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Vadim Ermolayev
Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa
Vitaliy Yakovyna
Heinrich C. Mayr
Mykola Nikitchenko
Aleksander Spivakovsky (Eds.)
Communications in Computer and Information Science 1007

Information and Communication

Technologies in Education,
Research, and Industrial Applications

14th International Conference, ICTERI 2018

Kyiv, Ukraine, May 14–17, 2018
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 Preface

This volume contains a number of selected refined and extended contributions to

ICTERI 2018, the 14th International Conference on Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) in Education, Research, and Industrial Applications. The confer-
ence was held in Kiev, Ukraine, during May 14–17, 2018, with a focus on research
advances in ICT, business or academic applications of ICT, and design and deployment
of ICT infrastructures.
ICTERI 2018 continued the tradition of hosting co-located events this year by
offering five workshops and a PhD Symposium. The workshops addressed:
(1) 3L-Person 2018: new and emerging technologies in education, learning envi-
ronments and methods that aimed at satisfying the life-long learning needs of a
person based on the use of a person-oriented approach
(2) DSEDU 2018: the state of the play in data science education, challenges and
expectations in the field, emerging opportunities for universities and ICT industry,
and future trends
(3) ITER 2018: research advances, business and academic applications of ICT related
to solving practical economic problems, and pushing forward economic research
(4) RMSE 2018: rigorous methods used in different fields of software engineering. In
particular, the following aspects were in focus: specification, verification, and
optimization of software; software analysis, modeling, business rule extraction;
software testing; re-engineering problems.
(5) TheRMIT 2018: building an efficient and effective bridge between the mathe-
matical reliability and engineering practices in safety-critical industries and
domains like energy grids, aerospace, railway and automotive systems, health
systems
The PhD Symposium provided the opportunity for PhD candidates to present, listen
to, and discuss the research on the topics relevant for ICTERI.
The proceedings of ICTERI 2018 have been published at CEUR-WS as three sep-
arate volumes: 2105 for the main ICTERI conference (http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2105/);
2104 for the workshops (http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2104/); and 2122 for the PhD
Symposium (http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2122/). These three volumes contained overall 118
papers selected from 251 submissions. The 35 best of these papers were nominated by
the program and workshop chairs to be invited for the submission, in substantially
extended and revised versions, for the proceedings volume. Out of these, 30 extended
and refined submissions were received and reviewed by at least three experts. Finally,
the Proceedings Review Panel selected the 14 most mature and interesting papers for
publication. The acceptance rate thus was 5.6% regarding the overall number of ICTERI
2018 submissions.
VI Preface

The papers in this volume were grouped in three topical parts.

Part I focused on the advances in ICT research. The contributions discussed and
elaborated several novel important aspects in the fields of big data analytics, knowledge
extraction from textual data, knowledge representation, logical inference, and parallel
software optimization. In their invited paper, Rajendra Akerkar and Minsung Hong
discussed the key questions relating methodologies, tools, and frameworks to improve
ubiquitous data team effectiveness as well as the potential goals for a data processing
methodology in the context of ubiquitous data analytics.
Hennadii Dobrovolskyi and Nataliya Keberle presented a novel text mining
approach, based on snowball sampling and topic modeling techniques, which led to the
convergence to topically saturated collections of scientific papers. As a result, these
saturated collections satisfactorily covered a chosen domain of interest.
Victoria Kosa et al. reported on the refinement of their algorithm for measuring
terminological differences between text datasets in automated terms extraction. The
refinement was done using the appropriately selected string similarity measure for
grouping the terms looking similar as text strings and presumably having similar
meanings. After term grouping, terminological saturation was achieved quicker and
with fewer source documents.
Ievgen Ivanov and Mykola Nikitchenko proposed a new, and simpler, rule-based
technique that allows the classic Floyd–Hoare logic to be extended for making it sound
in the case of partial pre- and post-conditions. In their approach, the rules were for-
mulated in a program algebra extended with the composition of predicate complement.
The obtained logic was called the Complemented Partial Floyd–Hoare logic.
Grygoriy Zholtkevych, Lyudmyla Polyakova, and Hassan El Zein presented an
extension and refinement of their prior work regarding the development of
category-theoretic methods for specifying and analyzing models of logical time in
distributed systems, including cyber-physical systems.
Anatoliy Doroshenko et al. reported on their mixed method, combining formal and
auto-tuning approaches, for minimizing the execution time of parallel programs. Their
improvement against the related work was in the use of automatic training of a neural
network model on the results of “traditional” tuning cycles. They also elaborated the
technique for the subsequent replacement of some auto-tuner calls with an evaluation
from the statistical model.
Part II collected the contributions that further elaborate effective and efficient use of
ICT in teaching, learning, and education management.
Hennadiy Kravtsov and Vitaliy Kobets presented their approach to the revision
system of computer science curriculum based on the evolution of the requirements of
employers regarding the competencies of university graduates. They used the expert
method to assess the quality of the proposed curriculum revision model.
Olena Kuzminska et al. identified the core factors that reflected the degree of
readiness of teachers and students for digital education based on their self-evaluation.
They also estimated the level of digital competencies based on the analysis of case
studies. Finally, they proposed the methodology and model for evaluating the levels of
competencies based on surveying, expert case rating, and statistical analysis.
 Preface VII

