
currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short circuit current
can now be calculated as:
with A-B Shorted Out

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B,
the two resistors are now effectively connected together in parallel. The value
of the internal resistor RN is found by calculating the total resistance at the
terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (RN)

Theorems (BEE) Page 6
Prepared By K. Mahammad Rafi, Asst.Prof, EED, MJCET.
Page 36
Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal
resistance, RN this then gives us the following Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Norton’s equivalent circuit

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load
resistor connected across terminals A and B as shown below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the

terminals A and B which gives us a total resistance of:

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is
given as:

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

Theorems (BEE) Page 7

Prepared By K. Mahammad Rafi, Asst.Prof, EED, MJCET.
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Norton’s Theorem Summary
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as
follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RN by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the
current sources.
3. Find IN by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Theorems (BEE) Page 8

Prepared By K. Mahammad Rafi, Asst.Prof, EED, MJCET.
Page 38
3. Superposition Theorem:

Superposition is a general principle that allows us to determine the effect

of several energy sources (voltage and current sources) acting
simultaneously in a circuit by considering the effect of each source acting
alone, and then combining (superposing) these effects. This theorem as
applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as under :
Statement:
In a linear, bilateral d.c. network containing more than one energy source,
the resultant potential difference across or current through any element is
equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences or currents for that
element produced by each source acting alone with all other independent
ideal voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all other independent
ideal current sources replaced by open circuits (non-ideal sources are
replaced by their internal resistances).

Procedure: The procedure for using this theorem to solve d.c. networks is as
under :
(i) Select one source in the circuit and replace all other ideal voltage sources
by short circuits and ideal current sources by open circuits.
(ii) Determine the voltage across or current through the desired
element/branch due to single source selected in step (i).
(iii) Repeat the above two steps for each of the remaining sources.
(iv) Algebraically add all the voltages across or currents through the
element/branch under consideration. The sum is the actual voltage across or
current through that element/branch when all the sources are acting
simultaneously.
Note. This theorem is called superposition because we superpose or
algebraically add the components (currents or voltages) due to each
independent source acting alone to obtain the total current in or voltage
across a circuit element.

Theorems (BEE) Page 9

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Page 39
Example: in the circuit shown below figure 3.46(i) the internal resistances of
the batteries are 0.12 ohm and 0.08 ohm, using superposition theorem.
calculate
(i) current in Load, (ii) Current supplied by each battery

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UNIT-II AC CIRCUITS:
TOPICS COVERED:

1. Representation of sinusoidal waveforms,

2. Peak and rms values,

3. Phasor representation,

4. Real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor.

5. Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C,

and Series RL, RC, RLC combinations (series only).

6. Three phase balanced circuits, voltage and current

relations in star and delta connections.

51
 AC Fundamentals and AC Machines 3.1

ac circuits
2
2.0 INTRODUCTION

In previous chapters, we have discussed about dc supply

and dc circuits. But 90% of electrical energy used nowadays is ac
in nature. The dc supply has constant magnitude with respect to
time. Fig. 2.1 (a) & (b) shows the graphs of dc voltage and dc
current with respect to time.

Voltage Current

t t

(a) DC voltage (b) Direct current

Fig. 2.1

An alternating current (ac) is the current which changes

periodically both in magnitude and direction. Such change in
magnitude and direction is measured in terms of cycles. Each cycle
of ac consists of two half cycles namely positive and negative cycle.
Current increases in magnitude in one particular direction reaches
maximum and starts decreasing, passing through zero then it
increases in opposite direction and behaves similarly. The Fig. 2.2
shows the variation of alternating current with time.

52
2.2 Basic Electrical Engineering

Magnitude and direction

Current
changes with time

+ +
0 Time
–

Fig. 2.2 Alternating current

Other than dc and ac, in practice some waveforms are
available in which magnitude changes but its direction remains
i.e., positive or negative. Such waveform is called pulsating dc
which is shown in the Fig. 2.3. The output of full wave rectifier is
an example for pulsating dc.

Magnitude changing
Current
but direction same

+ + +
0 Time

Fig.2.3 Pulsating D.C.

2.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS

It is necessary to be familiar with various terms related to

the alternating quantities.
1. Instantaneous value : The value of an alternating quantity
at a particular instant is called its instantaneous value. Ex: e1 and
e2 are the instantaneous values of an alternating emf at the instants
t1 and t2 respectively as shown in the Fig. 2.4.

53
 AC circuits 2.3

Generated
emf emax Amplitude

EM
π 2π
0 t1 t2 Time

Time period one cycle (T seconds)

Fig. 2.4 Waveform of an alternating emf

2. Cycle : Each repetition of a set of positive and negative

instantaneous values of the alternating quantity is called a cycle.
This repetition occurs at regular interval of time. Such a waveform
which exhibits variations that occur repeatedly after a regular time
interval is called periodic waveform.
A cycle is also defined as the time interval during which a
complete set of waveform variations occur (i.e., positive and
negative loops). One cycle corresponds to 360° electrical or 2π
radian as shown in the Fig. 2.4. The waveform from 0 to π radians
is called positive half cycle and the waveform from π to 2π radians
is called negative half cycle. Each half cycle has a span of 180°
electrical or π radians.
3. Time period (T) : The time taken by an alternating quantity
to complete one cycle is called time period represented by T
seconds. It is shown in the Fig. 2.4.
4. Frequency (f) : The number of cycles completed by an
alternating quantity per second is called frequency. It is denoted
by ‘f’ and measured in cycles/second or Hertz (Hz). As time period
is time in seconds for one cycle i.e., seconds/cycle and frequency
is cycles/seconds, frequency is reciprocal of the time period.

54
2.4 Basic Electrical Engineering

1
∴f= Hz
T
The standard frequency of alternating voltage & currents in
India is 50 Hz.
5. Amplitude (or) Peak value : The maximum value of an
alternating quantity during positive or negative half cycle is called
its amplitude. It is denoted by Em or Im where Em is called peak
value of the voltage and Im is called peak value of the current.
6. Peak to peak value : The maximum variation between
maximum positive instantaneous value and the maximum negative
instantaneous value is called peak to peak value. It is denoted by
Ep-p or Ip-p.
7. Angular frequency (ω ω) : It is the frequency expressed in
electrical radians per second. As one cycle corresponds to 2π
radians, angular frequency is given by (2π × cycles/second). It is
denoted by ‘ω’. It is measured in radians/second. The relation
2π
between ‘f’ and ‘ω’ is ω = 2πf radians/sec. or ω = radians/sec.
T
8. Equation of an alternating quantity : An alternating
quantity is sinusoidal in nature and its equation is expressed using
sin θ where θ is in radians. Hence an alternating voltage is expressed
as
e = Em sin θ
Similarly an alternating current is expressed as
i = Im sin θ
This equation gives the instantaneous value at any time
θ = ωt radians
The different forms of equation of an alternating quantity are

55
 AC Circuits 2.5

⎛ 2π ⎞
e = Em sin ωt = Em sin (2πft) = Em sin ⎜ t⎟
⎝ T ⎠

⎛ 2π ⎞
i = Im sin ωt = Im sin (2πft) = Im sin ⎜ t⎟
⎝ T ⎠
9. Average value : It is the average of all the instantaneous
values over a period of half cycle.
For a symmetrical ac waveform, the average value over a
complete cycle is zero as both positive and negative half cycles
are exactly identical. Hence, average value is defined for half cycle
only.
Average value is also defined as the steady current which
transfers across the circuit the same amount of charge as transferred
by that alternating current during the same time. The average value
of sinusoidally varying quantities is obtained by two methods. They
are 1) Graphical method and 2) Analytical method.
i. Graphical method : Consider only positive half cycle of
sinusoidally varying current, which is divided into ‘n’
intervals as shown in the Fig. 2.5. The width of each interval
is t/n seconds and average height of each interval is assumed
to be the average instantaneous values of current i.e., i1, i2,
............... in.
Current
i3
i2
in
i1
π 2π
0 1 2 3 n Time

Fig. 2.5 Finding average value

56
2.6 Basic Electrical Engineering

Average value of current over half cycle

i1 + i 2 + ............ + i n
=
n
i + i + ............ + i n v + v 2 + ............ + v n
I avg = 1 2 ; Vavg = 1
n n
ii. Analytical method : For an unsymmetrical ac waveform,
the average value is calculated for one complete cycle but
for symmetrical waveforms like sinusoidal, it is obtained
for half cycle.
Let the sinusoidally varying current be I = Im sin θ.
Current

π 2π
θ
0
θ

dθ

Fig. 2.6 Average value

Consider elementary interval of instant ‘dθ’ as shown in the
Fig. 2.6. The average value is calculated by taking the ratio of area
under curve over half cycle to base length of half cycle.
Area of half cycle
I avg =
Base length of half cycle
π

∫ i dθ
= 0
π
π π
1 I
= ∫ I m sin θ dθ = m ∫ sin θ dθ
π0 π 0

Im 2I
( − cos θ )0 = m
π
=
π π

57
 AC Circuits 2.7

Iavg = 0.637 Im
Similarly, Vavg = 0.637 Vm.
10. Root Mean Square (R.M.S) value or effective value : “The
RMS value of an alternating current is given by that steady (dc)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given
time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the
same time”.
RMS value can be determined by two methods :
i. Graphical method : This is used for ac waveforms like
sinusoidal, triangular, square etc.
ii. Analytical method : This is used for purely sinusoidally
varying ac waveforms.
i. Graphical method : Consider sinusoidally varying current.
The RMS value is obtained by comparing heat produced
which is proportional to square of current i.e., I2R. Heat
produced in both positive and negative half cycles is same.
Consider only positive half cycle which is divided into ‘n’
equal intervals as shown in the Fig. 2.7. The width of each
interval is ‘t/n’ seconds and average height of each interval
is assumed to be the average instantaneous values of current
i.e., i1, i2, ............. in.
Current
i3
i2
i1 in
π 2π
0 1 2 3 n Time

Fig.2.7 RMS value

58
2.8 Basic Electrical Engineering

Let this current is passing through a resistance of ‘R’ ohms.

Heat produced = i2Rt joules
2 t
Heat produced due to 1st interval = i1 R J
n
2 t
Heat produced due to 2nd interval = i 2 R J
n
2 t
Heat produced due to nth interval = inR J
n
Total heat produced in ‘t’ seconds
⎛ i12 + i22 + ........ + i2n ⎞
=Rt⎜ ⎟J
⎝ n ⎠
Heat produced by dc current of ‘I’ A passing through the
same resistance of ‘R’ ohms for the same time ‘t’ is I2Rt J.
The two heats must be equal for ‘I’ to be the RMS value of
an alternating current
⎛ i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n ⎞
I Rt = Rt ⎜
2
⎟
⎝ n ⎠

i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n
I2 =
n

i12 + i 22 + ......... + i 2n
I= = i rms
n
This is called effective value of an alternating current.
Similarly, RMS value of sinusoidally varying alternating
voltage is

v12 + v 22 + .......... + v 2n
Vrms =
n

59
 AC Circuits 2.9

ii. Analytical method : Consider sinusoidally varying

alternating current given by the expression i = Im sin θ
The square of this current is i2 = Im2 sin2 θ
The waveforms of i and i2 are as shown in the Fig. 2.8.
2 2 2
i, i2 i = IM sin θ

i = IM sinθ

0 π 2π
Time
dθ

Fig. 2.8 Current and square of current

π
Area of ‘i2’ curve over half cycle = ∫ i2dθ
0

Average value of square of the current over half cycle is

π
Area of curve over half cycle
=
∫
0
i 2 dθ
Length of base over half cycle π
π
1 π 1 π I 2 ⎛ 1 − cos 2θ ⎞
= ∫ i 2dθ = ∫ I sin θ dθ = m ⎜
2
m
2
⎟ dθ
π 0 π o π ⎝ 2 ⎠0
π
I 2m
⎛ sin 2θ ⎞ I 2m I 2m
=
π⎜ θ − 2 ⎟ = 2π ( π ) = 2
⎝ ⎠0
Root mean square value is
I 2m I
I rms = = m
2 2
Irms = 0.707 Im.
The rms value of the sinusoidal alternating current is 0.707
times the peak value of that current.

60
2.10 Basic Electrical Engineering

Similarly, the rms value of sinusoidal alternating voltage is

Vrms = 0.707 Vm.
11. Form factor (kf) : The form factor of an alternating quantity
is defined as the ratio of rms value to the average value.
rms value
Form factor kf =
average value
For sinusoidal alternating currents or voltages, form factor is
0.707 I m 0.707 Vm
kf = or = 1.11.
0.637 I m 0.637 Vm
12. Peak factor (kp) : The peak factor of an alternating quantity
is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the rms value.
maximum value
Peak factor kp =
rms value
For sinusoidal currents or voltages, peak factor is
Im Vm
kp = or = 1.414.
0.707 I m 0.707 Vm

2.2 CONCEPT OF PHASE OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY

In the analysis of a.c circuits, it is difficult to perform

addition, subtraction etc. on alternating waveforms. Phasor
representation of an alternating quantity makes it easier to represent
and analyse the waveforms.
The sinusoidally varying alternating quantity can be
represented graphically by a straight line with an arrow in which
the length of the line represents the magnitude of the quantity and
arrow indicates its direction.
One complete cycle of a sine wave is represented by one
complete rotation of a phasor in anticlockwise direction. Consider
a phasor with uniform angular velocity ‘ω’ starting at ‘a’ as shown

61
 AC Circuits 2.11

in the Fig. 2.9. If the projections of the phasor on y-axis are plotted
against the angle ‘θ’ a sine wave is obtained.
Current
c
d b
Anti
e θ a clockwise f g h a
a b c d e θ = ωt

f h
g

Fig. 2.9 Phasor representation of an alternating quantity

At point ‘a’ the instantaneous value of current is zero.
At point ‘c’, the length of the phasor is equal to the maximum
value of current. The instantaneous value is i = Im sin θ. It is similar
for the other instants. The angular velocity ‘ω’ should be such that
it completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the
alternating quantity to complete one cycle.
θ = ωt
Where, ω = 2πf rad/sec.

2.3 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE

Phase : The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant

is the angle ‘φ’ travelled by the phasor upto the instant of
consideration measured from the reference.
Current

B B

φ π 2π
A π/2 θ = ωt
φ

Fig. 2.10 Concept of phase

62
2.12 Basic Electrical Engineering

From the Fig. 2.10, phase of the alternating current at the

instant A is φ = 0 while the phase of the current at the instant B is
the angle φ through which phasor has travelled measured from the
reference.
Phase is represented in terms of angle φ or θ in radians or
degrees.
The equation of an alternating quantity in terms of phase
can be expressed as
e = Em sin (ωt ± φ)
Where φ is phase of the alternating quantity.
Consider the following cases :
Case (i) : φ = 0
If the phase of an alternating quantity is zero, it is pure
sinusoidal quantity having instantaneous value zero at t = 0 as
shown in the Fig. 2.11(a).
Case (ii) : φ is positive
If the phase of an alternating quantity is positive it means
that quantity has some positive instantaneous value at t = 0 as shown
in the Fig. 2.11(b).
Case (iii) : φ is negative
If the phase of an alternating quantity is negative it means
that quantity hase some negative instantaneous value at t = 0. This
is shown in the Fig. 2.11(c).
V or I V or I
+ve

t=0 t=0

e = EM sin ωt e = EM sin (ωt + φ)

(a) (b)

63
 AC Circuits 2.13

V or I

t=0

– ve
e = EM sin (ωt – φ)

(c)

Fig. 2.11 Phase

2.3.1 Phase difference

Case (i) : Consider two alternating quantities of same frequency

‘f’ but different maximum values
e = Em sin (ωt)
i = Im sin (ωt)
Where, Em > Im
The phasor representation and waveforms of e & i are as
shown in the Fig. 2.12.
Al EM

Bl IM
W
90° 2π
B A π
O EM π/2 θ = ωt

Fig. 2.12 Zero phase difference

π
After φ = radians, the OA phasor reaches its maximum
2
value Em and OB phasor reaches its maximum Im. At any instant,
64
2.14 Basic Electrical Engineering

the phase of voltage e is same as that of current ‘i’. So the difference

between the phases of the two quantities is zero at any instant. The
difference between the phases of the two alternating quantities is
called the phase difference i.e., angle difference between the two
phasors representing the two alternating quantities.
When the phase difference between the two alternating
quantities is zero, the two quantities are said to be in phase.
Case (ii) : Consider an emf having maximum value Em and current
having maximum value Im. When emf ‘e’ is at its zero value, the
current ‘i’ has some negative value as shown in the Fig. 2.13.
e, i
EM e.m.f e

IM
W Current
φ
EM
O A 0 π/2 π 2π θ = ωt
φ
B
IM φ
− IM

− EM

Fig. 2.13 Phase difference (lag)

From the Fig. 2.13, it is observed that the two phasors are
rotating in anticlockwise direction and current is falling back with
respect to voltage at all the times by angle φ. This is called lagging
phase difference. The current ‘i’ is said to lag the voltage ‘e’ by
angle ‘φ’. The equations of the two quantities are given by
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)
Case (iii) : In practice, it may also be possible that the current ‘i’
may have some positive value when voltage ‘e’ is zero. This is
shown in the Fig. 2.14.

65
 AC Circuits 2.15

e, i
EM e.m.f e

IM IM i Current
W
B
φ EM φ
O A 0 π/2 π 2π θ = ωt
φ

− IM

−E
M

Fig. 2.14 Phase difference (lead)

From the Fig. 2.14, the two phasors are rotating in
anticlockwise direction with same speed. Here the current ‘i’ is
ahead of voltage ‘e’. Thus current is said to be leading with respect
to voltage and the phase difference or angle difference between
the phasors is called leading phase difference.
In this case, the current i reaches maximum, zero values φ
angle before than the corresponding maximum, zero values of the
voltage. The current ‘i’ is ahead of voltage ‘e’ by angle ‘φ’ at all
the instants. The equations of the two quantities are given by
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
‘i’ is said to be leading ‘e’ by angle ‘φ’.
It can be observed from the above two cases that a plus (+)
sign of angle indicates lead whereas a minus (–) sign indicates lag
with respect to the reference.
2.3.2 Phasor diagram

The diagram in which different alternating quantities of the

same frequency are represented by individual phasors indicating
phase relations between them is called phasor diagram.

66
2.16 Basic Electrical Engineering

Case (i) : Consider two alternating quantities in phase with each

other.
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin ωt
At any instant, the phase difference between the two phasorsis
zero. The phasor diagram at different instants are shown in the
Fig. 2.15.
Em

Em
O Im Em
Im
Im

O O
Fig. 2.15 Same phasor diagram at various instants
Case (ii) : Consider another case where ‘i’ is lagging voltage ‘e’
by angle φ. The voltage and current equations are
e = Em sin ωt
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)
Then the phasor diagram at various instants is the same and
is shown in the Fig. 2.16.
Em

Lagging
Im
O φ Em Lagging
Lagging φ Im φ
Im O
Em
O
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.16 Phasor diagram showing lag phase difference
In this case the current lags behind the voltage by angle ‘φ’.
If current is taken as reference phasor then phase relation can be
stated as the voltage leads current by angle φ.

67
 AC Circuits 2.17

Important points about phasor diagram :

1. The reference phasor is shown along the positive x-axis
direction. The individual phase of an alternating quantity is
always referred with respect to positive x-axis direction.
2. The quantities represented in phasor diagram must be of the
same frequency and may be more than two in number.
3. The length of phasor is drawn equal to rms value of an
alternating quantity rather than maximum value.
4. The phasors which are ahead in anticlockwise direction with
respect to reference are said to be leading with respect to
reference and phasors behind are said to be lagging.
5. More than two alternating quantities can be represented in
phasor diagram like current, voltage, flux etc.

2.4 SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS

Simple ac circuits may be classified according to basic circuit

elements R, L and C as given below :
1. AC circuit containing pure resistance only
2. AC circuit containing pure inductance only
3. AC circuit containing pure capacitance only

2.4.1 AC circuit containing pure resistance

R
Consider a simple ac circuit consisting
of a pure resistance ‘R’ connected across a i i
voltage v = Vm sinωt as shown in the
Fig. 2.17. By Ohm’s law, the current through v = Vm sin ωt

the resistance R is given by Fig. 2.17

v
i= (Instantaneous values are indicated by small letters)
R

68
2.18 Basic Electrical Engineering

Vm sin ωt ⎛ Vm ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟ sin ωt
R ⎝ R ⎠
The above equation gives the instantaneous value of current.
Comparing this current with standard equation i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
Vm
Im = and φ = 0
R
Vm
So the maximum value of alternating current ‘i’ is Im =
R
and φ = 0 indicates that the current is in phase with the voltage
applied. That means the current is reaching its maximum (positive
and negative) and zero values at the same instant when voltage
reaches its maximum (positive and negative) and zero values.
In purely resistive circuit, the current and the voltage applied
are in phase with each other.
The voltage and current waveforms and the phasor diagram
are shown in the Fig. 2.18 (a) and (b).
v, i v = Vm sin ωt

i = Im sin ωt

π 2π
0 Time O I V
Both in phase

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.18 AC through pure resistor

In the phasor diagram, the two phasors voltage and current
are in phase with each other. Phasors represent the rms values of
alternating quantities.

69
 AC Circuits 2.19

Power (P) :
The instantaneous power in ac circuits is the product of the
instantaneous values of current and voltage.
P = Vi
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ωt
= Vm Im sin2 ωt

Vm I m
= (1 – cos 2ωt)
2

Vm I m Vm I m
= − cos 2ωt
2 2
So the instantaneous power equation consists of two terms
or two components.
Vm I m
i) Constant power component i.e.,
2
Vm I m
ii) Fluctuating component cos 2ωt which has twice the
2
frequency of the applied voltage.
The average value of the fluctuating cosine component of
double frequency over one complete cycle is zero. So the average
power consumption over one cycle is equal to the constant power
Vm I m
component i.e.,
2
Vm I m Vm I m
Pavg = = .
2 2 2
Pavg = Vrms . Irms watts
= VI watts (RMS values are indicated by capital letters)

70
2.20 Basic Electrical Engineering

The waveforms of voltage, current and power are shown in

the Fig. 2.19.

ωtt
P = Vm Im sin2 ω
V, I, P

Vm I m
Pav =
2

0 Time (t)
ωtt
i = Im sin ω

ωtt
v = Vm sin ω

Fig. 2.19 V, I & P for pure resistive circuit

2.4.2 AC circuit containing pure inductance

Coil
Consider a simple circuit
consisting of a pure inductance of ‘L’ H L
i e i
connected across a voltage v = Vm sin
ωt as shown in the Fig. 2.20.
Pure inductance has zero ohmic v = Vm sin ωt

resistance. Its internal resistance is zero. Fig. 2.20

When alternating current ‘i’ flows through inductance ‘L’,

it sets up an alternating magnetic field around the coil of inductance
‘L’. This changing flux links with the coil and an emf gets inducted
in the coil called self induced emf. By Lenz’s law, this emf opposes
the applied voltage.
The self induced emf in the coil is given by
di
e = −L
dt
At all the instants, applied voltage V is equal and opposite
to the self induced emf ‘e’.