Marina Zharikova and Volodymyr Sherstjuk presented the latest results of the
GameHub project, which was designed to foster cooperation between universities and
computer games companies in Ukraine. This cooperation covered monitoring of the
competence profiles required by the industrial partners, building the necessary infras-
tructure, and developing the relevant curricula, study programs, and education
resources.
Part III dealt with the application and use of different ICT-based techniques and
approaches in various industrial domains.
Ihor Skyrda proposed a novel automated control method for unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAV) swarm flight performance. He demonstrated that a multi-UAV system,
controlled by this method, was able to autonomously perform shaping and to maintain
the expected formation with desired flight parameters.
Anastasiia Strielkina, Vyacheslav Kharchenko, and Dmytro Uzun presented an
approach to develop a set of Markov models, for an IoT infrastructure in health care,
which take safety and security issues into account. They focused on considering the
failures of components. The simulation results presented revealed the most frequent
possible failures and attacks on a health-care IoT system. The authors proposed a game
theoretical approach to select a countermeasure tool to remedy these most probable
failures.
Tetiana Paientko discussed the benefits of the use of geographic information sys-
tems in the development and implementation of a reform in the sphere of public
finance. She argued that geographic information systems could provide a wide range of
analysis, better support for ideas of reforms, and higher transparency for citizens and
governments. The discussion was grounded on the results of the case studies in opti-
mizing funding for school education and health care in Ukraine.
Jan-Hendrik Meier et al. presented their study of non-linear correlative and
auto-correlative time series properties of the electricity spot prices. They proposed to
use non-fully connectionist networks, in relation to fully connectionist networks, to
decompose non-linear correlative time series properties. Additionally, they recom-
mended the use of a long short-term-memory network to discover and to deal with
autocorrelation effects.
Andriy Belinskiy and Vladimir Soloviev, based on the allusion of Planck theory in
physics, proposed an approach to predict the crashes and critical events for
crypto-currency markets. The approach was illustrated by its application to the
recorded time series of Bitcoin.
Oleksandr Snihovyi, Vitaliy Kobets, and Oleksii Ivanov reported on the use of
machine learning in the financial sector for building intelligent robo-advisors, trained
on the analysis of several popular financial services. They compared the functionality
of these services, formulated the list of critical features, and proposed a high-level
architecture design of a general robo-advisor tool for private investors.
This volume would not have been possible without the support of many people.
First, we are very grateful to all the authors for their continuous commitment and
intensive work. Second, we would like to thank the Program Committee members and
VIII Preface

additional reviewers for providing timely and thorough assessments. Furthermore, we

would like to thank all the people who contributed to the organization of ICTERI 2018.
Without their efforts, there would have been no substance for this volume.

December 2018 Vadim Ermolayev

Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa
Vitaliy Yakovyna
Heinrich C. Mayr
Mykola Nikitchenko
Aleksander Spivakovsky
 Organization

General Chair
Aleksander Spivakovsky Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Kherson State
University, Ukraine

Steering Committee
Vadim Ermolayev Zaporizhzhia National University, Ukraine
Heinrich C. Mayr Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Mykola Nikitchenko Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv,
Ukraine
Aleksander Spivakovsky Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Kherson State
University, Ukraine
Mikhail Zavileysky DataArt, Russian Federation
Grygoriy Zholtkevych V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University,
Ukraine

Program Chairs
Vadim Ermolayev Zaporizhzhia National University, Ukraine
Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain

Proceedings Chair
Vitaliy Yakovyna Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine,
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,
Poland

Presentations Chair
Heinrich C. Mayr Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria

Workshops Chairs
Vadim Ermolayev Zaporizhzhia National University, Ukraine
Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
X Organization

PhD Symposium Chairs

Grigoris Antoniou University of Huddersfield, UK
Grygoriy Zholtkevych V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University,
Ukraine

Poster and Demo Chairs

Agnieszka Ławrynowicz Poznan University of Technology, Poland
Raul Palma Poznan Supercomputing and Networking Center,
Poland

IT Talks Chairs
Aleksander Spivakovsky Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, Kherson State
University, Ukraine
Mikhail Zavileysky DataArt, Russian Federation

Local Organization Chair

Mykola Nikitchenko Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv,
Ukraine

Publicity Chair
Nataliya Kushnir Kherson State University, Ukraine

Web Chair
Hennadii Dobrovolskyi Zaporizhzhia National University, Ukraine

Proceedings Review Panel

Yevhen Alforov German Climate Computing Center, Germany
Carlos Badenes-Olmedo Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
George Baryannis University of Huddersfield, UK
Sotiris Batsakis University of Huddersfield, UK
Dominik Bork University of Vienna, Austria
Jon Hael Brenas Health Science Center, University of Tennessee,
USA
David Chaves-Fraga Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Lukas Chrpa Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech
Republic
David Esteban TECHFORCE, Spain
Wolfgang Faber Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
 Organization XI

Jesualdo Tomás Universidad de Murcia, Spain

Fernández-Breis
Brian Hainey Glasgow Caledonian University, UK
Sungkook Han Wonkwang University, South Korea
Valentina Janev The Mihajlo Pupin Institute, Serbia
Kestutis Kapocius Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
Nataliya Keberle Zaporizhzhia National University, Ukraine
Vyacheslav Kharchenko National Aerospace University Kharkiv Aviation
Institute, Ukraine
Vitaliy Kobets Kherson State University, Ukraine
Haridimos Kondylakis Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, Greece
Christian Kop Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Artur Korniłowicz University of Bialystok, Poland
Kalliopi Kravari Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Hennadiy Kravtsov Kherson State University, Ukraine
Kyriakos Kritikos Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, Greece
Miroslav Kvassay University of Zilina, Slovakia
Frédéric Mallet Université Cote d’Azur, CNRS, Inria, I3S, France
Wolf-Ekkehard Matzke MINRES Technologies GmbH, Germany
Heinrich C. Mayr Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Nandana Mihindukulasooriya Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Adam Naumowicz University of Bialystok, Poland
Mykola Nikitchenko Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv,
Ukraine
Panagiotis Papadakos Information Systems Laboratory, FORTH-ICS,
Greece
Jaime Ramírez Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Suneth Ranasinghe Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Wolfgang Schreiner Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
Claudia Steinberger Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt, Austria
Martin Strecker Université de Toulouse, France
Mari Carmen Suárez-Figueroa Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
Ilias Tachmazidis University of Huddersfield, UK
Mauro Vallati University of Huddersfield, UK
Paul Warren Knowledge Media Institute, Open University, UK
Borut Werber University of Maribor, Slovenia
Vitaliy Yakovyna Lviv Polytechnic National University, Ukraine,
University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,
Poland
Grygoriy Zholtkevych V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University,
Ukraine

Additional Reviewer
Herman Fesenko O. M. Beketov National University of Urban
Economy in Kharkiv, Ukraine
XII Organization

ICTERI 2018 Sponsors

Oleksandr Spivakovsky’s http://spivakovsky.fund/
Educational Foundation
DataArt http://www.dataart.com/
Taras Shevchenko National http://www.knu.ua/en
University of Kiev
BWT Group http://www.groupbwt.com/
Springer http://www.springer.com/
Logicify http://logicify.com/
 Contents

Advances in ICT Research

Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Rajendra Akerkar and Minsung Hong

On Convergence of Controlled Snowball Sampling for Scientific

Abstracts Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Hennadii Dobrovolskyi and Nataliya Keberle

Similar Terms Grouping Yields Faster Terminological Saturation . . . . . . . . . 43

Victoria Kosa, David Chaves-Fraga, Nataliya Keberle,
and Aliaksandr Birukou

Inference Rules for the Partial Floyd-Hoare Logic Based on Composition

of Predicate Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Ievgen Ivanov and Mykola Nikitchenko

Category Methods for Modelling Logical Time Based on the Concept

of Clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Grygoriy Zholtkevych, Lyudmyla Polyakova, and Hassan Khalil El Zein

A Mixed Method of Parallel Software Auto-Tuning Using Statistical

Modeling and Machine Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Anatoliy Doroshenko, Pavlo Ivanenko, Oleksandr Novak,
and Olena Yatsenko

ICT in Education and Education Management

Evolutionary Revision Model for Improvement of Computer

Science Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Hennadiy Kravtsov and Vitaliy Kobets

Study of Digital Competence of the Students and Teachers in Ukraine . . . . . 148

Olena Kuzminska, Mariia Mazorchuk, Nataliia Morze, Vitaliy Pavlenko,
and Aleksander Prokhorov

University-Enterprises Cooperation in Ukrainian Game Industry . . . . . . . . . . 170

Maryna Zharikova and Volodymyr Sherstjuk
XIV Contents

ICT Solutions for Industrial Applications

Decentralized Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Swarm Formation

and Flight Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Ihor Skyrda

Availability Models of the Healthcare Internet of Things System Taking

into Account Countermeasures Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Anastasiia Strielkina, Vyacheslav Kharchenko, and Dmytro Uzun

Geographic Information Systems: Should They Be Used in Public Finance

Reform Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Tetiana Paientko

ANN-Based Electricity Price Forecasting Under Special Consideration

of Time Series Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Jan-Hendrik Meier, Stephan Schneider, Iwana Schmidt, Philip Schüller,
Thies Schönfeldt, and Bastian Wanke

Complex Systems Theory and Crashes of Cryptocurrency Market . . . . . . . . . 276

Vladimir N. Soloviev and Andriy Belinskiy

Implementation of Robo-Advisor Services for Different Risk Attitude

Investment Decisions Using Machine Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Oleksandr Snihovyi, Vitaliy Kobets, and Oleksii Ivanov

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Advances in ICT Research
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data