71
 AC Circuits 2.21

⎛ di ⎞
∴ V = −e = − ⎜ − L ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠

di
V=L
dt
di
Vm sin ωt = L
dt
Vm
di = sin ωt dt
L

Vm V ⎛ − cos ωt ⎞
∴ i = ∫ di = ∫ sin ωt dt = m ⎜ ⎟
L L ⎝ ω ⎠

−Vm ⎛π ⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞⎤
=
ωL
sin ⎜ − ωt ⎟ ⎢∵ cos ωt = sin ⎜ 2 − ωt ⎟ ⎥
⎝2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦

Vm ⎛ π⎞ ⎡ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
i= sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ ⎢∵ sin ⎜ − ωt ⎟ = − sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ ⎥
ωL ⎝ 2⎠ ⎣ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

⎛ π⎞ V
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ where I m = m
⎝ 2⎠ ωL
From this equation, current lags the applied voltage by 90°.
Vm Vm
Im = =
ωL X L
Where, XL = 2πfL Ω.
The current equation shows that it is purely sinusoidal and
lags (–90°) the voltage applied by 90°. The negative sign indicates
lagging nature of the current. If current is assumed as a reference,
voltage across inductance leads the current passing through the
inductance by 90°.

72
2.22 Basic Electrical Engineering

The Fig. 2.21 shows the voltage and current waveforms and
the corresponding phasor diagram.

V, i ωtt
v = Vm sin ω

⎛ π⎞
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

π π
22π O
0 T V
π
= 90°
2
π I
= 90°
2 I lags V by 90°

(a) Waveforms (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 2.21 AC through purely inductive circuit
Inductive reactance :
In purely inductive circuit
Vm
Im =
XL
Where, XL = ωL = 2πfL Ω.
The term XL is called inductive reactance and is measured
in ohms. It is defined as the opposition offered by the inductance
of a coil or circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.
It depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.
If L is constant then XL ∝ f.
Power :
The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous
values of voltage and current.
P = Vi
⎛ π⎞
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
73
 AC Circuits 2.23

= –Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt

Vm I m
P= − sin 2ωt
2
The frequency of power waveform is double to that of
applied voltage. The average value of sine waveform over a
complete cycle is always zero.
2π
Vm I m
Pavg = ∫− sin 2ωt d ( ωt ) = 0
0
2

The Fig. 2.22 shows the voltage, current and power

waveforms.

V, I, P
P +Ve P +Ve P P +Ve

π 2π 3π
0 T

P – Ve P – Ve P – Ve
One cycle Pav = 0

Fig. 2.22 Waveforms of voltage, current and power

From the Fig. 2.22, when power waveform is positive,

energy gets stored in the magnetic field established due to the
increasing current while during negative power waveform, this
power is returned back to the supply.

74
2.24 Basic Electrical Engineering

The areas of positive loop and negative loop are exactly

same and hence average power consumption is zero. Therefore
pure inductance never consumes power.
2.4.3 AC circuit containing pure capacitance

Consider a simple circuit consisting C

of a pure capacitor of ‘C’ farad connected
across a voltage v = Vm sin ωt as shown in I I
the Fig. 2.23. Due to the applied voltage V,
the current ‘i’ flows through the circuit and
charges the capacitor. The instantaneous V = Vm sin ωt
charge ‘q’ on the plates of the capacitor is Fig. 2.23
given by
q = CV
= C Vm sin ωt
Current is the rate of flow of charge
dq d
i= = ( C Vm sin ωt )
dt dt
d
= C Vm ( sin ωt ) = C Vm ω cos ωt
dt
Vm ⎛ π⎞
i= sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎝ 2⎠
⎜ ωC ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ π⎞
= I m sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Vm
Where, I m =
XC
1 1
Where, X C = = Ω.
ωC 2 πfC

75
 AC Circuits 2.25

The above equation shows that the current is purely

π
sinusoidal and having phase angle of + radians i.e., +90°. This
2
means current leads voltage applied by 90°. The positive sign
indicates the leading nature of the current. If current is assumed as
reference, then the voltage across capacitor lags the current passing
through the capacitor by 90°.
The Fig. 2.24 shows the waveforms of voltage and current
and the corresponding phasor diagram. The current waveform starts
earlier by 90° in comparison with voltage waveform. When voltage
is zero, the current has positive maximum value.
ωtt
v = Vm sin ω
V, i
⎛ π⎞
i = I m sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ I

90°
0 π π
22π t O V
I leads V by 90°

π/2 π/2

(a) Waveforms (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 2.24 AC through purely capacitive circuit
Capacitive reactance :
From the current equation of pure capacitive circuit
Vm
Im =
XC

1 1
and X C = = Ω
ωC 2 πfC
The term XC is called capacitive reactance and is measured
in ohms. It is defined as the opposition offered by the capacitance
of the circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.

76
2.26 Basic Electrical Engineering

XC depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.

For constant C, XC is inversely proportional to the frequency.
1
XC ∝
f
Power :
The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous
values of voltage and current.
P = vi

⎛ π⎞
= Vm sin ωt Im sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
= VmIm sin ωt cos ωt
Vm I m
P= sin 2ωt
2
Thus power is a sine wave of frequency double that of
applied voltage. The average value of a sine wave over a complete
cycle is always zero.
2π
Vm I m
Pavg = ∫ sin ∝ ωt d ( ωt ) = 0
0 2
The Fig. 2.25 shows the waveforms of voltage, current and
power.
From the Fig.2.25, when power curve is positive an
electrostatic energy gets stored in the capacitor during its charging
while the negative power represents that the energy stored is
returned back to the supply during its discharging. The areas of
positive and negative loops are exactly same and hence average
power consumption over one complete cycle is zero. So pure
capacitance never consumes power.

77
 AC Circuits 2.27

v, i, p
P +Ve P +Ve
P
V
i

0 π 2π 3π T

P – Ve P – Ve
One complete cycle
Pav = 0

Fig. 2.25 Waveforms of voltage, current and power

2.5 SERIES AC CIRCUITS

We have dealt so far simple ac circuits containing pure

elements like resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C).
However in practical circuits the above elements are connected in
combination. A series circuit is a circuit in which the same
alternating current flows through all the circuit elements i.e., R, L,
C etc. The combination of series ac circuits may be
1. R-L series circuit
2. R-C series circuit
3. R-L-C series circuit

78
2.28 Basic Electrical Engineering

2.5.1 Series R-L circuits

Consider a circuit consisting of pure resistance R ohms

connected in series with a pure inductance of ‘L’ H as shown in
the Fig. 2.26. The series combination of R and L is connected
across ac.
R L

VR VL
I I

v = Vm sin ωt
Fig. 2.26 Series R-L cicuit
Supply voltage v = Vm sin ωt
Due to the supply voltage, the current ‘I’ flows through the
circuit causing two voltage drops.
a) Drop across pure resistance VR = IR
b) Drop across pure inductance VL = I XL where XL = 2πfL Ω
I is the rms value of current
VR, VL are the rms values of voltage drops
Applying KVL to the circuit
The voltages addition here is a phasor addition and not the
algebraic one
∴ V = VR + VL (Phasor addition)
= IR + IXL
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the steps
given below :
1. Take current as reference phasor.
2. For resistance, voltage and current are in phase with each
other. So draw VR along the current phasor.

79
 AC Circuits 2.29

3. In case of inductance, current lags voltage by 90°. Since

current is reference, VL should be shown leading with respect
to current by 90°.
4. The supply voltage is the vector sum of VR and VL which
can be drawn using parallelogram law of vectors.
From the voltage equation, V = VR + VL

( IR ) + ( IX L )
2 2
V = V = VR2 + VL2 =

= I R 2 + X 2L
= IZ

where, Z = R 2 + X 2L
Z is called impedance of the circuit and it is measured in
ohms. The phasor diagram of the circuit and the voltage triangle
are shown in the Fig. 2.27 (a) and (b).
B
V
VL
r.m.s value V
of supply VL = IXL

φ 90°
φ 90°
O O A
VR I
VR = IR

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.27
Impedance :
It is defined as the opposition of circuit to the flow of
alternating current. It is denoted by Z and measured in ohms. From
the phasor diagram, the current I lags behind the applied voltage V
by an angle φ. From the voltage triangle

80
2.30 Basic Electrical Engineering

VL IX L X L
tan φ = = =
VR IR R

VR IR R
cos φ = = =
V IZ Z
VL IX L X L
sin φ = = =
V IZ Z
If all the sides of the voltage triangle are divided by current,
impedance triangle can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 2.28.
The sides of the impedance triangle are resistance R,
inductive reactance XL and impedance Z.
From this impedance B
triangle the X component of V
impedance is R i.e., R = Z cos φ Z= VL
I XL =
and Y component of impedance is I
φ 90°
XL i.e., XL = Z sin φ
O
The impedance in rectangu- R=
VR
I
lar form is
Fig. 2.28 Impedance triangle
Z = R + jXL Ω
The impedance in polar form is given by
Z= Z φ Ω

⎛X ⎞
Where, Z = R 2 + X 2L , φ = Tan −1 ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
Power and power triangle :
In the series R-L circuit, the current lags behind the voltage
by an angle φ. So the expression for the current can be written as
i = Im sin (ωt – φ)

81
 AC Circuits 2.31

The instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous

values of voltage and current
P = vi = Vm sin ωt . Im sin (ωt – φ)

= VmIm ⎡⎣ sin ωt ⋅ sin ( ωt − φ ) ⎤⎦

⎡ cos φ − cos ( 2ωt − φ ) ⎤

= VmIm ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

Vm I m V I
= cos φ − m m cos ( 2ωt − φ )
2 2
The second term of power is cosine curve whose average
value over a cycle is zero. Hence average power consumed is

Vm I m V I
Pavg = cos φ = m ⋅ m cos φ
2 2 2
P = VI cos φ watts (V & I are rms values)
The power equation is obtained by multiplying voltage
equation with current I.

VI = VR I + VL I

VI = V cos φ I + V sin φ I

= VI cos φ + VI sin φ
From this equation power VI
VL I = VI sinφ
triangle can be obtained as shown in
the Fig. 2.29. φ
O
The three sides of this triangle VR I = V cos φI

are VI, VI cos φ and VI sin φ. Fig. 2.29 Power triangle

82
2.32 Basic Electrical Engineering

Apparent power : It is defined as the product of rms values of

voltage (V) and current (I). It is denoted by S.
S = VI VA
It is measured in volt-amp (VA) or kilo volt-amp (kVA).
Real or true power : It is defined as the product of the applied
voltage and the active component of the current. It is real component
of the apparent power. It is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts
(kW). It is denoted by P.
P = VI cos φ watts
Reactive power : It is defined as the product of the applied voltage
and reactive component of the current. It is also the imaginary
component of the apparent power. It is denoted by Q and measured
in volt-amp reactive (VAR) or kilo volt-amp reactive (kVAR).
Q = VI sin φ VAR
So S = VI VA is apparent power
True or average power, P = VI cos φ W
Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ VAR
Power factor (cos φ) : It is defined as factor by which the apparent
power must be multiplied in order to obtain true power. It can be
defined in many ways. It is the ratio of true power to apparent
power.
True power VI cos φ
Power factor = = = cos φ
Apparent power VI
It is also defined as the cosine of the phase angle between
the applied voltage and the current drawn from the supply voltage.
It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance.
R
cos φ =
Z

83
 AC Circuits 2.33

The nature of power factor is always determined by position

of current with respect to the voltage. It cannot be greater than 1.
If current lags voltage then power factor is said to be lagging.
If current leads voltage then power factor is said to be leading.
For pure inductance, power factor is cos φ = cos 90° = 0
i.e., zero lagging.
For pure capacitance, power factor is cos φ = cos 90° = 0
i.e., zero leading.
For pure resistor, power factor is cos φ = cos 0 = 1
i.e., unity and voltage and current are in phase with each other.
For R-L series circuit, the power factor is cos φ where φ lies
in between 0° and 90°. Hence cos φ lies in between 0 and 1. The
nature of power factor is lagging.

2.5.2 Series R-C circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of R C

pure resistance R ohm and pure capacitor
VR VC
C farads connected in series with each I I

other as shown in the Fig. 2.30.

The series combination is connec- v = Vm sin ωt
ted across ac supply voltage Fig. 2.30 Series R-C circuit
v = Vm sin ωt
Due to supply voltage, current I flows through the circuit
which results in two voltage drops.
a) Drop across resistance VR = IR
b) Drop across capacitance VC = IXC
1
Where, X C =
2 πfc

84
2.34 Basic Electrical Engineering

Here I, VR and VC are the rms values

Apply KVL to the circuit
V = VR + VC

V = IR + IX C
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the below
steps :
1. Take current as reference phasor.
2. For resistance, voltage and current are in phase. So VR will
be along current phasor.
3. For capacitance, current leads voltage by 90°. So VC must
be drawn lagging behind the current by 90°.
4. The supply voltage V is obtained by adding the two vectors
VR and VC using parallelogram law of vectors.
The phasor diagram and voltage triangle are shown in the
Fig. 2.31 (a) and (b).
VR = IR
VR I A
O A O
φ
90°

V VC = IXC

VC B
V B
(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle
Fig.2.31
From the voltage triangle

( IR ) + ( IX C )
2 2
V = VR2 + VC2 =

= I R 2 + X 2C
V = IZ
85
 AC Circuits 2.35

where, Z = R 2 + X C2
Impedance :
It is defined as the opposition of the circuit to the flow of
alternating current. It is denoted by Z and measured in ohms.
For series R-C circuit it is given by

Z = R 2 + X 2C

1
Where, X C = Ω which is called capacitive reactance
2 πfc
From the phasor diagram, current leads voltage by angle φ
or supply voltage lags current by angle φ.
VC IX C X C
From voltage triangle, tan φ = = =
VR IR R

VR IR R
cos φ = = =
V IZ Z
VC IX C X C
sin φ = = =
V IZ Z
If all the sides of voltage triangle R=
VR

are divided by the current, impedance O I A

φ
triangle can be obtained. The sides of the Vc
= XC
impedance triangle are R, XC and Z as V I
=Z
shown in the Fig. 2.32. I
B
The x component of impedance is
Fig. 2.32 Impedance
R i.e., R = Z cos φ
triangle
The y component of impedance is
XC i.e., XC = Z sin φ
The direction of XC in the impedance triangle is the negative
y direction so the rectangular form of impedance is Z = R – jXC Ω.

86
2.36 Basic Electrical Engineering

In polar form, Z = Z −φ Ω

Z = R − jX C = Z −φ Ω

⎛ X ⎞
Where, Z = R 2 + X C2 and φ = Tan −1 ⎜ − C ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
So the phase angle φ is negative for capacitive impedance.
Power and power triangle :
As the current leads voltage by an angle φ in R-C series
circuit, the expression for current is given by
i = Im sin (ωt + φ)
The power is the product of instantaneous values of voltage
and current.
P = vi = Vm sin ωt . Im sin (ωt + φ)
= VmIm sin ωt . sin (ωt + φ)

⎡ cos ( −φ ) − cos ( 2ωt + φ ) ⎤

= VmIm ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

Vm I m cos φ Vm I m
= − cos (2ωt + φ)
2 2
The second component of power is cosine term whose
average value over a cycle is zero. Hence average power consumed
by the circuit is
Vm I m V I
Pavg = cos φ = m ⋅ m cos φ
2 2 2
P = VI cos φ where, V and I are rms values.
If the voltage equation is multiplied with current I, power
equation can be obtained.

87
 AC Circuits 2.37

VI = VR I + VC I

VI = V cos φ I + V sin φ I

= VI cos φ + VI sin φ
The sides of the power triangle are P = VI cosφ
O A
VI, VI cos φ and VI sin φ as shown in φ
the Fig. 2.33.
S = VI Q = VI sinφ
The various powers are :
Apparent power S = VI VA
B
True or real or average power P Fig. 2.33 Power triangle
= VI cos φ W
Reactive power Q = VI sin φ VAR
So for any single phase ac circuit (R-L or R-C) the average
power is P = VI cos φ W where, V and I are rms values.
Z = R + jX L = Z φ for R-L circuit
φ is positive for inductive impedance
Z = R − jX C = Z −φ for R-C circuit
φ is negative for capacitive impedance
cos φ is the power factor of the circuit
cos φ is lagging for inductive (R-L) circuit and cos φ is
leading for capacitive (R-C) circuit.

2.5.3 Series R-L-C circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R ohms,

inductance L henries and capacitance C farads connected in series
with each other across ac supply v = Vm sin ωt as shown in the
Fig. 2.34.

88
2.38 Basic Electrical Engineering

R L C

VR VL VC
VL
I O I I
90° 90°
O I VR I
O VC

v = Vm sin ωt

Fig. 2.34 Series R-L-C circuit

The current I flows through the circuit due to which there
are different voltage drops across R, L and C given by
i) Drop across resistance R is VR = IR.
ii) Drop across inductance L is VL = IXL.
iii) Drop across capacitance C is VC = IXC.
Here I, VR, VL and VC are rms values.
The characteristics of three drops are
i) VR is in phase with current I
ii) VL leads current I by 90°
iii) VC lags current I by 90°
Apply KVL to the circuit
V = VR + VL + VC
Phasor diagram :
The phasor diagram can be drawn by following the below
steps
1. Take current as reference.
2. Draw VR in phase with current I.
3. VL is drawn leading the current I by 90°.
4. VC is drawn lagging behind the current I by 90°.

89
 AC Circuits 2.39

5. Obtain the resultant of VL and VC. Both VL and VC are in

phase opposition i.e., 180° out of phase.
6. Add the resultant to VR using parallelogram law to get the
supply voltage.
The phasor diagram depends on the magnitudes of VL and
VC which ultimately depends on the values of XL and XC. Consider
the following different cases.
i) XL > XC ii) XL < XC iii) XL = XC
i) XL > XC :
When XL > XC, VL = IXL will be greater than VC = IXC. So
the resultant of VL and VC (VL – VC) will be in the direction of VL.
Hence the resultant (VL – VC) leads the current I by 90°.
Since XL > XC, the circuit is said to be inductive in nature.
The phasor sum of VR and (VL – VC) gives the resultant supply
voltage as shown in the Fig. 2.35 (a). The voltage triangle is shown
in the Fig. 2.35 (b).

VL VL >VC

VB B
(VL – VC)
V
(VL – VC)
φ A φ
O O I
VR I VR A

I lags V by φ
VC

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.35

Current I lags the supply voltage V by an angle φ when XL > XC.

90
2.40 Basic Electrical Engineering

( VR ) + ( VL − VC )
2 2
From the voltage triangle, V =

( IR ) + ( IX L − IX C )
2 2
=

= I R2 + ( X L − XC )
2

V = IZ

where, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )
2

So if v = Vm sin ωt then i = Im sin (ωt – φ) as current lags

voltage by angle φ.
ii) XL < XC :
When XL < XC, VL = IXL is less than VC = IXC. So the
resultant of VL and VC will be directed towards VC. Current I will
lead (VC – VL). As XL < XC, the circuit is said to be capacitive in
nature. The phasor sum of VR and (VC – VL) gives the resultant
supply voltage V as shown in the Fig. 2.36 (a). The voltage triangle
is shown in the Fig. 2.36 (b).

VL

A VR A
O I O I
φ VR φ
(VC – VL)
V
(VC – VL) V
B B
VC > VL
I – leads V by angle φ
VC

(a) Phasor diagram (b) Voltage triangle

Fig. 2.36

91
 AC Circuits 2.41

From the voltage triangle, V = VR2 + ( VC − VL )

2

( IR ) + ( IX C − IX L )
2 2
=

= I R2 + ( XC − X L )
2

V = IZ

where, Z = R + ( X C − X L )
2 2

So if v = Vm sin ωt, then i = Im sin (ωt + φ) as current leads

voltage by angle φ.
iii) XL = XC :
VL VC = VL
When XL = XC, VL = VC. So VL
and VC will cancel each other and their
resultant is zero. In such case the O I
VR = V
resultant supply voltage is v = VR and
overall circuit is purely resistive in VC
nature. The phasor diagram is as shown Fig. 2.37 Phasor diagram
in the Fig. 2.37.
From the phasor diagram, VR = V
V = IR
= IZ
Where, Z = R.
Impedance :
In general for RLC series circuit impedance is given by
Z = R + jX
Where, X = XL – XC = Total reactance of circuit

92
2.42 Basic Electrical Engineering

i) If XL > XC then X is positive and circuit is inductive

ii) If XL < XC then X is negative and circuit is capacitive
iii) If XL = XC then X is zero and circuit is purely resistive
The various relations between R, X, Z and φ are

⎛ X − XC ⎞ R
⎟ , cos φ = Z , Z = R + ( X L − X C )
2
tan φ = ⎜ L 2

⎝ R ⎠
Impedance triangle :
The impedance equation is given by
Z = R + jX where, X = XL – XC
For XL > XC, φ is positive and the impedance triangle is as
shown in the Fig. 2.38 (a). For XL < XC, φ is negative and the
impedance triangle is as shown in the Fig. 2.38 (b). The impedance
triangle is obtained by dividing the voltage triangle by current I.
O R
φ – Ve

Z XL – XC = X which is
(XL – XC) = X Z negative as XL < XC
+Ve
φ
O R

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.38 Impedance triangles
Power and power triangle :
The average power consumed by the R-L-C series circuit is
Pavg = Average power consumed by R + Average power
consumed by L + Average power consumed by C.
Pure L and pure C never consume any power
Pavg = Power consumed by R = I2R = I (IR) = IVR = IV cos φ
(VR = V cos φ)
P = VI cos φ W

93
 AC Circuits 2.43

Thus for any condition, XL > XC or XL < XC the power is

given by
P = Voltage × Current component in phase with voltage

2.5.4 Summary of R, L and C circuits

Table 2.1 Summary of R, L and C circuits

Impedance (Z) p.f

S.No. Circuit φ Remark
Polar Rectangular cos φ

1. Pure R R 0° Ω R+j0 Ω 0° 1 unity p.f

2. Pure L XL 90° Ω 0+jXL Ω 90° 0 zero lag

3. Pure C XC −90° Ω 0–jXC Ω –90° 0 zero lead

4. Series RL Z φ Ω R+jXL Ω 0<φ<90° cos φ lagging

5. Series RC Z −φ Ω R–jXC Ω –90°<φ<0° cos φ leading

6. Series RLC Z ±φ Ω R+j×Ω φ cos φ XL>XC lag

X=XL–XC XL<XC lead
XL=XC unity

94
 2.44 Basic Electrical Engineering

2.6 PROBLEMS ON SERIES CIRCUITS

Example 2.1 :
An inductive circuit has a resistance of 5 Ω in series with
an inductance of 0.03H. Calculate the current and power factor
when connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.