Rajendra Akerkar(B) and Minsung Hong

Western Norway Research Institute, P.O. Box 163, 6851 Sogndal, Norway
{rak,msh}@vestforsk.no

Abstract. Data is growing at an alarming rate. This growth is spurred

by varied array of sources, such as embedded sensors, social media sites,
video cameras, the quantified-self and the internet-of-things. This is
changing our reliance on data for making decisions, or data analytics,
from being mostly carried out by an individual and in limited settings to
taking place while on-the-move and in the field of action. Unlocking value
from data directs that it must be assessed from multiple dimensions.
Data’s value can be primarily classified as “information,” “knowledge”
or “wisdom”. Data analytics addresses such matters as what and why, as
well as what will and what should be done. In recent days, data analytics
is moving from being reserved for domain experts to becoming necessary
for the end-user. However, data availability is both a pertinent issue and
a great opportunity for global businesses. This paper presents recent
examples from work in our research team on ubiquitous data analytics
and open up to a discussion on key questions relating methodologies,
tools and frameworks to improve ubiquitous data team effectiveness as
well as the potential goals for a ubiquitous data process methodology.
Finally, we give an outlook on the future of data analytics, suggesting
a few research topics, applications, opportunities and challenges. This
paper is based on a keynote speech to the 14th International Conference
on ICT in Education, Research and Industrial Applications. Integration,
Harmonization and Knowledge Transfer, Kyiv, Ukraine on 16 May 2018.

Keywords: Ubiquitous data · Big data · Data analytics ·

Transport sector · Smart city · Emergency management

1 Introduction
Data are limitless and inexhaustible can be re-used multiple times for different
uses. Supply of data is growing exponentially and delivers far more riches and
value (knowledge) than any other assets. Data growth at an alarming rate is
spurred by a variety of sources, such as embedded sensors, social media sites,
video cameras, the quantified-self and the internet-of-things [1]. This is changing
our reliance on data for decision making or data analytics, from being mostly
carried out by an individual and in limited settings, to taking place while on-the-
move and in the field of action. In terms of data evolution, data converges into
wisdom (or intelligence) by way of information and knowledge through activities
c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
V. Ermolayev et al. (Eds.): ICTERI 2018, CCIS 1007, pp. 3–17, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13929-2_1
4 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

like researching, absorbing, acting, interacting and reflecting [2]. While conduct-
ing these activities, persons as well as businesses generally gains understanding,
experience and insight, and may come up with innovative ideas.
On the one hand, organisations historically collected copious amounts of data.
However, by complexity of data analytics, the organisations were unable to use
that data to generate meaningful information in a timely manner, and their busi-
ness insights were fragmented [3]. According to Fig. 1 that shows a value chain
as the foundation of Big Data, these situations mean that there are difficulties
predicting and responding to changing business needs and rising chances, as a
result, business opportunities and related growth were tied to a much slower
roadmap. Some Big Data experts have argued that businesses do not use even
a small portion of Big Data that they have, and big does not always mean bet-
ter [4,5]. In other words, as one of data availability aspects, having tremendous
amounts of data might not guarantee businesses a competitive advantage over
competitors. Therefore, how effectively and quickly you analyse the data and
extract actionable information from it will be critical, since fast and actionable
data will become an important part in the usage of Big Data [6,7].

Fig. 1. Value chain in Big Data

In this regard, new data-and-analytics-related businesses and the application

of data insights are changing the nature of competition. Data and analytics are
also changing the nature of industry competition. Recently, McKinsey reports1
that seventy percent of all executives think that Big Data and it’s analytics
have caused changes in their industries’ competitive landscapes in recent years.
In The fourth industrial revolution, Big Data analytics can support a productiv-
ity leap because it generates so many distinct opportunities2 . One of the simplest
forecasts is faster change pace, changes happen more quickly and organizations
can do more things in less time. Additionally, higher efficiency means that these
1
McKinsey&Business: Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functio
ns/operations/our-insights/ops-4-0-fueling-the-next-20-percent-productivity-rise-
with-digital-analytics.
2
McKinsey&Business: Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functio
ns/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/analytics-comes-of-age.
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 5

require fewer resources, while enhanced effectiveness offers the changes greater
effect. For instance, Increased predictability, through more accurate forecasting
based on unstructured data, lets organizations plan their moves more consis-
tently and respond with greater agility. There are tremendous opportunities for
organizations to leverage data in new ways yet many challenges still exist as
follows: Many organizations fail to identify the right data or have no idea how to
best use them. In addition, insufficient storage capacity and analytical capabil-
ities to handle the massive volume of data. Furthermore, many enterprises lack
the right kind of infrastructure or connectivity that can provide seamless access
to data. Since data may come in a variety of formats, organizations often find
it difficult and expensive to analyse and dig up insights. Last data is generated
at the exponential rate of velocity, which makes it difficult to perform real-time
analytics that uncovers the intelligence they contain.
In terms of “variety” in characteristics of Big Data, it’s analytics can be
applied to many different types of data. These data types range from simple
atomic types to more complex constructs such as time series, relational data,
graphs, images and many others. Over the years, many methods were studied
to transform into information and incorporate these different data types to get
knowledge. One aspect that has been studied only briefly so far is ubiquity. In
this regard, there are following characteristics [8].

– Data is producing asynchronously in a highly decentralized way.

– Data usually is involved to many different data types that make up a whole.
– Data in almost all cases emerges from a very high number of partially over-
lapping and loosely connected sources.
– Data is produced by many different users distributed all over the world and
is often noisy and contradicting, partially overlapping etc.
– Data is multi-dimensional and multi-modal.

We refer to such data as “Ubiquitous Data”and define by:

the data emerges from pervasive domain specific information provided by

static and mobile professional sensors, from social sensors -people- who
voluntarily provide information/data, from large-scale data banks of busi-
ness, municipalities and government, from social media, and open data.

This paper presents recent examples from work in our research team on
LeMO3 and BDEM4 projects related to ubiquitous data analytics and open
up to a discussion on key questions relating sources, methodologies, tools and
frameworks to improve ubiquitous data team effectiveness as well as the potential
goals for a ubiquitous data process methodology. Finally, we give an outlook
on the future of data analytics, suggesting a few research topics, applications,
opportunities and challenges.

3
LeMO: Retrieved from https://lemo-h2020.eu/.
4
BDEM: Retrieved from https://bdem.squarespace.com/.
6 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

2 Related Work
This section shows recent examples such as projects, methodologies, tools, frame-
works, related to Ubiquitous Data. MK:smart5 as a large collaborative initiative
has created a ‘MK Data Hub’ which supports the acquisition and management
of vast amounts of data relevant to the city of Milton Keynes, England, systems
from a variety of data sources. These have 712 data sets including local/national
open data and data streams from both key infrastructure networks (energy,
transport, water) and other relevant sensor networks (e.g. weather and pollution
data), crowd-source data from social media and mobile applications. It provides
a streaming API for timeline and sensor data, as well as an Entity API which
aggregates the information available in the hub on general entities from the
many data sets contributing to the MK Data Hub by using semantic technology.
Especially the Entity API might offer a way of fusing various data sets to gener-
ate information from ubiquitous data toward knowledge. UBIMOB6 develops an
adaptive and context sensitive mobility solution in order to make smart decisions
taking citizens’ personal need into account and to reach equilibrium of mobility
services, supply and demand, by smarter resource planning and matchmaking.
Aiming to enable a vision for future mobility, this project considers huge amounts
of ubiquitous data through sensors, traffic cameras, as well as asynchronous user-
generated information, synchronous user-generated data, historic databases and
data from mobility companies in real-time. Their solution will be evaluated by
people, business and decision makers in 3 cities in Norway. SETA7 is developing
technologies and methodologies based on large, complex and dynamic ubiqui-
tous data from citizens, connected cars, city sensors and distributed databases,
in order to change the way mobility is organised, monitored and planned in
large metropolitan areas. Their application using smartphone’s sensors enable
to track users’ mobility with considering you an insight into your daily travel.
In addition, by integrating with environmental data such as road closures, road
works, accidents, delays and levels of pollution, it shows users’ daily journeys,
the impact they had on the environment, calories burned and any costs associ-
ated with the journey. TransformingTransport8 project is trying to demonstrate
measurable, and replicable way the transformations that Big Data will bring to
the mobility and logistics market. It addresses seven major domains, such as
high-ways, sustainable vehicle, proactive rail infrastructures, intelligent ports,
efficient air transport, multi-modal Urban mobility, and dynamic supply chains.
Moreover, an open data portal9 containing 148 data sets related to ubiquitous
data has been published in order to provide the community for the reuse of data
across the different transport domains. NOESIS10 aims to offer a methodological
5
All information can be accessed via http://www.mksmart.org/ and were last
accessed on September 3, 2018.
6
https://www.vestforsk.no/en/project/ubiquitous-data-driven-urban-mobility.
7
http://setamobility.weebly.com/.
8
https://transformingtransport.eu/.
9
https://data.transformingtransport.eu/ was accessed on September 3, 2018.
10
http://noesis-project.eu/.
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 7

framework (i.e. a decision support tool) and data-driven evidence to enable the
deployment of a Big Data in transport ecosystem in Europe, by addressing the
related technological, institutional/legal, business, and policy challenges. Based
on a number of machine learning techniques to associate Ubiquitous Data with
a predefined set of use cases, the framework/tool will be used to assess the value
generated (i.e. socioeconomic impact) from Big Data investments. In order to
enhance the economic sustainability and competitiveness of European transport
sector, LeMO11 studies and analyses Big Data in the European transport domain
in particular with respect to five transport dimensions: mode, sector, technol-
ogy, policy and evaluation. Contrary to the NOESIS project that exploring case
studies after implementing a framework, LeMO conducts a series of case studies
to provide recommendations and roadmap on the prerequisites of effective Big
Data implementation in the transport field, towards data openness, collection,
exploitation and data sharing to support European transport stakeholders. In
addition, this project considers economic, legal, ethical, political and social issues
related to Ubiquitous Data in the field of transport. BDEM12 aims to develop a
international partnership between four countries (i.e. Norway, the USA, Japan
and Hong Kong) to share best practices, and strengthen research in Big Data
and emergency management. Another major initiative in our research group is
Teknoløft project (research-based technology innovation in Sogn og Fjordane
region) that aims to nurture and develop a strong knowledge platform on Big
Data, which enables local business to be able to use existing and new data for
innovation.
So far, some projects related to Ubiquitous Data (especially smart city, smart
transport and emergency management) are introduced. In common, the projects
argue that Ubiquitous Data should be available, accessible and reusable in order
to create more invaluable information and knowledge. In addition, various issues
(e.g. economic, legal, social, ethic, environmental issues) in target field also
should be considered to appropriately exploit Ubiquitous Data. More detail chal-
lenges and open issues will be discussed in Sect. 4.