Solution :
5Ω 0.03 H
Given R = 5 Ω, L = 0.03 H,
V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
I = ? Pf = ?
Inductive reactance
230 V, 50 Hz
XL = 2πfL Fig. 2.39
= 2π (50) (0.03)
= 9.4247 Ω

Impedance Z = R 2 + X 2L = 52 + ( 9.4247 ) = 10.66 Ω

2

V 230
Current I = = = 21.566 A
Z 10.66
R 5
Power factor cos φ = = = 0.469 lag
Z 10.66

95
 AC Circuits 2.45

Example 2.2 :
An inductive coil having a resistance of 15 Ω takes a
current of 4 A when connected to a 100 V, 60 Hz supply. If the
coil is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz supply calculate
i) currentii) power iii) power factor.
Solution :
Given R = 15 Ω, I = 4 A, V = 100 V, f = 60 Hz

V 100
Z= = = 25 Ω
I 4

Z = R 2 + X 2L ⇒ X L = Z 2 − R 2 = 252 − 152 = 20 Ω

X L = 2πfL = 20

20 20
L= = = 0.053 H R = 15 Ω L = 0.053 H
2πf 2π ( 60 )

When the coil is connected to

a 100 V, 50 Hz supply
100 V, 50 Hz
XL = 2πfL = 2π (50) (0.053)
Fig. 2.40
= 16.66 Ω

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 152 + 16.662 = 22.41 Ω

V 100
i) Current, I = = = 4.46 A
Z 22.41
ii) Power, P = I2R = 4.462 × 15 = 298.47 W

R 15
iii) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.669 lag
Z 22.41

96
2.46 Basic Electrical Engineering

Example 2.3 :
A coil of resistance 10 Ω is connected in series with a
coil of inductance 0.02 H and is connected to AC mains of 100
V, 50 Hz. Calculate current, power factor and voltage drop
across both resistance and inductance.
Solution :
10 Ω 0.02 H
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.02 H,
V = 100 V, f = 50 Hz VR VL

Inductive reactance
XL = 2πfL
100 V, 50 Hz
= 2π (50) (0.02)
Fig. 2.41
= 6.283 Ω

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + 6.2832 = 11.81 Ω

V 100
Current, I = = = 8.467 A
Z 11.81
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.846 lag
Z 11.81
Voltage across resistance, VR = IR = 8.467 × 10 = 84.67 V
Voltage across inductance, VL = IXL= 8.467× 6.283 = 53.198 V
Example 3.4 :
A circuit consists of 12 Ω resistance in series with a
capacitance of 100 μ μF. It is connected across a supply of 230 V,
50 Hz. Find a) Reactance b) Impedance c) Current
d) Powerfactor e) Power.
Solution :
Given R = 12 Ω, C = 100 μF, V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz

97
 AC Circuits 2.47

1 1
a) Reactance, X C = =
(
2πfc 2π ( 50 ) 100 × 10 −6 )
R = 12 Ω C = 100 μF
= 31.83 Ω

b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2C

= 122 + 31.832 = 34 Ω 230 V, 50 Hz

Fig. 2.42
V 230
c) Current, I = = = 6.76 A
Z 34
R 12
d) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.353 lead
Z 34
e) Power, P = VI cos φ = 230 × 6.76 × 0.353 = 548.84 W
Example 2.5 :
A resistance of 10 Ω , an inductance of 0.2 H and
capacitance of 100 μ
μF are connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate the current and power factor.

Solution :
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.2 H, C = 100 μF
Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL
= 2π(50) (0.2) = 6.283 Ω
10 Ω 0.2 H 100 μF

230 V, 50 Hz

Fig. 2.43

98
2.48 Basic Electrical Engineering

1
Capacitive reactance, X C =
2 πfc
1
= = 31.83 Ω
(
2π ( 50 ) 100 × 10 −6 )
Impedance, Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )
2

= 10 2 + ( 62.83 − 31.83 ) = 32.57 Ω

2

V 230
Current, I = = = 7.061A
Z 32.57
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.307 lag
Z 32.57
Example 2.6 :
An inductive circuit has a resistance of 10 Ω in series
with an inductance of 0.03H. Calculate the current and power
factor when connected across 230 V, 50 Hz supply.

10 Ω 0.03 H
Solution :
Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.03 H,
V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
Inductive reactance
XL = 2πfL = 2π(50) (0.03) 230 V, 50 Hz

= 9.424 Ω Fig. 2.44

Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + 9.424 2 = 13.74 Ω

V 230
Current, I = = = 16.74 A
Z 13.74
R 10
Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.728 lag
Z 13.74

99
 AC Circuits 2.49

Example 2.7 :
A circuit consists of 10 Ω resistance in series with an
inductance of 100 mH. It is connected across a supply of
1-phase, 230 V, 50 Hz. Find a) reactance,
b) impedance, c) current, d) power factor and e) power.
Solution : 10 Ω 100 mH

Given R = 10 Ω, L = 100 mH,

V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz
a) Reactance, XL = 2πfL
230 V, 50 Hz
= 2π(50) (100 × 10–3)
Fig. 2.45
= 31.416 Ω

b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L = 10 2 + ( 31.416 ) = 32.97 Ω

2

V 230
c) Current, I = = = 6.976 A
Z 32.97

R 10
d) Power factor, cos φ = = = 0.303 lag
Z 32.97
e) Power, P = I2R = (6.976)210 = 486.6 W
Example 2.8 :
A 1-phase supply of 200 V, 50 Hz is connected across a
circuit consisting of 5 Ω resistance in series with 80 mH
inductance. Find a) reactance b) impedance c) current
d) voltage drop across resistance e) voltage drop across
inductance.
Solution :
Given V = 200 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 5 Ω, L = 80 mH

100
 2.50 Basic Electrical Engineering

a) Reactance, XL = 2πfL 5Ω 80 mH

= 2π(50) (80 × 10–3) VR VL

= 25.13 Ω

200 V, 50 Hz
b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2L
Fig. 2.46

= 52 + ( 25.13 ) = 25.62 Ω
2

V 200
c) Current, I = = = 7.8 A
Z 25.62
d) Voltage drop across resistance, VR = IR = (7.8) (5) = 39 V
e) Voltage drop across inductance, VL = I XL = (7.8) (25.13)
= 196 V
Example 2.9 :

A 1-phase supply of 230 V, 50 Hz is connected across a

circuit consisting of 15 Ω resistance in series with 120 μF
capacitance. Find a) reactance b) impedance c) current
d) voltage drop across resistance e) voltage drop across
capacitance.

Solution :

Given V = 230 V, f = 50 Hz, R = 15 Ω , C = 120 μF

1 1
a) Reactance, X L = = = 26.52 Ω
(
2πfC 2π ( 50 ) 120 × 10 −6 )
101
 AC Circuits 2.51

15 Ω 120 μF
b) Impedance, Z = R 2 + X 2C
VR VC

= 15 + ( 26.52 )
2 2

= 30.47 Ω
230 V, 50 Hz

V 230 Fig. 2.47

c) Current, I = = = 7.55A
Z 30.47
d) Voltage drop across resistance, VR = IR = (7.55) (15) = 113.25 V
e) Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC = (7.55) (26.52)
= 200.22 V

2.7 POLYPHASE AND 3-PHASE SYSTEM

A single phase a.c. voltage can be generated by rotating a

conductor in a magnetic field. Such an a.c producing machine is
called single turn alternator. The voltage produced by a single
conductor is very less and hence number of turns are connected in
series to form a winding called armature winding in a practical
alternator. The sum of voltages induced in all the conductors is
available as a single phase a.c. voltage which is used to drive the
practical loads. But in practice there are certain loads which require
polyphase supply i.e., many phases. Such applications need a supply
having many a.c. voltages present in it simultaneously. This type
of system is called polyphase system.
A polyphase system is developed by dividing the armature
winding into number of phases required. In each section a separate
a.c. voltage gets induced. So there are many independent a.c
voltages present equal to number of phases of armature winding.
The various phases of armature winding are arranged in such a
manner that the magnitudes and frequencies of these voltages is

102
2.52 Basic Electrical Engineering

same but they have definite phase difference with respect to each
other. The phase difference depends on number of phases in which
armature is divided.
If armature is divided into three coils or phases then there
are three separate a.c. voltages with same magnitude and frequency
360°
but they will have a phase difference of = 120° with respect
3
to each other. All three voltages with a phase difference of 120°
are available to supply a three phase load. Such a supply system is
called three phase system.
Similarly by dividing the armature into various number of
phases an n-phase (2-phase or 6-phase) supply system can be

obtained. The phase difference between such voltages is 360° .

n
In practice a three phase system is found to be more
economical and it has certain advantages over polyphase system.
Three phase system is used everywhere in practice.
2.7.1 Advantages of three phase system

In the three phase system, the alternator armature has three

windings which produce three alternating voltages of same
magnitude and frequency having a phase difference of 120°
between each other. The following are the advantages of three phase
system over single phase system.
1. The output of three phase machine is always greater than
single phase machine of same size approximately 1.5 times.
2. Three phase systems give steady output.
3. For transmission and distribution, three phase system needs
less copper or less conducting material than single phase
system.

103
 AC Circuits 2.53

4. Rotating magnetic field is produced using three phase

system. Hence three phase motors are self starting.
5. Polyphase system is more capable and reliable than single
phase system.
6. Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase but
three phase cannot be obtained from single phase.
7. Power factor of single phase motors is poor than three phase
motors of same rating.
8. Parallel operation of polyphase alternators is simple
compared to that of single phase alternators.

2.8 PHASE DIFFERENCE IN 3 PHASE SYSTEM

If armature of an alternator is divided into three groups such

that they are displaced by the angle 120° from each other, three
separate alternating voltages get developed.
Consider armature of alternator divided into three groups
as shown in the Fig. 2.48. The armature coils are named as R1 –
R2, Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2. The ends of each coil are brought out to
collect the induced emf.
Let eR, ey and eB be the three S
voltages induced in coils R1 – R2,
B2 Y1
Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2 respectively. All
are alternating voltages having same R1 R2
magnitude and frequency displaced
Rotation
by 120°. Y2 B1

Let e R be assumed as the N

reference and is zero for the instant
shown in the Fig. 2.49. At the same Fig. 2.48
instant ey will be displaced by 120°

104
2.54 Basic Electrical Engineering

from eR and will follow eR. While eB is ahead of eR by angle 120°.

ey will attain its maximum and minimum position 120° later than
eR and eB will attain its maximum and minimum position 120°
later than ey i.e., 120° + 120° = 240° later with respect to eR. All
the voltages together represent three phase supply system. The
waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.49

Em eR eY eB

0 ωt

120° 120°
240

Fig. 2.49 Three phase voltages

The equations of the induced voltages are

eR = Em sin ωt
ey = Em sin (ωt – 120°)
eB
eB = Em sin (ωt – 240°)
eB lags eY by 120°

= Em sin (ωt + 120°)

120°
120°
eR
The phasor diagram of these
120°
voltages is shown in the Fig. 2.50. As
phasors rotate in anticlockwise eY
eY lags eR by 120°

direction, ey lags eR by 120° and eB lags

Fig. 2.50 Phase sequence
ey by 120°.

105
 AC Circuits 2.55

2.9 STAR - DELTA CONNECTION

In three phase system, three phases or windings are used

each of which has two terminals. If all the terminals are used
independently then a total of six wires will be required which is
costlier. To reduce the cost the three windings are interconnected
in a particular fashion. There are two types of connections.
1. Star or Wye (Y) connection
2. Delta or Mesh (Δ) connection

2.9.1 Star connection

The star connection is formed by connecting the similar ends

of all the three windings together. If R1 - R2, Y1 - Y2 and B1 - B2
are the terminals of the three windings then the ends R1 - Y1 - B1
are connected or R2 - Y2 - B2 are connected together. This common
point is called neutral point. The remaining three ends are brought
out for connection purpose. These ends are generally referred as
R - Y - B to which load is to be connected. The star connection is
as shown in the Fig. 2.51.
IR
R
R1

VRN
R2 R1
VRY R
N
VRB Y2 Y1
N Y To load
V
N Y B2 B1
B1 VB N Y1 B
IY
Y
IB VYB
B

Fig. 2.51 Star connection

106
 2.56 Basic Electrical Engineering

The potential difference between any two lines of supply is

called line voltage and current passing through any line is called
line current. Line voltages are denoted by VL. They are VRY, VYB
and VBR. Line currents are denoted by IL. These are IR, IY and IB.
The voltage across any branch or phase is called phase
voltage denoted by VPh. The current passing through any branch or
phase is called phase current denoted by IPh.
VRN, VYN and VBN are the phase voltages while IR, IY and IB
are the phase currents.
From the Fig. 2.51,
IPh = IR = IY = IB
The same currents are flowing through the three lines and
hence IL = IPh Line voltage is given by
VL = 3 VPh Thus line voltage is 3 times the phase voltage.

The power consumed in each phase is single phase power

given by P1φ = VPh IPh cos φ

The total three phase power consumed is

P = 3 VL IL cos φ

The phasor diagram showing

107 the line and phase voltages
and currents is shown in the Fig. 2.52.
 AC Circuits 2.57

VBR = VL VB = VPh –VY VRY = VL

IB = IPh

VL leads VPh by 30°

φ
VL = 3 VPh

VR = VPh
–VR φ
φ
IY –IPh IR = IPh

VY = VPh –VB

VRY = VR − VY
VYB = VY − VB
VBR = VB − VR VYB = VL

Fig. 2.52 Star and lagging p.f load

All line voltages are displaced by 120° from each other.
Every line voltage leads the respective phase voltage by 30°.

2.9.2 Delta Connection

The delta connection is formed by connecting dissimilar

ends of the three windings to form a closed loop. The supply
terminals are taken out from the three junction points. The delta
connection is shown in the Fig. 2.53.
IR
R
B2 R1
VRY
VBR
IBR IRY IY
Y
B1 R2
IYB
Y2 Y1
VYB

IB
B
Fig. 2.53 Delta connection

108
2.58 Basic Electrical Engineering
Line voltages VL are VRY, VYB and VBR. While line currents
IL are IR, IY and IB.
The currents flowing through the various branches are phase
currents. These are IRY, IYB and IBR. The voltages across the three
branches are VRY, VYB and VBR and all are phase voltages.
VPh = VRY = VYB = VBR
Thus in delta connection, line voltages are same as the phase
voltages.
But phase currents and line currents are different. Line
current is given by

IL = 3 IPh
Power consumed in each phase is single phase power given by
P1φ = VPh IPh cos φ
Total power consumed is
P= 3 VL IL cos φ
The phasor diagram for lagging power factor load is shown
in the Fig. 2.54.
VBR IB = IL

IBR

–IRY
φ –IYB

IY = IL
φ VRY = VPh = VL
φ
IRY = IPh
IYB

–IBR IPh lags VPh by φ

IL lags IPh by 30°
VVB IR = IL
Fig. 2.54 Delta and lagging p.f load

109
 AC Circuits 2.59

Each phase current lags respective phase voltage by angle φ.

Every line current lags the respective phase current by 30°.

2.10 PROBLEMS ON STAR & DELTA CONNECTION

Problem 2.10:
Three coils each having resistance of 10 Ω and the
inductance of 0.02 H are connected in star across 440 V, 50 Hz
three phase supply. Calculate i) Phase voltage, ii) Phase
current, iii) Line current and iv) Total power consumed.
Solution:
The given supply voltage is line voltage
VL = 440 V, f = 50 Hz, Rph = 10 Ω, Lph = 0.02 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph
XLph = 2πfLph = 2π × 50 × 0.02 = 6.28 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph = 10 + j 6.28 Ω = 11.81 ∠32.14° Ω

Z ph = 11.81 Ω and φ = 32.14° lagging

VL 440
i) Phase voltage, Vph = = = 254 V
3 3

Vph 254
ii) Phase current, I ph = = = 21.5 A
Z ph 11.81

iii) Line current, IL = Iph = 21.5 A

iv) Power consumed, P = 3VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 440 × 21.5 × cos ( 32.14 )

= 13880.68 W = 13.8 kW.

110
2.60 Basic Electrical Engineering

Problem 2.11:
Three inductive coils each having resistance of 16 Ω and
reactance of 12 Ω are connected in star across a 400 V, 50 Hz
three phase supply. Calculate
i) Line voltage, ii) Phase voltage, iii) Line current
iv) Phase current and v) Power absorbed.
Solution:
Given,
Rph = 16 Ω, Xph = 12 Ω
V = 400 V, f = 50 Hz
Zph = Rph + j XLph
= 16 + j 12 = 20 ∠36.86° Ω = Z ph ∠φ
i) Line voltage, VL = 400 V
VL 400
ii) Phase voltage, Vph = = = 231 V
3 3
Vph 231
iii) Phase current, I ph = = = 11.55 A
Z ph 20
For star connection, IL = Iph
Line current, IL = 11.55 A
iv) Phase current, Iph = 11.55 A
v) Power absorbed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 11.55 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 6400 W = 6.4 kW.
Problem 2.12:
Three identical coils, each having resistance of 15 Ω and
inductance of 0.03 H are connected in delta across a three phase,
400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate i) Phase current, ii) Line current,
iii) Total power consumed.

111
 AC Circuits 2.61

Solution:
Rph = 15 Ω, Lph = 0.03 H
XLph = 2πfLph = 2π × 50 × 0.03 = 9.425 Ω
Zph = Rph + j XLph

= 15 + j 9.425 = 17.72 32.14° = Z ph ∠φ°

For delta connection, Vph = VL and IL = 3 I ph .

Vph 400
i) Phase current, I ph = = = 22.58 A.
Z ph 17.72

ii) Line current, I L = 3 I ph = 3 × 22.58 = 39.11 A.

iii) Total power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 39.11 × cos ( 32.14 )

= 22.94 kW.
Problem 2.13:
A three phase, 230 V supply is given to balanced load
which is delta connected. Impedance in each phase of the load
is 8 + j 6 Ω. Determine the phase current and the total power
consumed.
Solution:
Given,
VL = 230 V
Zph = 8 + j 6 Ω
= 10 ∠36.86°
For delta connection, VL = Vph
I L = 3 I ph

112
 2.62 Basic Electrical Engineering

Vph 230
I ph = = = 23 A
Z ph 10

I L = 3 I ph = 3 × 23 = 39.837 A

Power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 230 × 39.837 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 12697.64 W = 12.69 kW.
Problem 2.14:
A symmetrical 3 phase, 400 V system supplies a balanced
load of 0.8 lagging power factor and connected in star. If the
line current is 34.64 A, find i) impedance, ii) resistance and
reactance per phase, iii) total power.
Solution:
Given,
cos φ = 0.8 lagging
VL = 400 V
VL 400
Vph = = = 230.94 V
3 3
IL = Iph = 34.64 A
Vph 230.94
Z ph = = = 6.667 Ω
I ph 34.64
φ = cos–1 (0.8) = 36.86
i) Z ph = Z ph ∠φ = 6.667∠36.86 Ω = 5.33 + j 4 Ω.
ii) Rph = 5.33 Ω and XLph = 4 Ω.
iii) Power consumed, P = 3 VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 34.64 × 0.8 = 19.19 kW.

113
 AC Circuits 2.63

Problem 2.15:
Three IMPEDANCES each having a resistance of 20 0hm
and an inductive reactance of 15 ohm are connected in star
across a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Calculate (i) the line current
and (ii) total power absorbed.
Solution:
Given
Rph = 20 Ω, Xph = 15 Ω
V = 400 V, f = 50 Hz
Zph = Rph + jXph = (20 + j 15)Ω = 25 36.86° Ω
Line Voltage, VL = 400 V

VL 400
Phase Voltage, Vph = = = 231 V.
3 3

Vph 231
Phase current, Iph = = = 9.24 A
Z ph 25

For star connection, IL = Iph

i) Line current IL = 9.24A

ii) Power absorbed, P = 3VL I L cos φ

= 3 × 400 × 9.24 × cos ( 36.86° )

= 5121.99 W.
= 5.122 kW.

114
2.64 Basic Electrical Engineering

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define
i) Amplitude ii) Cycle
iii) Time period iv) Frequency
v) Instantaneous value vi) Average value
vii) RMS value and
viii) Form factor of alternating quantity

2. Define the terms
a) Form factor b) Peak factor

3. Explain the term power factor and its significance.

4. Explain phase and phase difference.

5. Draw the phasor and vector diagrams of R, L, C, series

R-L, R-Cand R-L-C circuits.
6. Explain a) Average value, b) RMS value and c) form factor.
7. State the merits of polyphase system over single phase
system.

8. State the relation of line voltage, phase voltage, line current

and phase current in case of star and delta connections.

9. State the relation between phase values and line values of

voltage and current in case of i) star and ii) delta connections.

115
UNIT-III TRANSFORMERS:
TOPICS COVERED:

1. Electromagnetic induction,

2. Faradays laws, Statically induced emf,

3. Lenz law,

4. BH characteristics,

5. ideal and practical transformer,

6. losses and efficiency,

7. Auto-transformer,

8. Three-phase transformer connections.

116
 Transformers 4.1

3 TRANSFORMERS

3.0 INTRODUCTION

The main advantage of alternating currents over direct

currents is that, the alternating currents can be easily transferred
from low voltage to high or high voltage to low. Alternating
voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the
different stages of electrical network as generation, transmission,
distribution and uitlization. This is possible with a static device
called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of
Electro Magnetic Mutual Induction. It transfers an electric
energy from one circuit to another when there is no electrical
connection between the twocircuits.
The use of transformers in transmission system is shown
in Fig. 3.1.
Transformer Transformer
11 kV
440 kV 11 kV
For
Transmission over distribution
Generating station
long distance
Increases Decreases
voltage level voltage level
for transmission for distribution

Fig. 3.1

117
 Transformers 3.2

3.01 FARADAY’S LAWS OF

ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION

Whenever current flows through the conductor, magnetic

field is produced around it which is called magnetic effect of electric
current. Some attempts were made to produce electric current with
the help of magnetism. In 1831, an English physicist, Michael
Faraday conducted several experiments and announced his law of
electromagnetic induction. The phenomenon by which e.m.f is
obtained from flux is called electromagnetic induction.
First law : The statement of Faraday’s first law is
“Whenever a conductor links with the magnetic flux, an emf
is induced in the conductor”.

118
 “Whenever the magnetic flux linking with a conductor
changes an emf is induced in the conductor.”
Consider a coil of N turns connected to a galvanometer as
shown in the Fig. 3.01.

Galvanometer

I
Permanent magnet
Flux
through Coil N S

N turns

Fig. 3.01 Faraday’s law

A permanent magnet is moved relative to coil, such that the

flux associated with the coil gets changed. If the magnet is moved
towards the coil then the galvanometer deflects in one direction. If
the magnet is moved away from the coil, then the galvanometer
deflects in opposite direction. The deflection of galvanometer is
as shown in Fig. 3.02.

Galvanometer Galvanometer

N S N S

a) Magnet towards coil b) Magnet away from coil

Fig. 3.02

119
 Transformers 3.4

The deflection continues as long as the magnet moves

relative to the coil. The deflection indicates the current flow. So
there must be an emf to produce the current. Hence the moment of
flux with respect to coil produces e.m.f which causes current flow
through the coil.
Second law :
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages.
Consider a coil of ‘N’ turns. Let the initial flux linking with
the coil is φ 1.
Initial flux linkages = Nφ1
Let the flux linking with the coil changes from φ1 to φ2
during time interval ‘t’.
Final flux linkages is N φ2
Change in the flux linkages = Nφ2 − Nφ1
According to the second law, the magnitude of emf is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages
Nφ2 − Nφ1
e∝
t
K ( Nφ2 − Nφ1 )
=
t
Ndφ
= ( K = 1)
dt
dφ is the change in flux
dt is the change in time
As per Lenz law, the induced emf produces a current such
that it opposes the cause producing it. Mathematically it is expressed
by a negative sign. So induced e.m.f is
dφ
e = −N volts
dt

120
3.02 CLASSIFICATION OF INDUCED EMF

To produce an emf in a conductor, there must exist

1. A coil or conductor
2. A magnetic field (permanent magnet or electromagnet)
3. Relative motion between conductor and magnetic flux.
The emf exists as long as relative motion persists.
The magnetic flux linkage with the conductor can be
changed by different methods.
Depending on the nature of the methods, the induced emf is
classified as
a) Dynamically induced emf
b) Statically induced emf
a) Dynamically induced emf : The change in flux linkage
can be obtained by moving the coil relative to the magnetic field.
This is possible by moving coil with respect to stationary magnetic
flux or by moving flux with respect to conductor.
The e.m.f induced due to the physical movement of coil
conductor with respect to flux or movement of magnet with respect
to stationary coil conductor is called dynamically induced emf or
motional induced emf.
Consider a conductor of length ‘l’ metres moving in the air
gap between the poles of the magnet. Let the magnetic field
produced by the magnet be B Wb/m2 and ‘V’ be the velocity of
the conductor in m/sec. When the flux is parallel to the motion or
velocity of the conductors then there is no cutting of flux and
hence no induced emf. This is shown in the Fig. 3.03.

121
 Transformers 3.6

Motion of
Conductor
Conductor

V
N S

Fig. 3.03 No cutting of flux

When the velocity of the conductor is perpendicular to the

flux then the cutting of flux is maximum and hence there is
maximum induced e.m.f. This is shown in the Fig. 3.04.
Motion of
Conductor
V

N S

Conductor

Fig. 3.04 Maximum cutting of flux

Let the conductor is moved through a distance of dx in dt
seconds then the area covered by the conductor A = l dx m2
Flux cut by the conductor φ = BA
= B l dx Wb
According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the con-
ductor is given by
e = N dφ dt

dφ
= ( N = 1)
dt
dφ
=
dt

122
 d
= ( B ldx )
dt
dx
= Bl = BlV volts
dt
If the conductor makes a certain angle θ with respect to the
magnetic field, then the component of velocity perpendicular to
the flux is V sin θ , then the induced emf is
e = BlV sin θ volts
The direction of induced emf is decided by using Fleming’s
right hand rule and Lenz law.
Statically induced EMF:
The emf induced in a coil without physical movement of
coil or a magnet is called statically induced emf. The change in the
flux lines with respect to coil can be obtained without physically
moving the coil or the magnet.
Consider an electromagnet which produces necessary flux
for producing emf. Let the current through the coil of an elec-
tromagnet be an alternating one. Such alternating current changes
its magnitude periodically with time and hence it produces an
alternating flux i.e. changing with time. Thus there is change in
flux with respect to time which is responsible for producing an
emf in the coil.
The statically induced emf is classified as
1. Self induced emf
2. Mutually induced emf
1. Self induced EMF : The emf induced in a coil due to the
change of its own flux linked with it is called self induced emf.
Consider a coil of ‘N’ turns carrying a current of ‘I’ amperes
as shown in Fig. 3.05. The current through the coil can be varied
through the variable resistance connected in series with the battery.

123
 Transformers 3.8

Flux due to current I

I
E R
+ −

Fig.3.05 Self induced emf

The flux produced by the coil links with the coil itself. The
flux linkages of coil will be N φ Wb - turns. If current I is changed
then flux produced will also change and hence flux linkages will
also change.
By Faraday’s law the rate of change of flux linkages produces
induced emf in the coil. So the emf is produced without physically
moving the coil or flux which is called self induced emf.
According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced emf is to
oppose the cause of its production. The emf is produced due to
change in current through the coil. So any change in current through
the coil is opposed by the coil. This property of the coil which
opposes any change in current is called self inductance. The induced
emf is
− N dφ
e=
dt
dφ φ dI
=
dt I dt

124
 φ dI
e = −N
I dt

⎛ Nφ ⎞ dI dI
= −⎜ ⎟ = −L
⎝ I ⎠ dt dt

Nφ
where L = called coefficient of self inductance.
I
2. Mutually induced EMF : The emf induced in one coil
due to the change of flux in the second coil is called mutually
induced EMF.
Consider two coils A & B of N1 & N2 turns placed near
each other as shown in the Fig. 3.06. The coil A is connected in
series to variable resistance R and battery of E volts. A
galvanometer is connected across coil B to sense induced emf and
current because of it.

Coil A Coil B

E R G
+ −

Fig. 3.06 Mutually induced emf

The current through the coil A is I1 which produces flux of

φ1 Wb. Some part of this flux links with the coil B is φ2 which is
called mutual flux. If current through coil A is changed then flux
φ1 changes and hence flux associated with coil B i.e. φ2 also

125
 Transformers 3.10

changes. By Faraday’s law, there will be induced emf in coil B

which causes a current through coil B which will be detected by
galvanometer G.
So any change in current through coil A produces emf in
coil B. This phenomenon is called mutual induction.
dφ2
Induced emf in coil B is e 2 = − N 2
dt
dφ2 φ2 dI1
=
dt I1 dt

φ2 dI1 ⎛ N φ ⎞ dI
e 2 = −N 2 = −⎜ 2 2 ⎟ 1
I1 dt ⎝ I1 ⎠ dt
dI1
= −M
dt
N 2 φ2
where, M = is called coefficient of mutual inductance.
I1

3.03 LENZ’S LAW

It states that
“The direction of an induced emf is such that it sets up a
current which opposes the cause producing it”. The opposition of
induced emf is represented by a negative sign. Mathematically
induced emf is
dφ
e = −N
dt
Consider a coil of N turns connected to a galvanometer G as
shown in the Fig. 3.07. Let a bar magnet is moved towards the
coil.

126
 Repulsive force due to
Coil induced emf and current
in the coil

S N N S

Direction of motion
G

Fig. 3.07 Lenz’s law

According to Lenz’s law, the direction of current due to
induced emf is to oppose the cause. The cause is the movement of
magnet towards the coil. So the emf will produce current in such
a way that the end of electromagnet facing bar magnet becomes
N-pole causing repulsive force between two N-poles.

127
 Transformers 3.12
3.1 Principle of working of a Transformer

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils

are inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed
uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f.
can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The
transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form, it
consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated
but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have
high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the
Fig. 3.2.
Primary Secondary
winding winding
I

t AC
Load
supply
T
Primary voltage I
Laminated
Flux (φ) magnetic
iron core

T
Secondary voltage
Voltage level changes
but frequency i.e. time
period T remains same Fig. 3.2.

Basic Electrical Engineering (BEE) Course Code: ES101EE

Common to all Branches of Engineering
First year I & II- Semester.
Prepared by K. Mahammad Rafi, Assistant Professor, EED, MJCET.

128
 One of the two coils is connected to a source of alternating
voltage. This coil in which electrical energy is fed with the help of
source is called primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding
is drawn out to the load.
This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary
winding has N1 number of turns while the secondary winding has
N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as
shown in the Fig. 3.3.
Core

N1 N2 Load

P S

Fig. 3.3 Symbolic representation

When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltages,

it circulates an alternating current. This current produces an
alternating flux (φ) which completes its path through common
magnetic core.
Thus an alternating flux links with the secondary winding.
As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday’s law of an
electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed
in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary
winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
Thus though there is no electrical contact between the two
windings, an electrical energy gets transferred from primary to
the secondary.

129
 Transformers 3.14

The frequency of the mutually induced e.m.f. is same as

that of the alternating source which is supplying energy to the
primary winding.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION

There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic core

ii) Winding or coils.
The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular
in size. It is further divided into two parts. The vertical portion on
which coils are wound is called limb while the top and bottom
horizontal portion is called yoke of the core. These parts are shown
in Fig. 3.4.

Yoke

Limb
Fig. 3.4.

Core is made up of laminations. Because of laminated type

of construction, eddy current losses get minimised. Generally high
grade silicon steel laminations [0.3 to 0.5 mm thick] are used.
These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation
like varnish. All laminations are varnished. Laminations are
overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at the joints. For this
generally ‘L’ shaped or ‘I’ shaped laminations are used which are
shown in the Fig. 3.5.

130
 I type lamination L type lamination

Joint

Joint Joint
Fig 3.5.
Types of transformers:
The classification of the transformers is based on the relative
arrangement or disposition of the core and the windings. There are
mainly two types of transformers (a) Core type and (b) Shell type.
Core type transformer: It has a single magnetic circuit. The core
is rectangular having two limbs. The winding encircles the core.
Both the coils placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is
placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the
low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin
laminations.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs
the natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily
removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke for
maintenance.
Yoke
Core
Core
L.V. insulation

P S L.V. winding
H.V. insulation

H.V. winding

Limb Flux
(a) Representation (b) Construction
Fig. 3.6

131
 Transformers 3.16

Shell type transformer: It has a double circuit. The core has three
limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central limb. The core
encircles most part of the windings. Each high voltage coil is in
between two low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the
yokes. The core is laminated. Generally for very high voltage
transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the
windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not
exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large numbers
of laminations are required to be removed.
Core
H.V. winding L.V. winding

P
Side limb
S Core

Center limb Flux

(a) Representation (b) Construction

Fig. 3.7.
3.3 USE OF LAMINATIONS

• To reduce the eddy current losses core is laminated.

The alternating flux induces emf in the core stampings. This
voltage circulates current in the stampings in the form of
eddies. These currents, therefore, heat the stampings and
results in power loss.
These currents proportional to (B f t)2. Where t is thickness
of stamping.
The smaller the thickness, the lower the eddy current losses.
This is why the core is laminated so as to reduce the eddy
current loss. The thickness is usually 0.25–0.5 mm.

132
 • Laminations are insulated from each other by paper or mica
or oxide layer.
• Laminations are easy to handle than a big pieces.

3.4 E.M.F EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the

induced e.m.f. are:
φ = Flux
φm = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the
average e.m.f. induced in each turn is proportional to the average
rate of change of flux.
∴ Average e.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
dφ
∴ Average e.m.f. per turn =
dt
dφ Change in flux
Now =
dt Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4th cycle of the flux. Complete cycle gets
completed in 1/f seconds hence for 1/4th time, the change in flux
is from 0 to φm.

dφ φ m − 0
∴ = = 4 fφm Wb/sec
dt  1 
 
 4f 

133
 Transformers 3.18

∴ Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 fφm volts

As φ is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both
the windings is also sinusoidal in nature. For sinusoidal quantity,
R.M.S.value
Form factor = = 1.11
Average value
∴ R.M.S. value = 1.11 × Average value
∴ R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 × 4 fφm = 4.44 fφm
There are N1 number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value
of induced e.m.f. of primary denoted as E1 is,
E1 = N1 × 4.44 fφm volts
While as there are N2 number of secondary turns the R.M.S.
value of induced e.m.f. of secondary denoted as E2 is,
E2 = N2 × 4.44 fφm volts
The expressions of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equations of a
transformer.
Thus e.m.f. equations are,

E1 = 4.44 fφm N1 volts .........(1)

E 2 = 4.44 fφm N 2 volts .........(2)

3.5 TRANSFORMER RATIO

The e.m.f equations of a transformer are given by

E1 = 4.44 fφm N1 and E2 = 4.44 fφm N2
Taking ratio of the two equations we get,

E2 N2
= =K
E 1 N1

134
 This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced
e.m.f. is known as voltage transformation ratio denoted as K.

N2
Thus, E 2 = KE1 where, K =
N1

1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, we get E2 > E1 then the transformer is

called step-up transformer.
2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, we get E2 < E1 then the transformer is
called step-down transformer.
3. If N2 = N1 i.e. K = 1, we get E2 = E1 then the transformer is
called isolation transformer or 1: 1 transformer.
For an ideal transformer
E 2 V2
= =K
E1 V1
No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E1 is
almost equal to V1 for properly designed transformer.
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the
product of primary voltage V1 and primary current I1 is same as
the product of secondary voltage V2 and the secondary current I2.
So V1I1 = input VA and V2 I2 = output VA
For an ideal transformer V1I1 = V2 I2
V2 I1
∴ = =K
V1 I 2

3.6 NO LOAD OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER

i) Ideal transformer on No load:

Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the
Fig. 3.8. The supply voltage is V, and secondary current I2 = 0.

135
 Transformers 3.20

Flux φ

I1 I2 = 0
P S
No
V1 E1 N1 N2 E2=V2
load

Fig. 3.8.

The primary draws a current I1 which is necessary to produce

flux in the core. As it magnetises the core, it is called magnetising
current Im. As transformer is ideal, the winding resistance is zero
and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetising current Im is
very small and lags V1 by 90° as the winding is purely inductive.
This Im produces an alternating flux φ which is in phase with Im.
The flux links with both the windings producing the induced
e.m.fs E 1 and E 2 in the primary and secondary windings
respectively. According to Lenz’s law, the induced e.m.f. opposes
the cause producing it which is supply voltage V1. Hence E1 is in
antiphase with V1 but equal in magnitude. The induced e.m.f E2
also opposes V1 hence in antiphase with V1 but its magnitude
depends on N2. Thus E1 and E2 are in phase. The phasor diagram of
the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. 3.9.
V1 V1 leads φ by 90°

0
I1 = Im Flux φ
E1

E1 lags Im or φ by 90°
E2

Fig. 3.9 Phasor diagram

136
 In the phasor diagram flux φ is reference. Im produces φ
which is in phase with φ. V1 leads Im by 90° as winding is purely
inductive. E1 and E2 are in phase and both are opposing supply
voltage V1.
The power input to the transformer is V1 I1 cos V1∧ I1 i.e.,
V1 Im cos (90°) i.e., zero. On no load output power is zero and for
idea transformer there are no losses hence input power is also zero.
Ideal no load power factor of transformer is zero lagging.
ii) Practical transformer on no load:
In practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy
current losses as it is subjected to alternating flux. Practically
primary winding has certain resistance hence there are small
primary copper loss present. Thus the primary current under no
load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e., hysteresis loss
and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss.
This current is denoted by Io. This no load input current Io has two
components:
1. A purely reactive component I m called magnetising
component of no load current required to produce the flux.
This is also called wattless component.
2. An active component IC which supplies total losses under
no load condition called power component of no load
current. This is also called wattful component or core loss
component of Io.
The total no load current is the vector addition of Im and IC.
I o = Im + I C
In practical transformer, due to winding resistance no load
current Io Lags V1 by angle φo which is less than 90°. Thus cos φo is
the no load power factor of practical transformer.

137
 Transformers 3.22

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.10.

IC Io
φ°

φ
90° Im
E1

E2

Fig. 3.10 Phasor diagram

The two components of Io are
Im = Io sin φo
This is magnetising component lagging V1 by 90°.
IC = Io cos φo
This is core loss component which is in phase with V1.
I o = I 2m + I 2C
The total power input on no load is denoted by Wo and is
given by
Wo = V1Io cos φo = V1IC
As the no load current Io i.e., 3-5% of full load rated current
is very small, the primary copper loss is negligibly small. Hence
power input Wo on no load represents iron losses. The iron losses
are denoted by Pi and are constant.
Wo = V1 Io cos φo = Pi = Iron loss

3.7 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

When the transformer is loaded, the current I2 flows through

the secondary winding. The magnitude and phase of I 2 is
determined by the load. If load is inductive, I2 lags V2. If load is
capacitive, I2 leads V2 while for resistive load. I2 is in phase with V2.

138
 There exists a secondary m.m.f N2I2 due to which secondary
current sets up its own flux φ2. This flux opposes the main flux φ
which is produced in the core due to magnetising component of no
load current. Hence the m.m.f N2I2 is called demagnetising ampere-
turns. This is shown in the Fig. 3.11 (a).
The flux φ2 momentarily reduces the main flux φ due to
which the primary induced e.m.f E1 also reduces. Hence the vector
difference V1 − E1 increases due to which primary draws more
current from the supply. This additional current drawn by primary
is due to the load hence called load component of primary current
denoted by I'2 as shown in the Fig. 3.11 (b).
Additional
I2 I'2 I2

V1 Load V1 Load

Main flux Secondary flux More flux φ2

(φ + φ'2)o

a) φ2 opposes φ b) Primary draws more current

Fig. 3.11
This current I'2 is in antiphase with I2 which sets up its own
flux φ'2 that opposes the flux φ2 and helps the main flux φ. This flux
φ' neutralises φ produced by I . The m.m.f. N I' balances the
2 2 2 1 2
ampere turns N2 I2. Hence the net flux in the core is maintained at
constant level φ.

The load component current I'2 always neutralises the

changes in load. As flux is constant, the core loss is also constant
for all the loads. Hence the transformer is called constant flux
machine.

139
 Transformers 3.24

N2I2 = N1 I'2

N2
I'2 = I 2 = KI 2
N1
Thus on load, the primary current I1 of transformer has two
components.
1. The no load current Io lagging V1 by angle φo.

2. The load component I'2 which is in antiphase with I2.

Hence primary current I1 is vector sum of Io and I'2 .

I1 = Io + I'2
The phasor diagram for different types of loads is shown in
the Fig. 3.12.
V1 V1 V1 I1
I1
I'2
I1 I'2 φ1
φ1
I'2 φ
φ0 1
φ0 φ0 I0
I0 I0
0 φ 0 φ 0 φ

φ2 I2 φ2

I2 E1 E1 E1 I2

E2 E2 E2

(a) Inductive load (b) Resistive load (c) Capacitive load

Fig. 3.12
The phase of I2 is with respect to V2 i.e., angle φ2 is angle
between I2 and V2. For inductive load, I2 lags E2 by φ2. For resistive
load, I2 is in phase with E2. For capacitive load, I2 leads E2 by φ2.
I'2 is always in antiphase with E2.

140
3.8 PROBLEMS

Problem 3.1:
A single phase, 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the
primary winding and 400 turns on the secondary winding. The
net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm2. If the primary
winding is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine
i) the emf induced in the secondary winding.
ii) the maximum value of the flux density in the core.
Solution:
N1 = 80, f = 50 Hz, N2 = 400,
a = 200 cm2 = 200 × 10–4 m2 = 2 × 10–2 m2, E1 = 240 V
N 2 400
K= = =5
N1 80
E2 E
K= = 2 =5
E1 240
⇒ E2 = 240 × 5 = 1200 V
E1 = 4.44 f φm N1 ⇒ 240 = 4.44 (50) (φm) (80)
240
 φm = = 0.0135 Wb
4.44 × 50 × 80
φm 0.0135
Bm = = −2
= 0.6756 Wb/m 2 .
a 2 × 10
Problem 3.2:
For a single phase transformer having primary and
secondary turns of 440 and 880 respectively, determine the
kVA rating if half load secondary current is 7.5 A and
maximum value of core flux is 2.25 mWb.

141
 Transformers 3.26

Solution:
N1 = 440, N2 = 880
I2 at half load = 7.5 A
φm = 2.25 mWb
E2 = 4.44 f φm N2 = 4.44 × 50 × 2.25 × 10–3 × 880
= 439.56 V
kVA
I2(FL) at full load =
V2
I 2 ( FL )
I2(HL) =
2
1 kVA
I2(HL) =
2 V2
1 kVA
7.5 =
2 439.56
kVA = 2 × 7.5 × 439.56 × 10–3 = 6.59 kVA.
Problem 3.3:
A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050
secondary turns. The primary is connected to 400 V, 50 Hz ac
supply. If the net cross-sectional area of the core is 50 cm2,
determine
i) the maximum value of the flux density in the core
ii) the induced emf in the secondary winding.
Solution:
Given,
N1 = 350, N2 = 1050
V1 = 400 V, a = 50 cm2 = 50 × 10–4 m2
E1 = 4.44 f φm N1 = 4.44 f Bm a N1

142
 E1 400
Bm = =
4.44 f a N1 4.44 × 50 × 50 × 10 −4 × 350
= 1.03 Wb/m2
N 2 1050
K= = =3
N1 350
E2 E
K=  3 = 2  E 2 = 3 × 400 = 1200 V.
E1 400
Problem 3.4:
The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power
factor of 0.25 lagging, when connected to 400 V, 50 Hz ac
supply. Calculate a) magnetising component of no-load
current, b) iron loss and c) maximum value of flux in the core.
Assume primary winding turns as 500.
Solution:
Given,
I0 = 10 A, cos φo = 0.25, V1 = 400 and f = 50 Hz
a) Im = I0 sin φ0 (Magnetising component)
cos φ0 = 0.25 ⇒ φ0 = cos–1 (0.25) = 75.52°
Im = I0 sin φ0 = 10 sin (75.52°) = 9.68 A
b) Iron loss = Pi = W0 = power input on no load
= V1 I0 cos φ0 = 400 × 10 × 0.25
= 1000 W
c) On no load, E1 = V1 = 400 V
N1 = 500
E1 = 4.44 f φm N1
400 = 4.44 (50) φm (500)
400
φm = = 3.6 × 10 −3 Wb = 3.6 mWb.
4.44 × 50 × 500

143
 Transformers 3.28

Problem 3.5:
The no-load current of a transformer is 5 A at 0.3 pf
when supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz. The number of turns on
primary winding is 200. Find i) the maximum value of flux
ii) magnetizing current iii) iron losses in the transformer.
(AP&TS:C-14Oct/Nov-2015)
Solution:
Given,
I0 = 5 A, cos φ0 = 0.3, V1 = 230 V, N1 = 200
i) On no-load, V1 = E1 = 4.44 f φm N1
230 = 4.44 (50) φm (200)
230
φm = = 0.0052 = 5.2 mWb.
4.44 × 50 × 200
ii) Im = I0 sin φ0
cos φ0 = 0.3 ⇒ φ0 = cos–1 (0.3) = 72.54°
Im = I0 sin φ0 = 5 sin (72.54°) = 5 × 0.954 = 4.77 A.
iii) Iron losses = Pi = W0 = V1 I0 cos φ0
= 230 × 5 × 0.3 = 345 W.
Problem 3.6:
A single phase transformer has 500 turns on primary
and 1000 turns on secondary. The voltage per turn in the
primary winding is 0.2 volts. Calculate
i) voltage induced in the primary winding
ii) voltage induced in the secondary winding
iii) the maximum value of the flux density if the cross-section
area of the core is 200 cm2
iv) kVA rating of the transformer if the current in primary
at full load is 10 A, the frequency is 50 Hz.