3 Understanding Ubiquitous Data

The advent of Ubiquitous Data is explained by two parallel movements. One
is technological change, for instance cloud computing enables large volumes of
data to be stocked at low cost. The improved speed of data update and analysis
(real time) permits significant optimisations in all most economic sectors such
as transport, energy, construction, health and so on. In addition the advance of
many techniques in a variety of fields (e.g. machine learning, data mining and
artificial intelligence) are allowing to deal with various data forms and formats
likes images, texts, sounds and so on. Other change is in behaviour and use.
Nowadays, by the increase in Internet and social media usage, data produced
every day on the web represents the equivalent of information contained on 250
11
https://lemo-h2020.eu/overview/.
12
https://bdem.squarespace.com/.
8 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

million DVDs; On the horizon in 2020, there should be 50 million connected

devices globally (smart phones, tablets, smart watches and etc.) These move-
ments for Ubiquitous Data are addressing potential to add value as follows:
1. Data sharing between stakeholders at different levels, but whose interests
converge towards certain projects.
2. Crossing of different types and forms of data to keep creating more reliable
and easier-to-use services.
3. Interoperability of data, that is the technical capability to connect data of
different types and origins.
4. Citizen participation according to their right for the data that they produce
and want to put to good use.
These capabilities may be obtained, when following principles [9] of Ubiquitous
Data are sufficiently figured out.

– Data comes from activities. For instances, every movement of a freight,

change of factory temperature, or adjustment of a wing flap is an activity. In
most of the machines and buildings of the world, data/information created
without these activities is easily lost. Companies are in a race to digitize
and ‘datafy’ them before their rivals do. Digitizing activities means involving
sensors or mobile applications in the activities in some way, and datafying
activities means extending the observations you capture about them.
– Data tends to make more data. As one of examples, algorithms that use
accumulated data to predict maintenance schedules for electrical transformers
or inventory movements in automated warehouses produce data about their
own performance in order to be fed back into the system and improve their
future performance. This may becomes a competitive lead that’s very hard for
others to close. Businesses must develop both infrastructure and new skills in
experiment design, data analysis, and interpretation. Managing that process
will require new tactics to handle conflicting, data-driven perspectives on the
same topic.
– Platforms being preferred tend to win. The digitization and datafication
of more mechanized activities brings platform competition to industries that
have not seen it before. Already, luxury car makers are in a battle to be
the preferred platform for connected vehicle services. This same phenomenon
will change the terms of competition for wide areas from manufacturers to
construction.

Following sections present sources and processing of Ubiquitous Data in order

to glance these potentialities.

3.1 Ubiquitous Data Sources

3.1.1 Mobility Data
Among mobility data, mobile data rose in prominence with the advance of smart
phones and the interest in civic apps. A call record data containing attributes
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 9

that are specific to a single instance of a phone call (or data connection) such
as the phone numbers and the start/end time and the duration of that call,
as well as sensor data which generated embedded sensors to smartphone, even
applications installed in users mobile have been utilised in various fields (e.g.,
analysing individuals’ behaviour [10], building a network between different users
[11] and inferring other patterns [12]). For instance, this kind of data can be
studied to understand large-scale human mobility and trajectory patterns [13].
As another mobility data, data generated by moving vehicle traveling around a
city with a GPS sensor is sent to a central/distributed system and matched to
a road/rail/path network for deriving and managing traffic status. As becoming
this kind of data vary and complex by the emergence of (semi-)automated vehi-
cles and drones, its utilisation is being studied widely for various areas such as
transport optimisation [14], emergency management [15], sustainable city [16].
Commuting/public transport data, such as the card usage data for systems of a
bus and subway and the ticketing data in parking lots, is generated by people
living in cities. This kind of data generated by people passing entrances of a
subway station and getting a bus can be used for public transportation systems
in a city [17]. Each transaction record contains timestamps and the ID of the
station or bus as well as the fare for this move. Payment information created
from parking meters in street-side may include the time the parking ticket and
the fare. These data indicate the traffic of around a parking place, which can
be used to not only manage a city’s parking infrastructure [18] but also analyse
people’s travel patterns [19].

3.1.2 Environmental Data

Meteorological data enable to be crawled from public websites includes various
environmental information such as humidity, temperature, barometer pressure,
wind speed, and weather conditions [20]. It influences traffic flow and land uses.
On the one hand, there are many ways to collect traffic data, such as using
loop detectors, magnetometers, infrared sensors, surveillance cameras and so on
[21,22]. For example, the loop detectors are typically buried in the major roads
(e.g. highways). Such detectors deduces the travel speed of vehicles by using two
consecutive (i.e. a pair of) sensors. In addition, the traffic volume on a road can
be detected by counting the number of vehicles traversing the loop detectors.
However, its cost is usually expensive and area in which the sensors are embedded
and limited [23]. Therefore other data can be gathered via infrared or ultrasonic
sensors. Additionally, some traffic surveys can be conducted manually [24]. As
another instance, surveillance cameras, installed in cities over the last thirty or so
years, generate a huge amount of image and video data reflecting traffic patterns.
However, it is still challenge to automatically extract traffic information from
the collected data using machine learning techniques [25]. Hence, monitoring
citywide traffic status is mainly conducted through human resource.
10 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

3.1.3 Social Media Data

Due to the advent of the personal mobile devices and web 2.0, Social media data
consisting of social network (e.g. relationship, interdependency, or interaction)
and user-generated data (e.g., texts, photos and videos) has being utilised in the
wide fields such as transport sector [26], smart city [27] and emergency man-
agement [28]. It includes enriched information for ordinary or specific context
and users’ behaviour/interests. In particular, some part of the data have user’s
location and timestamp. Therefore many researchers and practitioners have been
tried to use it for their domains. However, there still are many issues such as reli-
ability, processing unstructured data [29], sparsity of locations [30] and privacy.
For instance, it is difficult to obtain reliable data from social media, since it is
usually many noisy and contain too broad information from daily life to specific
context [31]. In addition, social media, since it is content directly created by end
users, might carry personally identifiable information. Therefore, researchers and
practitioners should be mindful of any explicit or inferred personal information
in the data [32].

3.1.4 Geographical Data

Road network data is one of the most frequently utilised geographical data in var-
ious area, for instatnce, transport routing [14], city planning [33] and emergency
management [34]. This kind of data is able to be presented by a graph consisting
of edges (i.e. road segments) and a nodes (intersections). An edge explaining by
two nodes and a geospatial points is related to the length, speed constraint, tyep
of road and number of lanes, while a node has geospatial coordinates. On the
on hand, a Point of interest (POI), such as a restaurant, a museum and a zoo,
usually has a name, address, category and geospatial coordinates. It is difficult
to gather POI data due to a characteristic of their changing according to time.
For instance, a shop may replace its name, be moved to a new place, or even shut
down. The POI data can be generated by thwo methods: one is collected from
existing Yellow page data by geocoding algorithm, and the other is manually
gathering POI information (e.g., Navinfo and AutoNavi). In case of Foursquare,
as a location-based social networking service, end users is able to create a new
POI which has not been included in a system. Online map services (e.g., Google
maps and Bing) generally combine the aforementioned two approaches to collect
a large coverage of POIs. Therefore, issues have been arisen, such as accuracy of
POI [35], integrating the POI data from various [36] sources and so on.

3.2 Processing Ubiquitous Data

3.2.1 Architecture for Ubiquitous Data

In this subsection, we propose an architecture of Ubiquitous Data Analytics
platform as shown in Fig. 2 and briefly describe each component of the archi-
tecture. It consists of four layers such as data collection, analytics, management
and providing.
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 11

Fig. 2. An architecture for Ubiquitous Data Analytics platform

– Data collection layer gathering data is connected closely to physical world

and can often be called as edge computing (or network). Heterogeneous data
are generated from a variety of sources and transferred to edge clouds (or
routers) in order to conduct learning algorithms in real-time. Online or ensem-
ble learning technique has being studied as an appropriate approach for edge
analytics. Data preprocessing such as data reduction and reliability test is
necessary, since edge nodes have limited resources.
– Data analytic layer obtain various types of data from edge nodes to analyse
data using powerful resources (i.e., storage, computing power and so on) in
near real-time. This layer also performs data integration and fusion through
semantic and LOD techniques in order to obtain higher level of information
and knowledge. In addition, trust modelling and its learning are conducted
to a many amount of data based on the strong resources. The model learnt
may be propagated at each edge to test data reliability in real time. Last
refined or learnt data/information will be presented through service and data
interfaces to the application layer (e.g., platform, mobile app, visualisation,
website).
– Application layer directly connected with service providers or end users
to offer data/information. Here visualisation techniques openning a way of
efficient and effective information provision have being studied and utilised.
– Data management layer impacts other layers overall. Aforementioned
semantic/LOD techniques can also be used in data collection and data provid-
12 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

ing layers. For instance, a visualisation generating data network may utilise
LOD technique to discover relations (i.e. edges of graph) between data nodes.
Another important issue is preserving data security & privacy and must
be performed for all process carefully. Application programming interfaces
should be also offered to enhance the accessibility and usability of Ubiquitous
Data.