144
Solution:
N1 = 500, N2 = 1000, f = 50 Hz, a = 200 cm2 = 2 × 10–2 m2
volt
= 0.2
turn
volt
i) E1 = × N1 = 0.2 × 500 = 100 V
turn
N2 1000
ii) E 2 = × E1 = × 100 = 200 V.
N1 500
iii) Maximum value of flux φm
E1 = 4.44 f φm N1
E1 100
 φm = = = 9 × 10 −4 Wb
4.44 f N1 4.44 × 50 × 500

φm 9 × 10 −4
Bm = = = 0.045 T
A 2 × 10 −2
iv) KVA rating = V1 I1 × 10–3 = 100 × 10 × 10–3 = 1 KVA.
Problem 3.7:
A single phase 50 Hz transformer has 100 turns on the
primary and 400 turns onthe secondary winding. The net cross-
sectional area of the core is 250 cm2. If the primary winding is
connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply determine,
i) the emf induced in the secondary winding,
ii) the maximum value of flux density in the core.
Solution:
N1 = 100, N2 = 400, a = 250 cm2, E1 = 230 V
N 2 400
K= = =4
N1 100

145
 Transformers 3.30

E2
i) K =  E2 = K E1 = 4 × 230 = 920 V.
E1

ii) E1 = 4.44 f φm N1

E 230
 φm = = = 0.001045 Wb
4.44 f N1 4.44 × 50 × 100

φm 0.001045
Bm = = = 0.4182 T.
a 250 × 10 −4
Problem 3.8:
A 6600/220 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has 1500
turns on its primary side. Find i) the secondary turns, ii) the
effective cross-sectional area of its core if the maximum flux
density is 1.2 T.
Solution:
V1 = 6600 V, V2 = 220 V, N1 = 1500, Bm = 1.2 T

N 2 V2 N2 220
i) =  =  N 2 = 50.
N1 V1 1500 6600

ii) V1 = 4.44 f φm N1
6600 = 4.44 × 50 × φm × 1500 ⇒ φm = 19.82 mWb.
φm = Bm a ⇒ 19.82 × 10–3 = 1.2 × a
a = 16.5 × 10–3 m2.
Problem 3.9:
Calculate the flux in the core of a single phase
transformer having a primary voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz and 50
turns. If the flux densityin the core is 1 T. Caclulate the net
cross-sectional area of the core.

146
Solution:
V1 = 230 V, f = 50 Hz, N1 = 50, B = 1 T
V1 = 4.44 f φm N1
230 = 4.44 × 50 × φm × 50
φm = 0.00207 Wb = 20.72 mWb

φm 20.72 × 10 −3
Bm = 1=
A A
A = 20.72 × 10–3 m2
= 207.2 cm2
Problem 3.10:
A 400/200 V transformer takes 1 A at a power factor of
0.4 on no load. If the secondary supplies a load current of 50 A
at 0.8 lagging power factor, calculate the primary current.
Solution:
Given,
I0 = 1 A, cos φ0 = 0.4, I2 = 50 A, cos φ2 = 0.8
E 2 200
K= = = 0.5
E1 400
I'2 = KI2 = 0.5 × 50 = 25 A
cos φ2 = 0.8 ⇒ φ2 = cos–1 (0.8) = 36.86°
The angle of I'2 is 36.86°
I'2 is in antiphase with I2. It lags E2 by 36.86°
cos φ0 = 0.4 ⇒ φ0 = cos–1 (0.4) = 66.42° ⇒ sin φ0 = 0.9165

I1 = I2' + I0
= (I0 sin φ0 + j I0 cos φ0) + (I'2 sin φ2 + j I'2 cos φ2)
I0 sin φ0 = 1 × 0.9165 = 0.9165 A

147
 Transformers 3.32

I0 cos φ0 = 1 × 0.4 = 0.4 A

I0 = 0.9165 + j 0.4 A
I'2 sin φ2 = 25 sin (36.86°) = 15 A
I'2 sin φ2 = 25 × 0.8 = 20 A
I'2 = 15 + j 20 A
I1 = 0.9165 + j 0.4 + 15 + j 20 = 15.9165 + j 20.4 A

= 25.876∠37.96° = I1∠φ1
φ1 = 37.96°
Primary power factor, cos φ1 = cos (37.96°) = 0.788 lagging.

3.9 LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.

i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core
losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded,
causing copper losses.
Core or Iron Losses:
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the
transformer, it undergoes a cycle of magnetization and
demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy
in this process which is called hysteresis loss.
It is given by, hysteresis loss = K h B1.67
m f v watts

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant depends on material

Bm = Maximum flux density
f = Frequency
v = Volume of the core

148
 The induced e.m.f in the core tries to set up eddy currents in
the core and hence responsible for the eddy current losses. The
eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = K e B2m f 2 t 2 watts/unit volume
Where Ke = Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
The flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V1
at rated frequency f is always constant. Hence the flux density Bm
in the core and hence both hysteresis and eddy current losses are
constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also
called constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as Pi.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core
material like silicon steel having very low hysteresis loop and by
manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
Copper Losses:
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form
of I R loss due to the resistances of the primary and secondary
2

windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents

flowing through the windings.

( ) (
Total cu loss = I12 R1 + I 22 = I12 R1 + R '2 = I 22 R 2 + R '1 )
= I12 R1e = I 22 R 2e
The copper losses are denoted as Pcu. If the current through
the windings is full load current, we get copper losses at full load.
If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at half
load which are less than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses
are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating V1 I1 or V2 I2.
As V1 is constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional
to the square of the kVA rating.

149
 Transformers 3.34

So, Pcu ∝ I 2 ∝ ( kVA )

2

Thus for a transformer,

Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
= Pi + Pcu

3.10 OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT TESTS

ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load

condition and at any power factor can be predetermined by indirect
loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on
transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer
are determined by conducting two tests on a transformer which
are
i) Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
ii) Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)
The advantage of this method is that without much power
loss the tests can be performed and results can be obtained.
3.10.1 Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)

The experimental circuit to conduct O.C. test is shown in

the Fig. 3.13.
M L
A

C V
Single phase W E2=V2
V
AC supply open H.V. side

Variac L.V. side Transformer

Fig. 3.13 Experimental Circuit for O.C. Test

150
 The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through
ammeter, wattmeter and variac. The secondary of transformer is
kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high
voltage side as secondary to conduct O.C. Test.
The primary is excited by rated voltage which is adjusted
with the help of variac. The wattmeter measures input power. The
ammeter measures input current. The voltmeter gives the value of
rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with
the help of variac, readings of ammeter and wattmeter are to be
recorded.
The observation table is as follows

Vo Volts Io amperes Wo Watts

Rated

Vo = Rated Voltage
Wo = Input Power
Io = Input current = no load current.
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current
drawn by the primary is no load current Io. The two components of
this no load current are Im = Io sin φo
IC = Io cos φo
The transformer no load current is always very small and
hence copper losses on primary are also very low. As I2 = 0,
secondary copper losses are zero. Thus the total copper losses in
O.C test are negligibly small. As the input voltage is rated at rated
frequency, the flux density in the core is at its maximum value,
Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. The total input power is
used to supply iron losses as copper losses are very low. This power

151
 Transformers 3.36

is measured by the watt meter i.e., Wo. Hence the watt meter in
O.C test gives iron losses which remain constant for all the loads.
Wo = Pi = Iron losses or core losses.
Wo = Vo Io cos φo
Wo no load power factor
cos φo = =
Vo I o
Then Ic = Io cos φo and Im = Io sin φo
Once Ic and Im are known
Vo
Ro = Ω
Ic

Vo
and Xo = Ω
Im

3.10.2 Short circuit test (S.C. Test)

In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through

variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the Fig. 3.14.
M L
A

C V
Single phase W
V Short circuit
AC supply

Variac Primary Secondary

Fig. 3.14 Experimental circuit for S.C test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper
wire. As high voltage side is always low current side, it is
convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the
low voltage side.

152
 As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very small and on
rated voltage it may draw very large current. Such large current
can cause over heating and burning of the transformer. To limit
this short circuit current, primary is applied with low voltage which
is sufficient to cause rated current to flow through primary which
can be observed on ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted
with the help of variac. Hence this test is also called low voltage
test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter
readings are recorded. The observation table is as follows.

VSC Volts ISC amperes WSC Watts

Rated
As the currents flowing through the windings are rated
currents the total copper loss is full load copper loss. The voltage
applied is low and hence the iron losses are very low. Hence the
wattmeter reading is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses
are very low.
WSC = PCU F.L = Full load copper loss.
From S.C Test readings
WSC = VSC ISC cos φSC
WSC
cos φSC = = short circuit power factor
VSC I SC
2
WSC = I SC R1e
WSC
R1e = 2
I SC
VSC 2 2
Z1e = = R1e + X1e
ISC
2 2
X1e = Z1e − R1e

153
 Transformers 3.38

R1e, X1e, Z1e are the equivalent circuit parameters obtained

from this test. Using the transformation ratio K, the equivalent
circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.

3.10.3 Equivalent Resistance of a transformer

Consider a transformer having impedance Z 2 in the

secondary as shown in the Fig. 3.15.

I1 I2

V1 N1 N2 Z2 V2

Fig. 3.15.

V2 V
Z2 = and Z1 = 1
I2 I1

Z 2  V2   I1  2
=  =K
Z1  V1   I 2 

 Z2 
Impedance ratio   is equal to the square of voltage
 Z1 
transformation ratio. In other words, an impedance Z2 in secondary
Z2
becomes when transferred to primary. Likewise, an impedance
K2
Z1 in the primary becomes K2Z, when transferred to the secondary.
R2 X
Similarly = K 2 and 2 = K 2
R1 X1

154
 The Fig. 3.16 shows a transformer where resistances and
reactances are shown external to the windings. The resistance and
reactance of one winding can be transferred to the other by using
the factor K2.
K=N2/N1

R1 X1 R2 X2

N1 N2

Fig. 3.16.
i) Referred to Primary: When secondary resistance or
reactance is transferred to the primary it is divided by K2. It
is called equivalent secondary resistance or reactance
referred to primary and is denoted by R '2 or X '2
Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary is
R2
R O1 = R1 + R '2 = R1 +
K2
Equivalent reactance of transformer referred to primary is
X2
X O1 = X1 + X '2 = X1 +
K2
The Fig. 3.17 Shows the resistance and reactance of the
secondary referred to primary.
R2 X2
R'2 = X'2 =
R1 K2 X1 K2

Fig. 3.17.
155
 Transformers 3.40

Equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary is

2 2
Z o1 = R o1 + X o1
ii) Referred to secondary: When primary resistance or
reactance is transferred to the secondary, it is multiplied by
K2. It is then called equivalent primary resistance or
reactance referred to the secondary and it is denoted by
R1' or X1'
Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary is
R o2 = R 2 + R1' = R 2 + K 2 R1
Equivalent reactance of transformer referred to secondary is
X o2 = X 2 + X1' = X 2 + K 2 X1
Equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary is

Z o2 = R 2o2 + X o2
2

The Fig. 4.23 shows the resistance and reactance of the

primary referred to the secondary.
K=N2/N1

R2 R'1 = K 2 R1 X2 X'1 = K 2 X1

N1 N2

Fig. 4.23

3.11 EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

Efficiency of a transformer:
Due to the losses in a tansformer, the output power of a
transformer is less than the input power supplied.

156
 ∴ Power output = Power input – Total losses
∴ Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output + Pi + Pcu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the
power output to power input. So for a transformer the efficiency
can be expressed as,
Power output
η=
Power input
Power output
η=
Power output + Pi + Pcu
Now Power output = V2 I2 cos φ
Where cos φ = Load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I2 and with
terminal voltage V2.
Pcu = Copper losses on full load = I 22 R 2e

V2 I 2 cos φ2
∴ η=
V2 I 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 22 R 2e
But V2I2 = VA rating of a transformer

η=
( VA rating ) × cos φ
∴
( VA rating ) × cos φ + Pi + I 22 R 2e

∴η =
( VA rating ) × cos φ × 100
( VA rating ) × cos φ + Pi + I 22 R 2e
Condition for maximum efficiency:
When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and
frequency then efficiency varies with the load. As load increases,
the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a
maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency
starts decreasing. The graph of efficiency against load current I2 is
shown in the Fig. 4.24.
The efficiency is a function of load current I2 assuming cos
φ2 constant. 157
 Transformers 3.42
dx
For maximum efficiency =0
dI 2

dx d  V2 I 2 cos φ2 
=  2 =0
dI 2 dI 2  V2 I 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 2 R 2 

(V I
2 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 22 R 2 ) dId ( V I
2 2 cos φ2 )
2
d
− V2 I 2 cos φ2
dI 2
(
V2 I 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 22 R 2 = 0 )

(V I
2 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 22 R 2 ) ( V cos φ )
2 2

− ( V2 I 2 cos φ2 ) ( V cos φ + 2I R ) = 0
2 2
2
2 2

V2 I 2 cos φ2 + Pi + I 22 R 2 − V2 I 2 cos φ2 − 2I 22 R 2 = 0

Pi = I 22 R 2 = 0

Pi = I 22 R 2  Copper losses = Iron losses

For ηmax, I 22 R 2 = Pi so I2 = I2m

Pi
I 22 R 2 = Pi  I 2m =
R2
Pi % η
KVA at ηmax = KVA rating ηmax
Pcu ( Full load )

I2
0 I2m

Fig. 4.24
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum
value is denoted as I2m and maximum efficiency is denoted as ηmax
158
 3.12 PROBLEMS

Problem 3.11:
A 250 KVA single phase transformer has iron loss of 1.8
kW. The full load copper loss is 2000 Watts. Calculate
i) Efficiency at full laod, 0.8 lagging p.f.
ii) KVA supplied at maximum efficiency
iii) Maximum efficiency at 0.8 lagging p.f.
Solution:
Given,
Pi = 1800 W, Pcu(FL) = 2000 W

( VA rating ) cos φ
i) %η = × 100
( VA rating ) cos φ + Pi + Pcu ( FL )
250 × 103 × 0.8
= × 100 = 98.135%
250 × 10 3 × 0.8 + 1800 + 2000

Pi
ii) KVA at ηmax = KVA rating ×
Pcu ( FL )

1800
= 250 = 237.17 kVA.
2000
kVA at ηmax cos φ
iii) ηmax = (Pcu = Pi at ηmax)
kVA at ηmax cos φ + Pi + Pi
237.17 × 10 3 × 0.8
= = 98.13%.
237.17 × 10 3 × 0.8 + 1800 + 1800

159
 Transformers 3.44

3.13 AUTO TRANSFORMER

In a two winding transformer, the two windings are

electrically isolated and the e.m.f gets induced in the secondary
due to induction. In practice it is possible to use only one winding
for the transformer so that part of this winding is common to the
primary and secondary. Such a special type of transformer having
only one winding such that part of the winding is common to the
primary and secondary is called auto transformer. The two windings
are electrically connected and it works on the principle of
conduction as well as induction. The power transfer in two winding
transformer is fully inductively while in auto transformer the power
is transferred from primary to secondary by both inductively as
well as conductively.

3.13.1 Construction

In an auto transformer only one winding is wound on a

laminated magnetic core while in 2 winding transformer two
windings are wound. The single winding of auto transformer is
used as primary and secondary. The part of the winding is common
to both primary and secondary. The voltage can be stepped down
or stepped up using an auto transformer. So they are classified as
step up and step down auto transformers.
The Fig. 4.26 (a) shows the conventional two winding
transformer.

160
 The Fig. 4.26 show the step down and step up auto trans-
formers respectively.

A
Core P1
P1 S1

C
V1 N1 Primary S1
Secon-
N2 V2 dary Load

P2 S2 P2 S2
B

(a) Two Winding transformer (b) Step down auto transformer

In step down auto transformer shown in the Fig. 4.26(b).
A
S1
Secondary

P1 C N2 V2 Load

V1 Primary N1

P2 S2
B

(c) Step up auto transformer

Fig. 4.26
The entire winding acts as a primary while the part of the
winding is used common to both primary and secondary.
Thus AB forms the primary having N1 turns while BC forms
the secondary with N2 turns. As N2 < N1, the output voltage
V2 < V1, and it acts as a step down auto transformer. In step up
auto transformer as shown in the Fig. 4.26 (c), the entire winding
acts as secondary while the part of the winding is used common to
both primary and secondary. Thus AB forms the secondary having
N2 turns while BC forms the primary with N1 turns. As N2 > N1,
the output voltage V2 > V1 and it acts as a step up auto tranformers.

161
 Transformers 3.46

The current distribution in the step down and step up auto

transformer is shown in the Fig. 4.27.
I1 A A I2

I1 I2
C I2 I1 C
V1 Load

I2 – I1 Load V1 I1 – I2
I2 I1 I2
B B

(a) Step down auto transformer (b) Step up autotransformer

Fig. 4.27 Current distribution in auto transformer
Theory:
The power input to an auto transformer gets transferred to
the secondary by two ways.
1) By electromagnetic induction i.e., inductively
2) By conduction i.e., directly.
Consider a loaded auto transformer as shown in the Fig. 4.28.
I1 A

I1

C I2
V1

I2 – I1
Load V2

Fig. 4.28
The current drawn from the supply is I1 while the input
voltage is V1.

162
 Input power = V1 I1.
While the load current is I2 and load voltage is V2.
Output power = V2 I2.
BC portion of the winding has N2 turns and acts as secondary.
The current induced in this secondary due to transformer action is
I2 – I1 while secondary induced voltage is V2.
Pt = Power transformed inductively due to transformer
action. = (I2 – I1) V2 = V2 I2 – V2 I1

V2 I1
Transformation ratio of auto transformer is K = =
V1 I 2

I1
Pt = KV1 − KV1I1 = V1I1 − KV1I1
K
= (1 – K) V1 I1 = (1 – K) input power.
The remaining power which is K × input power gets
transferred directly i.e., conductively.
Pc = Power conducted = K × input power
Pt = (1 – K) input power

3.13.2 Copper saving in autotransformer

For any winding, the cross-section of winding is proportional

to the current I. And the total length of the winding is proportional
to the number of turns N. Hence weight of copper is proportional
to the product of N and I.
Weight of copper ∝ N I
Consider a two winding transformer and step down auto
transformer as shown in the Fig. 4.29.

163
 Transformers 3.48

I1 A AB = N1
BC = N2
I1 I2
I1 AC = N1 – N2

C I2
Supply
Supply N1 N2 Load
I2 – I1
Load

(a) Two winding transformer (b) Step down autotransformer

Fig. 4.29
Let WTW = Total weight of copper in two winding transformer
WAT = Weight of copper in auto transformer.
In two winding transformer,
Weight of copper of primary ∝ N 1 I1
Weight of copper of Secondary ∝ N2 I2
WTW ∝ (N1 I1 + N2 I2)
In stepdown auto transformer
Weight of copper of section AC ∝ (N1 – N2) I1
Weight of copper of section BC ∝ N2 (I2 – I1)
WAT ∝ (N1 – N2) I1 + N2 (I2 – I1)
Taking ratio of two weights
WTW N1I1 + N 2 I 2
=
WAT ( N1 − N 2 ) I1 + N 2 ( I 2 − I1 )
N1I1 + N 2 I 2
=
N1I1 − N 2 I1 + N 2 I 2 − N 2 I1
N1I1 + N 2 I 2
=
N1I1 + N 2 I 2 − 2N 2 I1
N 2 I1
But K = =
N1 I 2

164
 WTW N1I1 + K N1 ( I1 /K )
=
WAT I 
N1I1 + K N1  1  − 2 ( K N1 ) I1
K
2N1I1 1
= =
2N1I1 − 2KN1I1 1 − K
WAT = WTW (1 –K)
Saving of copper = WTW – WAT = WTW – (1 –K) WTW
= K WTW
This saving in copper is K times the total weight of copper
in two winding transformer.
For step up auto transformer,

Saving of copper = 1 WTW

K

3.13.3 Advantages and Applications

The various advantages of an auto transformer are

1) Copper required is less.
2) The efficiency is higher compared to two winding
transformer.
3) The size and cost is less compared to two winding
transformer.
4) The copper losses i.e., I2R are less.
5) VA rating is more compared to two winding transformer.
6) A smooth and continuous voltage variation is possible.
The various applications of an auto transformer are
1) Auto transformer is used as a starter to safely start the
machines like induction motors, synchronous motors etc.,

165
 Transformers 3.50

2) It is used as a booster to compensate for a voltage drop in a

distribution cable.
3) It is used as a furnace transformer to supply power to the
furnaces at the required supply voltage.
4) It is used for inter connecting the systems which are operating
at same voltage level.
5) It is used in various control systems as well as appliances.
6) It is used as variac to vary the voltage to the load.

3.14 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

The generation of an electric power is usually three phase

and at higher voltages. Similarly transmission of an electrical power
is also at very high voltages. To step up the generated voltages for
transmission purposes it is necessary to have three phase
transformers. At the time of distribution it is necessary to reduce
the voltage level for which step down transformers are essential.
If the primary windings of three single phase transformers
are connected to each other and secondary windings are connected
to each other in a fixed configuration, then the transformers can be
used on three phase supply. The primary and secondary windings
of a transformer can be connected in different ways such as in star
or in delta. The most useful connections are
1) Star – Star ( – ) connection
2) Delta – Delta (Δ – Δ) connection
3) Star – Delta ( – Δ) connection
4) Delta – Star (D – ) connection
1. Star – Star Connections:
In this type of connection, both the primary and secondary
windings are connected in star as shown in the Fig. 4.30.

166
 This particular connection proves to be economical for small
1
high voltage transformers as phase voltage is times that of
3
line voltage, the number of turns per phase and the quantity of
insulation required is minimum. The ratio of line voltages on the
primary and secondary sides is the same as the transformation ratio
of each transformer. There is a phase shift of 30° between the phase
voltages and line voltages on both primary and secondary side.
The line voltages on both sides and the primary voltages are in
phase with each other.
IR Ir
R r

VL
Vph = Vph
3
Iy
N n

VL VL

IY Ib
Y y
VL VL VL VL
IB
B b

Primary side Secondary side

Fig. 4.30 Star-star connection

The voltages on primary and secondary sides can be

represented on a phase diagram as shown in the Fig. 4.30.
VB Vb

VR Vr

VY Vy

Fig. 4.31

167
 Transformers 3.52

The main difficulty with this type of connection is that it

can work satisfactorily if the load is balanced. But the neutral point
shifts which makes phase voltages unequal if load is unbalanced.
If VL1 is the line voltage on the primary side the phase voltage
on primary side is given as
VL1
Vph1 =
3
If K is turns ratio or transformation ratio then phase voltage
on secondary side is given as,

K VL1
Secondary phase voltage, Vph 2 = K Vph1 =
3
The line voltage VL2 on secondary side is given as
V 
VL2 = 3 Vph 2 = 3 K  L1  = K VL1
 3
The line voltage on secondary side is K times line voltage
on primary side.
Advantages:
1. This connection is economical for small high voltage
purposes.
2. There is no phase shift between the primary and secondary
voltages.
3. As neutral is available, it is suitable for three phase, four
wire system.
Disadvantages:
1. If the load on the secondary side is unbalanced then the
shifting of neutral point is possible.
2. Delta – Delta Connection:
In this type of connection both the three phase primary
and secondary windings are connected in delta as shown in the
Fig. 4.32.

168
 IR Ir
R r

VRY Vry
VBR Vbr

IY Iy
Y y
VYB IB Ib Vyb
B b
(a) Primary side (b) Secondary side
Fig. 4.32 Delta-Delta Connection
The voltages on primary and secondary sides can be
represented on a phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 4.33.
VYB Vyb

VBR VRY Vbr Vry

Fig. 4.33
The another way of representing this type of connection is
shown in Fig. 4.34.
R r

Y y

B b

Fig. 4.34

169
 Transformers 3.54

This connection is economical for large low voltage

transformers as it increases number of turns per phase.
Let VL1 and VL2 be line voltages on primary and secondary
sides.
Vph1 and Vph2 be phase voltages on primary and secondary
sides.
K is transformation ratio.
For delta connection VL1 = Vph1
Vph 2
= K  Vph 2 = K Vph1
Vph1
As secondary is connected in delta,
VL2 = Vph2 = K VL1
Advantages:
1. The Three phase voltages remain constant even if the load
is unbalanced.
2. Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line
1
voltage. But phase current is times the line current.
3
Hence cross section of windings is very less. This makes
the connection economical for low voltage transformers.
3. If there is bank of single phase transformers connected in
delta-delta and if one of the transformers is disabled then
the supply can be continued with two transformers with
reduced efficiency.
Disadvantages:
1. Due to absence of neutral point it is not suitable for three
phase four wire system.
3. Star – Delta Connection:
In this type of connection, the primary is connected in star
fashion while the secondary is connected in delta fashion as shown
in the Fig. 4.35.

170
 IR Ir
R r

VRN

VRY Vry

VBR Vbr

IY Iy
Y y
VYB Vyb
IB Ib
B b
Primary side Secondary side
Fig. 4.35 Star-Delta connection
The voltage on primary and secondary sides can be
represented on the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 4.36.
VBR VRY B
30°
VRN

VYB 30°
R Y

Fig. 4.36
This connection can be represented in another way as shown
in the Fig. 4.36.
R r

Y y

B b

Fig. 4.37

171
 Transformers 3.56

This connection is commonly employed at the substation

end of the transmission line to step down the voltage. The neutral
available on the primary side is grounded. There is a phase
difference of 30° between primary and secondary line voltages.
Let VL1 and VL2 be line voltages on primary and secondary
sides.
Vph1 and Vph2 be phase voltages on primary and secondary
sides.
K is transformation ratio.
VL1
Vph1 =
3
Vph 2 K VL1
= K  Vph 2 = K Vph1 =
Vph1 3
Since secondary is connected in delta
Vph2 = VL2
K VL1  K 
VL2 = =  VL1
3  3
Advantages:
1. This connection is economical for large high voltage step
down power transformers.
2. Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactorily.
Disadvantages:
1. In this type of connection, the secondary voltages is not in
phase with the primary. Hence it is not possible to operate this
connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer.
4. Delta–Star Connection:
In this connection, the primary is connected in delta fashion
and secondary is connected in star as shown in the Fig. 4.38.

172
 IR Ir
R r

Vrn

VRY n Vry

VBR Vbr

IY Iy
Y y
VYB Vyb
IB Ib
B b
Primary side Secondary side
Fig. 4.38
The voltage on primary and secondary sides can be
represented on the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 4.39.
VBR VRY
B

VRN

30° VYB
R Y
Fig. 4.39
The another way of representing the connection is shown
in the Fig. 4.39.
R r

Y y

B b

Fig. 4.40

173
 Transformers 3.58

The main use of this connection is to step up the voltage at

the beginning of transmission system. There is a phase shift of 30 °
between primary line voltage and secondary line voltage.
Let VL1 and V L2 be the line voltages on primary and
secondary sides.
Vph1 and Vph2 be the phase voltages on primary and
secondary sides.
K be the transformation ratio.
As primary is delta connected
VL1 = Vph1
Vph 2
K=  Vph 2 = K Vph1
Vph1
As secondary is connected in star
VL2 = 3 Vph 2

= ( )
3 K Vph1

VL2 = ( 3 K VL1)
Advantages:
1. Due to delta connection on primary side, cross section of
winding is less.
2. Large unbalanced loads can be handled without any
difficulty.
3. On secondary side, neutral is available due to which it can
be used for 3 phase, 4 wire supply system.
Disdavantages:
1. Due to phase shift between primary and secondary voltages,
it is not possible to operate this connection in parallel with
star-star or delta-delta connected transformer.

174
3.14.1 Voltages & Current Relationships for different
connectings

In the three phase transformers, the phase voltage ratio is

same as the turns ratio. But due to different types of connections,
the ratio of line voltages is different. The relationship between
voltages and currents for various types of connections is given in
the table 4.1.
Table 3.1
Primary Side Secondary Side
Types of
Connection Line Phase Phase Line Phase Phase
Voltage Voltage Current Voltage Voltage Current
VL K VL IL
Star – Star VL IL K VL
3 3 K
IL IL
Delta – Delta VL VL K VL K VL
3 3K
VL K VL K VL IL
Star – Delta VL IL
3 3 3 K
IL IL
Delta – Star VL VL 3 K VL K VL
3 3K

175
 Transformers 3.60

3.15 SPECIFICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

Electrical Specifications:
1. kVA rating
Kilo Volt Amperes of transformer. This indicates the size
of transformer.
kVA = Number of Phases × Phase Voltage × Phase Current ×
0.001
Ex. 3 × 250 × 133 × 0.001 = 99.75 = 100 kVA
2. Phase: 3 for three phase, 1 for single phase
3. Voltage Class: (Line to Line Voltage)
This indicates the voltage level of transformer.
Ex: 11/0.433 kV
Where
11 kV is primary voltage to which supply is connected.
0.433 kV is secondary voltage to which loads are connected.
4. Frequency: This indicates the supply frequency.
Ex: 50 Hz (c/s)
Mechanical Specifications:
Connection: This indicates the interconnection of the winding.
Ex: Dy or Yy or Dd
Thermal Specification:
Temperature:
This gives the maximum operating temperature of the
transformer.

176
3.61 Basic Electrical Engineering

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the principle of working of a single phase

transformer.
2. Explain the construction of a single phase transformer.
3. Discuss the differences between core type and shell type
transformers.
4. Derive the emf equation of a transformer.
5. Define transformation ratio of a transformer.
6. Draw a no load phasor diagram of a transformer and explain.
7. Explain the two components of a no load input current of a
transformer.
8. Draw the phasor diagram of transformer on load for resistive
inductive and capacitive loads.
9. Explain losses occur in a transformer.
10. Define efficiency of a transformer and write its equation.
11. Classify transformers based on power, rating, construction
and applications.
12. Derive the condition for maximum efficiency.
13. Explain construction and working of autotransformer.
14. List the applications of autotransformer.
15. What are the merits, demerits and applications of star-delta
three phase connection of transformers.
16. State merits, demerits and applications of delta-star three
phase connection of transformers.
17. State the voltage and current relationships for various
connections of three phase transformers.

177
 Transformers 3.62

18. Mention the applications of 3-phase transformers.

19. What is delta-delta connection of three phase transformers.
Draw the circuit diagram.
20. What is star-star connection of three phase transformers.
Draw the circuit diagram.
21. List the important specifications of a transformer.
22. What is the purpose of sc test on a transformer

23. Classify transformers based on construction

24. Explain the construction and working of an auto-transformer

178
bbb
 LECTURE NOTES ON

INDUCTION MACHINE
UNIT-III&IV

179
 Topics

UNIT-III, Module-II
Three Phase Induction Motors: Generation of rotating
Magnetic field, Types, Construction and principle of
operation, 3 phase Induction Motor, Squirrel cage,
Slip ring Induction motors,Applications.

UNIT-IV, Module-I
Single Phase Induction Motors: Construction and
principle of operation, Capacitor start & capacitor
run motor, applications

EE DEPT. MJCET

180
 SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Three Phase Induction Motors: Types,

Construction and principle of operation, 3 phase
Induction Motor,

UNIT-III
THREE PHASE INDCTION MOTOR

[Topics are arranged as per above sequence]

181
 UNIT-III

3.1 Three Phase Induction Motor

The most common type of AC motor being used throughout the work today is the "Induction
Motor". Applications of three-phase induction motors of size varying from half a kilowatt to
thousands of kilowatts are numerous. They are found everywhere from a small workshop to a large
manufacturing industry.

The advantages of three-phase AC induction motor are listed below:

• Simple design

• Rugged construction

• Reliable operation

• Low initial cost

• Easy operation and simple maintenance

• Simple control gear for starting and speed control

• High efficiency.

Induction motor is originated in the year 1891 with crude construction (The induction machine
principle was invented by NIKOLA TESLA in 1888.). Then an improved construction with
distributed stator windings and a cage rotor was built.

The slip ring rotor was developed after a decade or so. Since then a lot of improvement has taken
place on the design of these two types of induction motors. Lot of research work has been carried
out to improve its power factor and to achieve suitable methods of speed control.

3.2 Types and Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

Three phase induction motors are constructed into two major types:

1. Squirrel cage Induction Motors

2. Slip ring Induction Motors

3.2.1 Squirrel cage Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The induction motor stator resembles the stator of a revolving field, three phase alternator. The
stator or the stationary part consists of three phase winding held in place in the slots of a laminated
steel core which is enclosed and supported by a cast iron or a steel frame as shown in Fig: 3.1(a).

EE DEPT.

182
 The phase windings are placed 120 electrical degrees apart and may be connected in either star or
delta externally, for which six leads are brought out to a terminal box mounted on the frame of the
motor. When the stator is energized from a three phase voltage it will produce a rotating magnetic
field in the stator core.

Fig: 3.1

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the squirrel cage motor shown in Fig: 3.1(b) contains no windings. Instead it is a
cylindrical core constructed of steel laminations with conductor bars mounted parallel to the shaft
and embedded near the surface of the rotor core.

These conductor bars are short circuited by an end rings at both end of the rotor core. In large
machines, these conductor bars and the end rings are made up of copper with the bars brazed or
welded to the end rings shown in Fig: 3.1(b).In small machines the conductor bars and end rings
are sometimes made of aluminium with the bars and rings cast in as part of the rotor core. Actually
the entire construction (bars and end-rings) resembles a squirrel cage, from which the name is
derived.

The rotor or rotating part is not connected electrically to the power supply but has voltage induced
in it by transformer action from the stator. For this reason, the stator is sometimes called the
primary and the rotor is referred to as the secondary of the motor since the motor operates on the
principle of induction and as the construction of the rotor with the bars and end rings resembles a
squirrel cage, the squirrel cage induction motor is used.

The rotor bars are not insulated from the rotor core because they are made of metals having less
resistance than the core. The induced current will flow mainly in them. Also the rotor bars are
usually not quite parallel to the rotor shaft but are mounted in a slightly skewed position. This
feature tends to produce a more uniform rotor field and torque. Also it helps to reduce some of the
internal magnetic noise when the motor is running.

EE DEPT.

183
 (c) End Shields

The function of the two end shields is to support the rotor shaft. They are fitted with bearings and
attached to the stator frame with the help of studs or bolts attention.

3.2.2 Slip ring Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The construction of the slip ring induction motor is exactly similar to the construction of squirrel
cage induction motor. There is no difference between squirrel cage and slip ring motors.

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the slip ring induction motor is also cylindrical or constructed of lamination.

Squirrel cage motors have a rotor with short circuited bars whereas slip ring motors have wound
rotors having "three windings" each connected in star.

The winding is made of copper wire. The terminals of the rotor windings of the slip ring motors
are brought out through slip rings which are in contact with stationary brushes as shown in Fig:
3.2.

Fig: 3.2

THE ADVANTAGES OF THE SLIPRING MOTOR ARE

• It has susceptibility to speed control by regulating rotor resistance.

• High starting torque of 200 to 250% of full load value.

• Low starting current of the order of 250 to 350% of the full load current.

Hence slip ring motors are used where one or more of the above requirements are to be met.

EE DEPT.

184
 3.2.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Motor

Sl.No. Property Squirrel cage motor Slip ring motor

1. Rotor Bars are used in rotor. Winding wire is to be

Construction Squirrel cage motor is used.
very simple, rugged and
long lasting. No slip Wound rotor required
rings and brushes attention.
Slip ring and brushes
are needed also need
frequent maintenance.

2. Starting Can be started by Rotor resistance starter

D.O.L., star-delta, auto is required.
transformer starters

3. Starting Low Very high

torque

4. Starting High Low

Current

5. Speed variation Not easy, but could be Easy to vary speed.

varied in large steps by
pole changing or Speed change is possible
through smaller by inserting rotor
incremental steps resistance using
through thyristors or by thyristors or by using
frequency variation. frequency variation
injecting emf in the rotor
circuit cascading.

6. Maintenance Almost ZERO Requires frequent

maintenance maintenance

7. Cost Low High

3.3 Principle of Operation

The operation of a 3-phase induction motor is based upon the application of Faraday Law and the
Lorentz force on a conductor. The behaviour can readily be understood by means of the following
example.

Consider a series of conductors of length l, whose extremities are short-circuited by two bars A
and B (Fig.3.3 a). A permanent magnet placed above this conducting ladder, moves rapidly to the
right at a speed v, so that its magnetic field B sweeps across the conductors. The following
sequence of events then takes place:
EE DEPT.

185
 1. A voltage E = Blv is induced in each conductor while it is being cut by the flux (Faraday
law).
2. The induced voltage immediately produces a current I, which flows down the conductor
underneath the pole face, through the end-bars, and back through the other conductors.
3. Because the current carrying conductor lies in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet,
it experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).
4. The force always acts in a direction to drag the conductor along with the magnetic field. If
the conducting ladder is free to move, it will accelerate toward the right. However, as it
picks up speed, the conductors will be cut less rapidly by the moving magnet, with the
result that the induced voltage E and the current I will diminish. Consequently, the force
acting on the conductors wilt also decreases. If the ladder were to move at the same speed
as the magnetic field, the induced voltage E, the current I, and the force dragging the ladder
along would all become zero.

Fig: 3.3

In an induction motor the ladder is closed upon itself to form a squirrel-cage (Fig.3.3b) and the
moving magnet is replaced by a rotating field. The field is produced by the 3-phase currents that
flow in the stator windings.

3.4 Rotating Magnetic Field and Induced Voltages

Consider a simple stator having 6 salient poles, each of which carries a coil having 5 turns
(Fig.3.4). Coils that are diametrically opposite are connected in series by means of three jumpers
EE DEPT.

186
that respectively connect terminals a-a, b-b, and c-c. This creates three identical sets of windings
AN, BN, CN, which are mechanically spaced at 120 degrees to each other. The two coils in each
winding produce magneto motive forces that act in the same direction.

The three sets of windings are connected in wye, thus forming a common neutral N. Owing to the
perfectly symmetrical arrangement, the line to neutral impedances are identical. In other words, as
regards terminals A, B, C, the windings constitute a balanced 3-phase system.

For a two-pole machine, rotating in the air gap, the magnetic field (i.e., flux density) being
sinusoidally distributed with the peak along the centre of the magnetic poles. The result is
illustrated in Fig.3.5. The rotating field will induce voltages in the phase coils aa', bb', and cc'.
Expressions for the induced voltages can be obtained by using Faraday laws of induction.

Fig: 3.4 Elementary stator having terminals A, B, C connected to a 3-phase source (not shown).
Currents flowing from line to neutral are considered to be positive.

Fig: 3.5 Air gap flux density distribution.

187
3.5 Alternate Analysis for Rotating Magnetic Field

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced.

This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go on shifting
their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating Held. It can be shown that
magnitude of this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 m where m is the maximum flux due
to any phase.
To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3-phase winding as shown in Fig. 3.6 (i).
The three phases X, Y and Z are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are
indicated as Ix, Iy and Iz [See Fig. 3.6 (ii)]. Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the fluxes produced by these
currents are given by:

Here φm is the maximum flux due to any phase. Above figure shows the phasor diagram of the
three fluxes. We shall now prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant
magnitude equal to 1.5 φm.

At instant 1 [See Fig. 3.6 (ii) and Fig. 3.6 (iii)], the current in phase X is zero and currents in phases
Y and Z are equal and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top conductors and inward

EE DEPT.

188
 in the bottom conductors. This establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of the
resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 φm as proved under:

So,

At instant 2 [Fig: 3.7 (ii)], the current is maximum (negative) in φy phase Y and 0.5 maximum
(positive) in phases X and Y. The magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 φm as proved under:

At instant 2, ωt = 30°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

EE DEPT. Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla

189
 Fig: 3.6

At instant 3[Fig: 3.7 (iii)], current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal
and opposite (currents in phases X and Y arc 0.866 × max. value). The magnitude of resultant flux
is 1.5 φm as proved under:

190
 Fig: 3.7

At instant 4 [Fig: 3.7 (iv)], the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases
V and Z are equal and negative (currents in phases V and Z are 0.5 × max. value). This establishes
a resultant flux downward as shown under:

EE DEPT.

191
 It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant
value (= 1.5 φm, where φm is the maximum flux due to any phase).

3.5.1 Speed of rotating magnetic field

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed (Ns).
Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the time instant 4 represents the completion of one-quarter cycle of
alternating current Ix from the time instant 1. During this one quarter cycle, the field has rotated
through 90°. At a time instant represented by 13 [Fig. 3.6 (ii)] or one complete cycle of current Ix
from the origin, the field has completed one revolution. Therefore, for a 2-pole stator winding, the
field makes one revolution in one cycle of current. In a 4-pole stator winding, it can be shown that
the rotating field makes one revolution in two cycles of current. In general, fur P poles, the rotating
field makes one revolution in P/2 cycles of current.

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the same as the speed of the alternator that is supplying
power to the motor if the two have the same number of poles. Hence the magnetic flux is said to
rotate at synchronous speed.

EE DEPT.

192
 3.5.2 Direction of rotating magnetic field

The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding in Fig. 3.6 (ii) is X-
Y-Z. If this sequence is changed to X-Z-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is
reversed i.e., the field rotates counter clockwise rather than clockwise. However, the number of
poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain unchanged. Thus it is necessary
only to change the phase sequence in order to change the direction of rotation of
the magnetic field. For a three-phase supply, this can be done by interchanging any two of the
three lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-phase induction motor runs in the same direction as
the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can
be reversed by interchanging any two of the three motor supply lines.

3.5.3 Slip

We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of rotating field. In practice, the
rotor can never reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative speed between
the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque to drive
the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the
rotor speed (N) is always less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends
upon load on the motor. The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator
field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of
synchronous speed i.e.

3.5.4 Rotor Current Frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative speed between a vending and a
magnetic field is given by the general formula;

EE DEPT. a

193
(ii) As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the rotor
decreases. Consequently, the slip s and hence rotor current frequency decreases.

194
 SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Single phase induction motor, theory of

operation (Double revolving field theory,
Methods of starting, split phase starting,
Capacitor start & capacitor run motor,
applications

CHAPTER-IV
SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
[Topics are arranged as per above sequence]

195
Module -I

4. Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase Induction motors perform a great variety of useful services at home, office, farm,
factory and in business establishments. Single phase motors are generally manufactured in
fractional HP ratings below 1 HP for economic reasons. Hence, those motors are generally
referred to as fractional horsepower motors with a rating of less than 1 HP. Most single phase
motors fall into this category. Single phase Induction motors are also manufactured in the range
of 1.5, 2, 3 and up to 10 HP as a special requirement.

Fig: 4.1(a) Stator Fig: 4.1(b) Squirrel cage rotor

4.1 Theory of Operation

A single phase induction motor is similar in construction to that of a polyphase induction motor
with difference that its stator has only one winding. If such a stator is supplied with single
phase alternating current, the field produced by it changes in magnitude and direction
sinusoidally. Thus the magnetic field produced in the air gap is alternating one but not rotating
as a result these kind of motors are NOT SELF STARTING. Fig: 4.2 (a) shows the torque-speed
characteristic of single phase induction motor.

Fig: 4.2 (a)

196
 Such an alternating filed is equivalent to two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite
directions at equal speed as explained below:

4.1.1 Double Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motor

Consider two magnetic fields represented by quantities OA and OB of equal magnitude

revolving in opposite directions as shown in fig: 4.1.

Fig: 4.2 (b)

The resultant of the two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite directions is alternating.
Therefore an alternating current can be considered as having two components which are of
equal in magnitude and rotating in opposite directions.

From the above, it is clear that when a single phase alternating current is supplied to the stator
of a single phase motor, the field produced will be of alternating in nature which can be divided
into two components of equal magnitude one revolving in clockwise and other in counter
clockwise direction.

If a stationary squirrel cage rotor is kept in such a field equal forces in opposite direction will
act and the rotor will simply vibrate and there will be no rotation.

But if the rotor is given a small jerk in any direction in this condition, it will go on revolving
and will develop torque in that particular direction. It is clear from the above that a single phase
induction motor when having only one winding is not a self-starting. To make it a self-starting
anyone of the following can be adopted.

(i) Split phase starting.

(ii) Repulsion starting. (NOT IN SYLLABUS)
(iii) Shaded pole starting.( NOT IN SYLLABUS)

EE DEPT. MJCET

197
4.3.2 TYPES OF SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

1. Resistance-start, induction-run motors

2. Capacitor-start, induction-run motors

3. Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors

4. Shaded pole motors. (NOT IN SYLLABUS)

1. RESISTANCE-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTORS

As the starting torque of this type of motor is relatively small and its starting current is high,
these motors are most commonly used for rating up to 0.5 HP where the load could be started
easily. The essential parts are shown in Fig: 4.7.

• Main winding or running winding.

• Auxiliary winding or starting winding

• Squirrel cage type rotor.

• Centrifugal switch.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The starting winding is designed to have a higher resistance and lower reactance than the main
winding. This is achieved by using small conductors in the auxiliary winding than in the main
winding. The main winding will have higher inductance when surrounded by more iron, which
could be made possible by placing it deeper into the stator slots, it is obvious that the current
would split as shown in Fig: 4.7(b).

Fig: 4.7

198
The starting current "I" start will lag the main supply voltage "V" line by 15 degree and the
main winding current. "I" main lags the main voltage by about 80 degree. Therefore, these
currents will differ in time phase and their magnetic fields will combine to produce a rotating
magnetic field.

When the motor has come upto about 75 to 80% of synchronous speed, the starting winding is
opened by a centrifugal switch and the motor will continue to operate as a single phase motor.

CHARACTERISTICS

At the point where the starting winding is disconnected, the motor develops nearly as much
torque with the main winding alone as with both windings connected. This can be observed
from, the typical torque-speed characteristics of this motor, as shown in Fig: 4.8.

Fig: 4.8

The direction of rotating of a split-phase motor is determined by the way the main and auxiliary
windings are connected. Hence, either by changing the main winding terminals or by changing
the starting winding terminals, the reversal of direction of rotating could be obtained.

APPLICATIONS

These motors are used for driving fans, grinders, washing machines.

199
 2. CAPACITOR-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR

A drive which requires a large starting torque may be fitted with a capacitor-start, induction-
run motor as it has excellence starting torque as compared to the resistance-start, induction-run
motor.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Fig: 4.9(a) shows the schematic diagram of a capacitor-start, induction-run motor. As shown,
the main winding is directly connected across the main supply whereas the starting winding is
connected across the main supply through a capacitor and centrifugal switch.

Both these windings are placed in a stator slot at 90 degree electrical apart, and a squirrel cage
type rotor is used.

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), at the time of starting the current in the main winding lags the supply
voltages by 90 degrees, depending upon its inductance and resistance. On the other hand, the
current in the starting winding due to its capacitor will lead the applied voltage, by say 20
degrees.

Hence, the phase difference between the main and starting winding becomes near to 90 degrees.
This in turn makes the line current to be more or less in phase with its applied voltage, making
the power factor to be high, thereby creating an excellent starting torque.

However, after attaining 75% of the rated speed, the centrifugal switch operates opening the
starting winding and the motor then operates as an induction motor, with only the main winding
connected to the supply.

Fig: 4.9

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), the displacement of current in the main and starting winding is about
80/90 degrees, and the power factor angle between the applied voltage and line current is very
small. This results in producing a high power factor and an excellent starting torque, several
times higher than the normal running torque as shown in Fig: 4.10.

EE DEPT. MJCET

200
 CHARACTERISTICS

The torque-speed characteristics of this motor is shown in Fig: 4.10.

Fig: 4.10

In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the capacitor-start, induction-run motor, either
the starting or the main winding terminals should be changed.

This is due to the fact that the direction of rotation depends upon the instantaneous polarities
of the main field flux and the flux produced by the starting winding. Therefore, reversing the
polarity of one of the field will reverse the torque.

APPLICATIONS

Due to the excellent starting torque and easy direction-reversal characteristics,

• Used in belted fans,

• Used in blowers dryers,
• Used in washing machines,
• Used in pumps and compressors.

3. CAPACITOR-START, CAPACITOR-RUN MOTORS

As discussed earlier, one capacitor-start, induction-run motors have excellent starting torque,
say about 300% of the full load torque and their power factor during starting in high.

However, their running torque is not good, and their power factor, while running is low. They
also have lesser efficiency and cannot take overloads.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The aforementioned problems are eliminated by the use of a two valve capacitor motor in which
one large capacitor of electrolytic (short duty) type is used for starting whereas a smaller

EE DEPT. MJCET

201
 capacitor of oil filled (continuous duty) type is used for running, by connecting them with the
starting winding as shown in Fig:4.11. A general view of such a two valve capacitor motor is
shown in Fig: 4.11.

Fig: 4.11

This motor also works in the same way as a capacitor-start, induction-run motor, with
exception, that the capacitor C1 is always in the circuit, altering the running performance to a
great extent.

The starting capacitor which is of short duty rating will be disconnected from the starting
winding with the help of a centrifugal switch, when the starting speed attains about 75% of the
rated speed.

CHARACTERISTICS

The torque-speed characteristics of this motor is shown in Fig: 4.12.

Fig: 4.12

EE DEPT. MJCET

202
 This motor has the following advantages:

• The starting torque is 300% of the full load torque

• The starting current is low, say 2 to 3 times of the running current.

• Starting and running power factor are good.

• Highly efficient running.

• Extremely noiseless operation.

• Can be loaded upto 125% of the full load capacity.

APPLICATIONS

• Used for compressors, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

• Higher starting torque.

• High efficiency, higher power factor and overloading.

• Costlier than the capacitor-start — Induction run motors of the same capacity.

EE DEPT. MJCET

203
UNIT-IV D.C. MACHINES:
TOPICS COVERED:

DC Generators:
1. Dynamically induced emf,
2. Flemming’s Right hand and Left hand
rules,
3. Construction of DC generator,
4. Principle of operation of DC generator,
5. EMF equation,
6. Types of DC Generators,
7. OCC characteristics,
8. Applications

DC Motors:
1. Principle of operation of DC Motor,
2. Types of DC motors,
3. Applications.

204
 DC MACHINES

4
4.0 INTRODUCTION

The study of electrical energy basically involves the analysis

of the energy transfer from one form to another. An electrical
machine deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to
electrical form or vice-versa. This process is called
electromechanical energy conversion.
An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy
into an electrical energy is called an electric generator, while an
electrical machine which converts an electrical energy into
mechanical energy is called an electric motor. Such machines may
be of alternating type or direct type.
The dc machines are classified as dc generators and dc
motors. The construction of a dc machine basically remains the
same whether it is generator or motor. The construction, working
principle, types and application of dc generator and dc motor are
discussed in this chapter.

205
4.2 Basic Electrical Engineering

4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF INDUCED EMF

To produce an emf in a conductor, there must exist

1. A coil or conductor
2. A magnetic field (permanent magnet or electromagnet)
3. Relative motion between conductor and magnetic flux.
The emf exists as long as relative motion persists.
The magnetic flux linkage with the conductor can be
changed by different methods.
Depending on the nature of the methods, the induced emf is
classified as
a) Dynamically induced emf
b) Statically induced emf
a) Dynamically induced emf: The change in flux linkage can
be obtained by moving the coil relative to the magnetic field. This
is possible by moving coil with respect to stationary magnetic flux
or by moving flux with respect to conductor.
The e.m.f induced due to the physical movement of coil
conductor with respect to flux or movement of magnet with respect
to stationary coil conductor is called dynamically induced emf or
motional induced emf.
Consider a conductor of length ‘l’ metres moving in the air
gap between the poles of the magnet. Let the magnetic field
produced by the magnet be B Wb/m2 and ‘V’ be the velocity of
the conductor in m/sec. When the flux is parallel to the motion or
velocity of the conductors then there is no cutting of flux and
hence no induced emf. This is shown in the Fig. 4.1.

206
 DC Machines 4.3

Motion of
Conductor
Conductor

V
N S

Fig.4.1 No cutting of flux

When the velocity of the conductor is perpendicular to the

flux then the cutting of flux is maximum and hence there is
maximum induced e.m.f. This is shown in the Fig. 4.2.
Motion of
Conductor
V

N S

Conductor

Fig. 4.2 Maximum cutting of flux

Let the conductor is moved through a distance of dx in dt
seconds then the area covered by the conductor A = l dx m2
Flux cut by the conductor φ = BA
= B l dx Wb
According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the
conductor is given by
e = N dφ dt

dφ
= ( N = 1)
dt
dφ
=
dt

207
 4.4 Basic Electrical Engineering

d
= ( B ldx )
dt
dx
= Bl = BlV volts
dt
If the conductor makes a certain angle θ with respect to the
magnetic field, then the component of velocity perpendicular to
the flux is V sin θ , then the induced emf is
e = BlV sin θ volts
The direction of induced emf is decided by using Fleming’s
right hand rule and Lenz’s law.

4.2 FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE

Fleming’s right hand rule is used to find the direction of

induced emf when conductor is moving in a magnetic field.
Stretch out the three fingers of right hand namely the thumb,
fore finger and the middle finger, perpendicular to each other.
Arrange the right hand such that the fore finger is in the direction
of flux (N to S) and thumb in the direction of motion of conductor
with respect to flux then the middle finger indicates the direction
of induced emf (or current) as shown in the Fig. 4.3.

Force

Field flux

EMF

Fig. 4.3 Fleming’s right hand rule

Basic Electrical Engineering (BEE) Course Code: ES101EE

Common to all Branches of Engineering
First year I & II- Semester.
Prepared by K. Mahammad Rafi,208 Assistant Professor, EED, MJCET.
 D.C Machines 4.5

4.3 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

If a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field

produced by permanent magnets, then the fields due to the current-
carrying conductor and the permanent magnets interact and cause
a force to be exerted on the conductor. The force on the current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field depends upon:
a) The flux density of the fields, B tesla
b) The strength of the current, I amperes,
c) The length of the conductor perpendicular to the magnetic
field, L metres, and
d) The directions of the field and the current.
When the magnetic field, the current and the conductor are
mutually at right angles then:
Force F = BIL Newton
When the conductor and the field are at an angle θ to each
other then:
Force F = BIL sinθ Newton
The direction of the force exerted on a conductor can be
pre-determined by using Fleming’s left hand rule (often called
the motor rule) which states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand
be extended such that they are all at right angles to each other. If
the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the
second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb
will point in the direction of the motion of the conductor. as
shown in the Fig. 4.4.
Motion

Summarising :
Magnetic field First finger - Field
Second finger - Current
Current Thumb - Motion
Fig. 4.4 Fleming’s left hand rule
209
4.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC GENERATOR
The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only
when there exists a relative motion between a conductor and the
flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor
with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to a conductor.
So a voltage gets induced in a conductor as long as there exists a
relative motion between conductor and the flux.
All the generators work on a principle of dynamically
induced e.m.f. This principle is nothing but the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. It states that ‘whenever the number of
magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil
changes an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil’.
Such an induced e.m.f which is due to physical movement
of coil or conductor with respect to flux or movement of flux with
respect to coil or conductor is called dynamically induced e.m.f.
So the following components are required for generating
action :
1. The conductor or a coil
2. The flux
3. The relative motion between conductor and flux.
In a practical generator, the conductors are rotated to cut
the magnetic flux keeping flux stationary. To have a large voltage
as the output, the number of conductors is connected together in a
specific manner to form a winding called armature winding of a dc
machine. The part on which this winding is kept is called armature
of a dc machine. To have the rotation of the conductors, the
conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help of
some external device called prime mover. The commonly used
prime movers are diesel engines, steam engines, etc. The necessary
magnetic flux is produced by the current carrying winding called
field winding. The direction of induced e.m.f can be obtained by
using Fleming’s right hand rule.
Working : Consider a single turn rectangular coil rotating in the
uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig. 4.5. The two ends of the
coil are connected to the rings mounted on the shaft called slip
rings S1 and S2. Slip rings also rotate along with armature of a
210
 DC Machines 4.7

machine. The two brushes b1 and b2 are resting on the slip rings,
just making contact with the slip rings. The brushes are stationary.
Slip ring and brush assembly are required to collect the e.m.f
induced in the rotating coil and make it available to the stationary
external resistance.
B

C
A
N S
B1 D
M
Brush (b1)
S1
Slip rings
Load S2
R
resistance Brush (b2)

Fig. 4.5 Principle of operation of dc generator

In the Fig. 4.6 above a single loop of conductor of
rectangular shape is placed between two opposite poles of
magnet. Let the rectangular loop of conductor ABCD is rotated
about its own axis inside the magnetic field. When the loop
rotates in clockwise direction from its vertical position to
horizontal position, it cut the flux lines of the field. During this
movement the two sides AB andCD of the loop cut the flux lines
due to which an e.m.f is induced on both sides of the loop as
shown in the Fig. 4.7. A

C
B
N S
D

Fig. 4.6

211
4.8 Basic Electrical Engineering

As a loop is closed there will be a current circulating through

the loop. The direction of the current is determined by Fleming’s
right hand rule. This rule states ‘stretch thumb, index finger and
middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other then
thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, index
finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N-pole to
S-pole and the middle finger indicates the direction of flow of
current’. At this position, current will flow from A to B on one
side and on the other side current will flow from C to D.
If the loop is further rotated it will come again to its vertical
position i.e. upper side of the loop will be CD and the lower side
will be AB as shown in the Fig. 4.8. At this position the tangential
motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the
field. Hence no flux links with the conductor and consequently
there will be no current in the loop.
C A

N D B S

Fig.4.7
If the loop rotates further, it comes again to horizontal
position. But now, AB side of the loop comes under N-pole and
CD comes under S-pole as shown in the Fig. 4.9.
C

A
D
N S
B

Fig.4.8

212
 DC Machines 4.9

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is

perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux cutting is
maximum. By Fleming’s right hand rule, at this position current
flows from B to A and on the other side from C to D.
A C

N B S
D

Fig. 4.9
If the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time
the side AB comes under S-pole the current flows from A to B and
when it comes under N-pole, the current flows from B to A.
Similarly every time the side CD comes under S-pole the current
flows from C to D and when it comes under N-pole, the current
flows from D to C.
It is clear from the above discussion that the current through
the external load resistance ‘R’ reverses its direction every half
revolution. Such a current is called an alternating current. So the
induced e.m.f in the armature conductors is an alternating in nature
as shown in the Fig. 4.10.
C
Em

180° 270° 360°

0 θ
90°

− Em

Fig. 4.10

213
4.10 Basic Electrical Engineering

In dc generator, such alternating induced e.m.f is required

to be rectified to get unidirectional e.m.f. This is possible by
replacing slip rings with split rings or commutator.
The split rings are made of a conducting cylinder which is
cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a
thin sheet of mica or some other insulating material. The coil ends
are joined to these segments on which carbon or copper brushes
are rest as shown in the Fig. 4.11 and Fig. 4.12.

A
C

N B S
D
b1 +
–
SG1 b2
(Brush) b1

SG2
(Segment) SG1 (Brush) b2
(Segment) SG2
M L Mica

Fig. 4.11 Simple loop generator with split rings Fig. 4.12 Split ring

In the first half revolution, current flows along ABMLDC

is brush number 1 in contact with segment ‘a’. In the next half
revolution, the direction of the induced current in the coil is
reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments ‘a’
and ‘b’ are also reversed which results that no.1 comes in touch
with the segment. Hence the current in the load resistance again
flows from M to L. The wave form of the induced e.m.f or
current in the armature conductors of dc generator are shown
in the Fig. 4.15.

214
 DC Machines 4.11

C
C
A
A

D
B D
B
a b
1 2 b a
1 2
M L

Fig. 4.13 Fig. 4.14

Emf(V)

0 θ
90° 180° 270° 360°

Coil position in degrees

Fig. 4.15

4.5 CONSTRUCTION AND PARTS OF DC GENERATOR

A practical dc generator consists of the following essential

parts :
1. Yoke
2. Pole core and pole shoe
3. Field winding
4. Armature
5. Commutator
6. Brushes and brush holders
7. Bearings

215
4.12 Basic Electrical Engineering

1. Yoke :
i) It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the dc machine
so that the insulating materials get protected from harmful
atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various
gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
ii) It provides mechanical support to the poles.

f Yoke
f2 + 1
–
Inter polar axis

Flux produced
Field winding Pole shoe
Polar (or) field axis
Shaft Pole core
Armature winding
Commutator (copper)
Armature tooth
Armature core
Brush (carbon)
Armature slot

Feet

Base

Fig. 4.16 A cross section of typical dc machine

2. Poles : Each pole is divided into two parts namely (i) pole
core and (ii) pole shoe.
i) Functions of pole core and pole shoe :
a) Pole core basically carries a field winding which is
necessary to produce the flux.
b) It directs the flux produced through air gap armature core
to the next pole.
c) Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come
across the flux, which is necessary to produce larger
induced e.m.f. To achieve this, pole shoe has been given
a particular shape.

216
 DC Machines 4.13

ii) Choice of material : It is made of magnetic material like

cast iron or cast steel. As it requires a definite shape and size,
laminated construction is used. The laminations of required size
and shape are stamped together to get a pole which is then bolted
to the yoke.
Yoke

Pole core
Pole shoe

Fig. 4.17 Pole core & pole shoe

3. Field winding : The field winding is wound on the pole
core with a definite direction.
a) Functions : To carry current due to which pole core, on
which the field winding is placed, behaves as an electromagnet,
producing necessary flux.
It helps in producing the magnetic field i.e. exciting the pole
as an electromagnet it is called field winding or exciting winding.
b) Choice of material : It has to carry current hence obviously
made of some conducting material. So aluminium or copper is the
choice. But field coils are required to take any type of shape and
bend about pole core and copper has good pliability i.e. it can
bend easily. So copper is the proper choice.
4. Armature : It is further divided into two parts namely
armature core and armature winding.
i) Armature core : Armature core is cylindrical in shape
mounted on the shaft. It consists of slots on its periphery and the
air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which serves
cooling purpose.

217
4.14 Basic Electrical Engineering

a) Functions :
• Armature core provides house for armature winding
i.e. armature conductors
• To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding
b) Choice of material : As it has to provide low reluctance
path to the flux, it is made up of magnetic material like cast
iron or cast steel.

Tooth

Air duct
Slot
Shaft

Fig. 4.18 Armature

It is made up of laminated construction to keep eddy current
loss as low as possible. A single circular lamination used for
construction of armature core is shown in the Fig. 4.18.
ii) Armature winding : It is nothing but the interconnection
of conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature core
periphery. When the armature is rotated, in case of generator,
magnetic flux gets cut by armature conductors and e.m.f gets
induced in them.
a) Functions :
1. Generation of e.m.f takes place in the armature winding
in the case of generators.
2. To carry the current supplied in the case of dc motors
3. To do the useful work in the external circuit.

218
 DC Machines 4.15

b) Choice of material : As armature winding carries entire

current which depends on external load, it has to be made
up of conducting material, which is copper.
5. Commutator :
a) Functions :
1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature
conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f to
unidirectional (dc) e.m.f.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in the case of motors.
b) Choice of material : As it collects current from armature,
it is also made up of copper segments.
It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of wedge shaped
segments of hard drawn, high conductivity copper. These
segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
Each commutator segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of copper strip. This connection is
shown in the Fig. 4.19.

Insulated
commutator Armature
segment conductor

Shaft Armature

Connection between
conductor and commutator
Fig. 4.19 Commutator
6. Brush and Brush holder : Brushes are stationary and
resting on the surface of the commutator. Their main function is
to collect current from commutator and make it available to the
stationary external circuit.

219
4.16 Basic Electrical Engineering

Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.

Brushes are rectangular in shape. They are housed in brush holders,
which are usually of box type. The brushes are made to press on
the commutator surface by means of a spring whose tension can
be adjusted with the help of lever. A flexible copper conductor
called pig tail is used to connect the brush to the external circuit.
To avoid wear and tear of commutator, the brushes are made up of
soft material like carbon.
7. Bearings : Ball-bearings are usually used as they are more
reliable; for heavy duty machines, roller bearings are preferred.

220
 D. C Machines 4.17

4.6 EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR

Let P = Number of poles of a generator

φ = Flux produced by each pole in webers (Wb)
N = Speed of armature in r.p.m
Z = Total number of armature conductors
A = Number of parallel paths in which the ‘Z’
number of conductors are divided.
So A = P for lap type of winding
A = 2 for wave type of winding
Now e.m.f gets induced in the conductor according to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Hence average value
of e.m.f induced in each armature conductor is
dφ
e = Rate of cutting the flux =
dt
Now consider one revolution of conductor. In one revolution,
conductor will cut total flux produced by all the poles i.e. φxp while
60
time required to complete one revolution is seconds as speed
N
is N r.p.m
φP N
e= = φP
60 60
N
This is the e.m.f induced in one conductor. Now the
conductors in one parallel path are always in series. There are
Z
total Z conductors with A parallel paths, hence number of
A
conductors are always in series and e.m.f remains same across all
the parallel paths.

221
4.18 Basic Electrical Engineering

∴ Total e.m.f can be expressed as,

N Z
E = φP × volts
60 A
This is nothing but the e.m.f equation of a dc generator.
φ PNZ
E= e.m.f equation
60A
φ NZ
E= for lap type as A = P
60
φ PNZ
E= for wave type as A = 2
120
4.7 TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
4.7.1 Separately excited DC generator

f1 IL
+ A1 + +
DC supply G E Load Vt Terminal
V − A2 − − voltage
f2

Fig. 4.20 Separately excited DC generator

For armature side, we can see that it is supplying a load,
demanding a load current of IL at a voltage Vt which is called
terminal voltage.
Now Ia = IL
The internally induced e.m.f E is supplying the voltage of
the load hence terminal voltage Vt is a part of E. But V is not equal
to Vt while supplying a load. This is because when armature current
Ia flows through armature winding, due to armature winding
resistance Ra ohms, there is a voltage drop across armature winding

222
 DC Machines 4.19

equal to IaRa volts. The induced e.m.f has to supply this drop, along
with the terminal voltage Vt. To keep IaRa drop to minimum, the
resistance Ra is designed to be very very small. In addition to this
drop, there is some voltage drop at the contacts of the brush called
brush contact drop. But this drop is negligible and hence generally
neglected. So in all, induced e.m.f E has three components namely
i) Terminal voltage Vt
ii) Armature resistance drop IaRa
iii) Brush contact drop Vbrush
So voltage equation for separately excited generator can be
written as
E = Vt + IaRa + Vbrush
φPNZ
Where, E =
60A
4.7.2 DC shunt generator

IL
Ish
Ia
f1 IL
A1 +
G E Load Vt
A2 −
f2

Fig. 4.21 DC shunt generator

From the Figure 4.21, Ia = IL + Ish
Now voltage across load is VL which is same across field
winding as both are in parallel with each other.

VL
∴ Ish =
R sh

223
 4.20 Basic Electrical Engineering

While induced e.m.f E, still requires to supply voltage drop

IaRa and brush contact drop.
∴ E = Vl + Ia R a + Vbrush

φPNZ
Where, E =
60A
In practice, brush contact drop can be neglected.

4.7.3 DC series generator

Ia S1 S2
IL
A1 +
G E Load Vt
A2 −

Fig. 4.22 DC series generator

As all armature, field and load are in series they carry the
same current.
∴ Ia = Ise = IL
Where, Ise = current through series field winding.
Now in addition to drop IaRa, induced e.m.f has to supply
voltage drop across series field winding too. This is IseRse i.e.
IaRse as Ia = Ise. So voltage equation can be written as
E = Vt + Ia R a + Ia R se + Vbrush

∴ E = Vt + Ia [ R a + R se ] + Vbrush

φPNZ
Where, E =
60A

224
 DC Machines 4.21

4.7.4 DC long shunt compound generator

IL
Ish Ise
S2
f1 IL
S1 +
Ia Load Vt
A1 −
f2 G E
A2

Fig. 4.23 DC long shunt compound generator

Voltage and current relations are as follows :
From the Fig. 4.23 Ia = Ise
Ia = Ish + IL
Voltage across shunt field winding is Vt
Vt Where, Rsh = Resistance of shunt field winding
Ish =
R sh
∴ E = Vt + Ia [ R a + R se ] + Vbrush

4.7.5 DC short shunt compound generator

S1

S2 IL
Ish Ise +
f1 Ia Load Vt
A1 −
G E
A2
f2

Fig. 4.24 DC short shunt compound generator

225
 4.22 Basic Electrical Engineering

Voltage and current relations are as follows :

From the Fig. 4.24, Ia = Ise + Ish
and Ise = IL
∴ Ia = I L + Ish
The drop across shunt field winding is drop across the
armature only and not the total Vt, in this case. So drop across
shunt field winding is E – IaRa.

E − Ia R a
∴ Ish =
R sh
Now the voltage equation E = Vt + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Now Ise = IL
∴ E = Vt + IaRa + ILRse + Vbrush
Neglecting Vbrush, we can write
E = Vt + IaRa + ILRse
E – IaRa = Vt + ILRse

Vt + I L R se
I sh =
Rsh

226
 DC Machines 4.23

4.8 Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and
the field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic
or no-load saturation curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators
whether separately or self-excited. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained
experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant speed and
recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.
4.8.1 Open Circuit Characteristic of a D.C. Generator
The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows. The field winding of
the d.c. generator (series or shunt) is disconnected from the machine and is
separately excited from an external d.c. source as shown in Fig. 4.25 (ii). The
generator is run at fixed speed (i.e., normal speed). The field current (If) is
increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f.
(E0) read off on a voltmeter connected across the armature terminals. On plotting
the relation between E0 and If, we get the open circuit characteristic as shown in
Fig. 4.25 (i).

Fig 4.25.
The following points may be noted from O.C.C.:
(i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is
due to the residual magnetism in the field poles.
(ii) Over a fairly wide range of field current (upto point B in the curve), the
curve is linear. It is because in this range, reluctance of iron is negligible as
compared with that of air gap. The air gap reluctance is constant and hence
linear relationship.
(iii) After point B on the curve, the reluctance of iron also comes into picture. It
is because at higher flux densities, µr for iron decreases and reluctance of
iron is no longer negligible. Consequently, the curve deviates from linear
relationship.
(iv) After point C on the curve, the magnetic saturation of poles begins and E0
tends to level off.

The reader may note that the O.C.C. of even self-excited generator is obtained
by running it as a separately excited generator.

227
4.24 Basic Electrical Engineering

4.9 APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS

i) Separately excited generators :

As a separate supply is required to excite the field, the use
is restricted to some special applications like electroplating, electro
refining of materials etc.
ii) Shunt generators :
They have constant output voltage characteristic. Commonly
used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purposes.
iii) Series generators :
They have rising voltage characteristics. Commonly used
as boosters on dc feeders as constant current source generators for
welding generator and arc lamps.
iv) Cumulatively compound generators :
They can maintain output voltage more or less constant.
These are used for domestic lighting purpose and to transmit energy
over long distance.
v) Differential compound generators :
The terminal voltage drops very rapidly with the increase
in load current for these generators. It is used for special application
like electric arc welding.

228
 DC Machines 4.25

D.C. MOTOR
4.10 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A DC MOTOR

Principle :
An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Its operating principle can be stated
as ‘when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force’.
Constructionally there is no difference between a dc
generator and a dc motor. The same DC machine can be used as
generator or a motor.
In a practical dc motor, field winding produces required
magnetic field while armature conductors are current carrying
conductors which experience mechanical force. As the conductors

are placed in the slots, the individual force experienced by the

conductors acts as turning force on the armature which is called a
torque. The force experienced by armature conductor is given by

229
4.26 Basic Electrical Engineering

F = BIL N
Where, B is the magnetic flux density in Wb/m2
I is the current through the conductor in amperes
L is the length of the current carrying conductors in meters
The direction of the force is determined using Flemings left
hand rule.
Working :
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as
shown in the Fig. 4.26 (a). The magnetic field is produced by the
field winding when it carries a current as shown in Fig. 4.26 (b).

S S
Main flux Flux by conductor
Current
Conductor carrying
conductor

Magnet N N
(a) (b)

Fig.4.26
The current through the conductor is shown by ⊗ i.e. away
from the observer. By right hand thumb rule, the direction of the
flux produced is clockwise. So there are two fluxes present
i) The flux produced by permanent magnet or field winding
ii) The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

230
 DC Machines 4.27

From the Fig. 4.27 on one side of the conductor both the
fluxes are in the same direction, on the left side of the conductor,
there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes and each other. On
the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction
and hence cancel each other.

S S
Cancellation

Direction
Addition Gathering of force
of flux

N N
(a) (b)

Fig. 4.27
This type of flux distribution i.e. high flux density on the
left and low flux density on the right exerts a mechanical force on
the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards low
flux density area i.e. from left to right.
The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in
a dc motor is
F = BIL N
The direction of such force is determined by Fleming’s left
hand rule. This rule states that ‘stretch the three fingers of the left
hand namely the first finger, middle finger and thumb such that
they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the first finger
indicates the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger
indicates the direction of current then the thumb gives the direction
of the force experienced by the conductor.’

231
4.28 Basic Electrical Engineering

4.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF BACK EMF (Eb)

After a motoring action, there exists a generating action.
There is an induced e.m.f in the rotating armature conductors
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This
induced e.m.f in the armature always acts in the opposite direction
of the supply voltage. This is according to the Lenz’s law which
states that the direction of the induced e.m.f is always so as to
oppose the cause producing it. In a dc motor, electrical input i.e.
the supply voltage is the cause and hence this induced e.m.f opposes
the supply voltage. This e.m.f tries to set up a current through the
armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply
voltage is forcing through the conductor.

So as this e.m.f always opposes the supply voltage it is called

back e.m.f and denoted as Eb. Though it is denoted as Eb, basically
it gets generated by the generating action which we have seen
earlier in case of generators. So its magnitude can be determined
by the e.m.f equation which is derived earlier. So
φPNZ
Eb = volts
60 A
where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier
in case of generators.
The D.C. motor representation and its equivalent circuit is
shown in the Fig. 4.28.
Ia Ia
+ +

+
E
− b
Supply Supply
+
Eb voltage V
− Ra voltage V
Ra

− −
(a) Back e.m.f in a dc motor (b) Equivalent circuit
Fig.232
4.28 Back e.m.f
 DC Machines 4.29

4.12 TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Similar to the dc generators, the dc motors are classified

depending upon the way of connecting the field winding with the
armature winding. The differential types of dc motors are shunt
motors, series motors and compound motors.

4.12.1 DC shunt motor

IL
+
Ia Ish

Supply
M Ra Rsh voltage V

Load
−

Fig. 4.29 DC shunt motor

The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal
to the supply voltage V. The total current drawn from the supply
is denoted as line current IL.
IL = Ia + Ish
V
I sh =
R sh
and V = Eb + IaRa + Vbrush
Vbrush is generally neglected.

233
4.30 Basic Electrical Engineering

Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to

the current passing through it i.e. Ish.
φ ∝ Ish

4.12.2 DC series motor

IL
+
Ise

Rse

Ia Supply
voltage V

M Ra

Load −

Fig. 4.30 DC series motor

Let IL be the total current drawn from the supply
So IL = Ise = Ia
V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
V = Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + Vbrush

4.12.3 Long shunt DC compound motor

IL
Ise +
Ish
Rse
Ia Supply
Rsh
voltage V
M Ra

−
Fig. 4.31 Long shunt DC compound motor

234
 DC Machines 4.31

Let Rse be the resistance of series field and Rsh be the

resistance of shunt field winding.
The total current drawn from the supply is IL.
So IL = Ise + Ish
But Ise = Ia
∴ IL = Ia + Ish

V
And I sh =
R sh
And V = Eb + IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
But as Ise = Ia,
∴ V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush

4.12.4 Short shunt DC compound motor

IL
+

Rse
Ish Supply
Ia
voltage V

M Ra Rsh

Load
−
I L = Ise
Fig. 4.32 Short shunt DC compound motor
The entire line current is passing through the series field
winding
and IL = Ia + Ish
Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be
calculated from the voltage equation.

235
4.32 Basic Electrical Engineering

So V = Eb + IseRse + IaRa + Vbrush

but Ise = IL
∴ V = Eb + ILRse + IaRa + Vbrush
∴ Drop across shunt field winding is
= V – ILRse = Eb + IaRa + Vbrush
V − I L R se E b + I a R a + Vbrush
∴ Ish = =
R sh R sh

4.13 Applications of DC motors

Type of
Characteristics Applications
motor
1. Shunt Speed is fairly i) Blowers and fans
constant, medium ii) Centrifugal &
starting torque reciprocating pumps
iii) Lathe machines
iv) Drilling machines
v) Machine tools
vi) Milling machines
2. Series High starting torque i) Hoists, elevators
cannot start on NO ii) Cranes
load variable speed iii) Trolleys
iv) Electric locomotives
v) Conveyors
3. Cumulative High starting torque i) Punches
compound can start on NO load ii) Rolling mills
iii) Elevators
iv) Shears
v) Heavy planers
4. Differential Speed increases with Not suitable for
compound load 236 practical application
 DC Machines 4.33
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 4.1 :
Calculate the e.m.f generated in a 8-pole lap wound shunt
generator running at 300 r.p.m, if the flux per pole is 0.1 webers
and the number of armature conductors is 960.

Solution :
Given data :
P=8; A = 8 (lap wound)
N = 300 rpm ; φ = 0.1 Wb
Z = 960 ; Eg = ?
φZN P
We know that the e.m.f generated, E g = ×
60 A
0.1 × 960 × 300 8
= ×
60 8
= 480 V.
Example 4.2 :
An 8-pole lap wound dc generator has 960 armature
conductors, the flux per pole being 0.05 Wb. If it is driven at a
speed of 250 r.p.m, find the e.m.f induced in the generator.
Solution :
Given data :
P=8; A = P = 8 (lap wound)
Z = 960 ; φ = 0.05 Wb ;
N = 250 rpm ; Eg = ?
e.m.f induced
φZN P
Eg = ×
60 A
0.05 × 960 × 250 8
= ×
60 8
237
= 200 V.
4.34 Basic Electrical Engineering

Example 4.3 :
A 4-pole, 1200 r.p.m generator with lap wound armature
has 65 slots and 12 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is
0.02 Wb. Calculate the e.m.f induced in the generator.

Solution :
Given data :
P=4
A = 4 (lap wound)
N = 1200 rpm
No. of slots = 65
No. of conductors/slot = 12
φ = 0.02 Wb ; Eg = ?
No. of armature conductor = No. of slots × conductors/slot
i.e. Z = 65 × 12
Z = 780
E.M.F generated
φZN P
Eg = ×
60 A
0.02 × 780 × 1200 4
= ×
60 4
= 312 V.

238
 D.C Machines 4.35

Example 4.4:
A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230V and the
resistance of the shunt field and armature are 50 Ω and 0.03 Ω
respectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f.

Solution :
Given data : Ish 450 A
+
IL = 450 A Ia
L
V = 230 V 0.03 o 230 V
50 Ω Ω a
Rsh = 50 Ω d

Ra = 0.03
−
Eg = ?
V 230
Shunt field current, I sh = = = 4.6 A
R sh 50
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish = 450 + 4.6 = 454.6 A
E.M.F generated, Eg = V + IaRa = 230 + 454.6 × 0.03
= 243.638 V.
Example 4.5 :
A DC long shunt compound motor takes a current of 30
amp from a 230 V dc supply. Its armature, series field and
shunt field resistances are 0.06 Ω , 0.08 Ω and 115 Ω
respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f of the motor.

239
4.36 Basic Electrical Engineering

Solution :
Given data : Ish IL = 30 Amp

V = 230 V Ise
Ish IL
IL = 30 A Rse = 0.08 Ω

Ra = 0.06 Ω Rsh = 115 Ω +

DC 230 V
Rse = 0.08 Ω Ra =
−
0.06 Ω
Rsh = 115 Ω
Eb = ?
V 230
Shunt field current, I sh = = =2A
R sh 115
Armature current, Ia = IL – Ish = 30 – 2 = 28 A
∴ Back e.m.f, Eb = V – IaRa = 230 – 28 (0.06 + 0.08)
= 230 – 28 × 0.14
= 230 – 3.92 = 226.08 V.
Example 4.6 :
A 200 V, 4-pole, lap wound dc shunt motor has 800
conductors, on its armature. It draws a current of 21 A from
the supply mains and out of which the field winding takes a
current of 1 A. The resistance of the armature winding is
0.5 Ω and flux per pole is 30 m Wb. Find the (i) Back e.m.f,
(ii) Speed.

Solution :
Given data : 1A 21 A
+
V = 200 V Ia

P=4 Rsh 200 V

0.5 Ω
A = P = 4 (lap wound)
Z = 800
−
IL = 21 A

240
 DC Machines 4.37

Ish = 1 A
Ra = 0.5 Ω
φ = 30 m Wb = 30 × 10–3 Wb
Eb, N = ?
i) Armature current, Ia = IL – Ish = 21 – 1 = 20 A
Back e.m.f, Eb = V – IaRa = 200 – 20 × 0.5 = 190 V
φZN P
ii) Using the relation, E b = ×
60 A
E b × 60 A
∴ Speed, N = ×
φZ P

190 × 60 4
= −3
× = 475 rpm
30 × 10 × 800 4
Example 4.7 :
A 4-pole, lap wound dc motor using 648 armature
conductors and it has flux per pole of 25 m Wb. Find the value
of torque, when its armature current is 60 A.
Solution :
Given data :
P=4; A=P=4
Z = 648 ; φ = 25 m Wb = 25 × 10–3 Wb
Ia = 60 A ; T=?
φI a ZP
Armature torque, Ta = 0.159 ×
A
4
= 0.159 × 25 × 10–3 × 60 × 648 ×
4
= 154.548 N-m.

241
4.38 Basic Electrical Engineering

Example 4.8 :
The resistance of the field circuit of the shunt excited dc
generator is 200 ΩΩ, when the output is 100 kW, the terminal
voltage is 500 V, and the generated e.m.f is 525 V.
Calculate
i) The armature resistance and
ii) Generated e.m.f when the output is 60 kW at 520 V

Solution :
Given data :
Ish IL
+
Rsh = 200 Ω
Ia
P = 100 kW L P = 100 kW
Ra o
V = 500 V 200 Ω a
d V = 500 V
Eg = 525 V
−
Ra = ?
Eq = ?
P = 60 kW ; V = 520 V
P 100 × 1000
i) Load current, I L = = = 200 A
V 500

V 500
I sh = = = 2.5 A
R sh 200
Armature current, Ia = IL + Ish = 200 + 2.5 = 202.5 A
We know e.m.f generated, Eg = V + IaRa
525 = 500 + 202.5 × Ra
525 − 500
Ra = = 0.12345 Ω.
202.5

242
 DC Machines 4.39

P 60000
ii) I L = = = 115.3846 A
V 520

V 520
I sh = = = 2.6 A
R sh 200

Ia = IL + Ish = 115.3846 + 2.6 = 117.9846 A

So, e.m.f generated, Eg = V + IaRa
= 520 + 117.9846 × 0.123456
= 534.5659 V.
Example 4.9 :
A 380 V long shunt compound generator supplies a load
of 22.8 kW. Its armature, series field and shunt field resistances
are 0.12 Ω , 0.18 Ω and 200 Ω respectively. Calculate the
generated e.m.f.
Solution :
IL
+
Ia
Ish
Rse = 0.18 Ω
L
o
Rsh = 200 Ω a 380 V
d
0.12 Ω

Given data :
V = 380 V ; P = 22.8 kW
Ra = 0.12 Ω ; Rse = 0.18 Ω
Rsh = 200 Ω

243
4.40 Basic Electrical Engineering

P 22800
Load current, IL = = = 60 A
V 380
Ia = IL + Ish

V 380
I sh = = = 1.9 A
R sh 200
Ia = IL + Ish = 60 + 1.9 = 61.9 A
Generated e.m.f, Eg = V + IaRa + IaRse
= 380 + 61.9 (0.12 + 0.18)
= 398.57 V.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Draw a neat diagram of a dc generator. Label all its parts

and mention the functions and materials used for each part.
2. Explain the working principle of a dc generator.
3. Classify the dc generator on the basis of excitation.
4. Draw the schematic diagram of each type of dc generator.
5. Explain the working principle of a dc motor.
6. List out different types of dc motors.
7. Draw the schematic diagrams of dc motors and give the
relation between voltage and current in each type.
8. Explain the significance of back e.m.f in dc motor.
9. State the applications of dc generators and dc motors.
10. What are the essential parts of a dc generator?
. the working principle of a dc generator.
11. State
12. State the e.m.f equation of a dc generator.
13. State the materials used for the following parts of dc
generators : (a) armature winding, (b) commutator, (c) yoke
(d) Brushes.
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Home / Electromagnetism / Magnetic Hysteresis

Magnetic Hysteresis
The lag or delay of a magnetic material known commonly as Magnetic Hysteresis, relates to the
magnetisation properties of a material by which it rstly becomes magnetised and then de-magnetised.

We know that the magnetic ux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of magnetic eld or lines of
force produced within a given area and that it is more commonly called “Flux Density”. Given the symbol B with
the unit of ux density being the Tesla, T.

We also know from the previous tutorials that the magnetic strength of an electromagnet depends upon the
number of turns of the coil, the current owing through the coil or the type of core material being used, and if
we increase either the current or the number of turns we can increase the magnetic eld strength, symbol H.

Previously, the relative permeability, symbol μr was de ned as the ratio of the absolute permeability μ and the
permeability of free space μo (a vacuum) and this was given as a constant. However, the relationship between
the ux density, B and the magnetic eld strength, H can be de ned by the fact that the relative permeability, μr
is not a constant but a function of the magnetic eld intensity thereby giving magnetic ux density as: B = μ H.

278
Then the magnetic ux density in the material will be increased by a larger factor as a result of its relative
permeability for the material compared to the magnetic ux density in vacuum, μoH and for an air-cored coil
this relationship is given as:

So for ferromagnetic materials the ratio of ux density to eld strength ( B/H ) is not constant but varies with
ux density. However, for air cored coils or any non-magnetic medium core such as woods or plastics, this ratio
can be considered as a constant and this constant is known as μo, the permeability of free space, ( μo = 4.π.10-
7
H/m ).

By plotting values of ux density, ( B ) against the eld strength, ( H ) we can produce a set of curves called
Magnetisation Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or more commonly B-H Curves for each type of core
material used as shown below.

Magnetisation or B-H Curve

The set of magnetisation curves, M above represents an example of the relationship between B and H for soft-
iron and steel cores but every type of core material will have its own set of magnetic hysteresis curves. You may
notice that the ux density increases in proportion to the eld strength until it reaches a certain value were it
can not increase any more becoming almost level and constant as the eld strength continues to increase.

279
This is because there is a limit to the amount of ux density that can be generated by the core as all the domains
in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase will have no effect on the value of M, and the point on the
graph where the ux density reaches its limit is called Magnetic Saturation also known as Saturation of the
Core and in our simple example above the saturation point of the steel curve begins at about 3000 ampere-turns
per metre.

Saturation occurs because as we remember from the previous Magnetism tutorial which included Weber’s
theory, the random haphazard arrangement of the molecule structure within the core material changes as the
tiny molecular magnets within the material become “lined-up”.

As the magnetic eld strength, ( H ) increases these molecular magnets become more and more aligned until
they reach perfect alignment producing maximum ux density and any increase in the magnetic eld strength
due to an increase in the electrical current owing through the coil will have little or no effect.

Retentivity
Lets assume that we have an electromagnetic coil with a high eld strength due to the current owing through
it, and that the ferromagnetic core material has reached its saturation point, maximum ux density. If we now
open a switch and remove the magnetising current owing through the coil we would expect the magnetic eld
around the coil to disappear as the magnetic ux reduced to zero.

However, the magnetic ux does not completely disappear as the electromagnetic core material still retains
some of its magnetism even when the current has stopped owing in the coil. This ability for a coil to retain some
of its magnetism within the core after the magnetisation process has stopped is called Retentivity or
remanence, while the amount of ux density still remaining in the core is called Residual Magnetism, BR .

The reason for this that some of the tiny molecular magnets do not return to a completely random pattern and
still point in the direction of the original magnetising eld giving them a sort of “memory”. Some ferromagnetic
materials have a high retentivity (magnetically hard) making them excellent for producing permanent magnets.

While other ferromagnetic materials have low retentivity (magnetically soft) making them ideal for use in
electromagnets, solenoids or relays. One way to reduce this residual ux density to zero is by reversing the
direction of the current owing through the coil, thereby making the value of H, the magnetic eld strength
negative. This effect is called a Coercive Force, HC .

If this reverse current is increased further the ux density will also increase in the reverse direction until the
ferromagnetic core reaches saturation again but in the reverse direction from before. Reducing the magnetising
current, i once again to zero will produce a similar amount of residual magnetism but in the reverse direction.

Then by constantly changing the direction of the magnetising current through the coil from a positive direction
to a negative direction, as would be the case in an AC supply, a Magnetic Hysteresis loop of the ferromagnetic
core can be produced.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loop 280

The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behaviour of a ferromagnetic core graphically as the
relationship between B and H is non-linear. Starting with an unmagnetised core both B and H will be at zero,
point 0 on the magnetisation curve.

If the magnetisation current, i is increased in a positive direction to some value the magnetic eld strength H
increases linearly with i and the ux density B will also increase as shown by the curve from point 0 to point a as
it heads towards saturation.

Now if the magnetising current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetic eld circulating around the core also
reduces to zero. However, the coils magnetic ux will not reach zero due to the residual magnetism present
within the core and this is shown on the curve from point a to point b.

To reduce the ux density at point b to zero we need to reverse the current owing through the coil. The
magnetising force which must be applied to null the residual ux density is called a “Coercive Force”. This
coercive force reverses the magnetic eld re-arranging the molecular magnets until the core becomes
unmagnetised at point c.

An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetised in the opposite direction and increasing
this magnetisation current further will cause the core to reach its saturation point but in the opposite direction,
point d on the curve.

This point is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetising current is reduced again to zero the residual magnetism
present in the core will be equal to the previous value but in reverse at point e.

281
Again reversing the magnetising current owing through the coil this time into a positive direction will cause the
magnetic ux to reach zero, point f on the curve and as before increasing the magnetisation current further in a
positive direction will cause the core to reach saturation at point a.

Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetising current owing through the coil
alternates between a positive and negative value such as the cycle of an AC voltage. This path is called a
Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.

The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetisation process of a ferromagnetic core and therefore
the ux density depends on which part of the curve the ferromagnetic core is magnetised on as this depends
upon the circuits past history giving the core a form of “memory”. Then ferromagnetic materials have memory
because they remain magnetised after the external magnetic eld has been removed.

However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or silicon steel have very narrow magnetic hysteresis loops
resulting in very small amounts of residual magnetism making them ideal for use in relays, solenoids and
transformers as they can be easily magnetised and demagnetised.

Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work must be done in closing the
hysteresis loop with the energy being used being dissipated as heat in the magnetic material. This heat is known
as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss depends on the material’s value of coercive force.

By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as silicon, materials with a very small coercive force can be made that
have a very narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with narrow hysteresis loops are easily magnetised and
demagnetised and known as soft magnetic materials.

Magnetic Hysteresis Loops for Soft and Hard Materials

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Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of wasted energy in the form of heat with the energy wasted
being in proportion to the area of the magnetic hysteresis loop. Hysteresis losses will always be a problem in AC
transformers where the current is constantly changing direction and thus the magnetic poles in the core will
cause losses because they constantly reverse direction.

Rotating coils in DC machines will also incur hysteresis losses as they are alternately passing north the south
magnetic poles. As said previously, the shape of the hysteresis loop depends upon the nature of the iron or steel
used and in the case of iron which is subjected to massive reversals of magnetism, for example transformer
cores, it is important that the B-H hysteresis loop is as small as possible.

In the next tutorial about Electromagnetism, we will look at Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction and see
that by moving a wire conductor within a stationary magnetic eld it is possible to induce an electric current in
the conductor producing a simple generator.

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Dhanashree Biru Galatage
BH curve of electromagnet plz send 1 image

Posted on February 12th 2019 | 4:15 pm

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Andrew
So freakin useful. Great for students

Posted on February 11th 2019 | 8:25 pm

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Impu
Nice

Posted on February 07th 2019 | 6:03 am

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Vibhuvar
Very simpli ed concept of b-h curve. Very helpful to students and learners.

Posted on January 12th 2019 | 6:21 pm

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Lewis
Someone should please help me with this. Between Air, Copper and Titanium which will have the widest
hysteresis loop?
Am kind of confused. 284
Posted on December 18th 2018 | 6:35 am
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Tayyaba Jilani
good material

Posted on December 17th 2018 | 2:15 pm

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ahmed talaat
very good simpli ed subgect introducing

Posted on December 15th 2018 | 11:57 am

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Haymanot Hangazo
It is very good..Now I want to know difference between wide and narrow hysteresis loop.. please post it

Posted on December 05th 2018 | 5:52 pm

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Jimmy
Written very simple and nicely

Posted on November 23rd 2018 | 1:59 pm

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Saroj Parajuli 285

It is good can you post about reversal magnetism

Posted on November 14th 2018 | 7:02 am

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