Next subsection presents more details for data management and analytics.

3.2.2 Data Management

Ubiquitous Data management involves development and execution of architec-
tures, policies, practices and procedures that properly manage the full data life-
cycle needs for applications using Ubiquitous Data [37]. As data comes from
different sources with different formats, there is a need for advanced data man-
agement features that will lead to recognizing the different formats and sources
of data, structuring, managing, classifying and controlling all these types and
structures. Ubiquitous data management should also provide scalable handling
for massive data to support offline applications as well as low latency processing
to serve effectively in real-time applications. In addition, it is a policy-based app-
roach for determining which information should be stored where within an orga-
nization’s IT environment, as well as when data can safely be deleted. Within
a typical enterprise, people with many different job titles may be involved in
ubiquitous data management. They are a chief data officer, chief information
officer, data managers, database administrators, data architects, data modelers,
data scientists, data warehouse managers, data warehouse analysts, business
analysts, developers and others.

3.2.3 Data Analytics

Typical analytic algorithms used in regular applications may not be sufficient
or efficient enough to handle Ubiquitous Data applications due to their unique
requirements and pressing need for high volume high speed processing. These
algorithms need to be optimized to handle high data volumes, large variety of
data types, time constraints on decision making processes, and distributed com-
ponents across various geographical locations. Also, these algorithms need to
work effectively across heterogeneous environments and be capable of managing
and operating in highly dynamic environments. Additionally, they should con-
sider handling hight data volumes, working across large variety of data types,
time constraints on decision making processes, geographical distributed compo-
nents [16]. Unobtrusive and ubiquitous sensing technologies, advanced data man-
agement and analytics models, and novel visualization methods, should be con-
nected to create win-win-win solutions that improve urban environment, human
life quality, and city operation systems.
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 13

4 Challenges and Open Issues

This section explores challenges and open issues on the Ubiquitous Data and
its utilisation. As aforementioned, Ubiquitous Data is dynamically changed with
respect to time and space and needs to be processed by considering its heteroge-
neous from various type of sources in real time. Actually, for instance, monitoring
traffic flow on a road segment is possible, but continually probing the citywide
traffic is challenging as we do not have sensors on every road segment; Addition-
ally, there is limited integration of ubiquitous data analytics and social comput-
ing; And there is an absence of effective models to predict behaviours efficiently;
Real-time prediction and mobility capabilities have not yet been incorporated
into the infrastructure for smart transport management. In this regard, follow-
ing challenges should be considered in order to unlock real values (range from
information to wisdom) of Ubiquitous Data.
Accessibility and Usability of Open Data: The open data movement is
based on the three principles of transparency, participation and collaboration
[38]. While it is believed that through openness, sharing and coopering, the
value of data to society can be truly realized, the rapid opening of government
data has not been universally welcomed. However, there are still many open
data portals simply providing dump files. These sites do not follow any standard
or even give any attention for the usability of the data. One of the reasons is
that they have been developed by hackathon enthusiasts or data divers [39]. In
these cases, unfortunately, there is often no post-event follow up, maintenance
or further development [40]. Openness usually refers a number of aspects that
circle around the fact that an element is openly (in the sense of publicly and
royalty free) available and reusable, developed in an open process, accessible at
minimum costs (in terms of data pure reproduction costs or even no costs).
Processing and Integration of Heterogeneous Data Sources: Overlap-
ping the same data, increasing performance and scalability and enabling real-
time data access are one of the challenges related to data processing and integra-
tion that should be addressed in the future. For instance, collecting data from
different sources, storing and providing data with a unified view, and adjusting
structures in semi-structured and unstructured data [41]. Traditional data min-
ing usually deals with data from a single domain. In the ubiquitous data era,
we face a diversity of datasets from different sources in different domains. These
datasets consist of multiple modalities, each of which has a different representa-
tion, distribution, scale, and density. How to unlock the power of knowledge from
multiple disparate (but potentially connected) datasets is paramount in ubiq-
uitous data research, essentially distinguishing ubiquitous data from traditional
data mining tasks. This calls for advanced techniques that can fuse the knowl-
edge from various datasets organically in a machine learning and data mining
task.
Spatio-Temporal Property: Spatio-temporal locality is central feature as well
as challenge of Ubiquitous Data. Temporality means whether the data describe
14 R. Akerkar and M. Hong

phenomena that change with time, while spatiality indicates whether the data
are spatially located. All most of Ubiquitous data have characteristics combined
of both features. In a typical scenario related to Ubiquitous Data, learning algo-
rithm has access to past and maybe present data from a time-varying distribu-
tion, and has to make inferences about the present or future. Additionally, it is
assumed that a data stream is constantly generated with a memory constrained
environment [42]. Thus, various techniques such as concept drift detectors, data
reduction, sliding windows and online/ensemble learners have being studied [43].
In this regard, ‘edge analytics’ is relatively new and it is still developing [44]. Once
it is sufficiently perfected, it may revolutionize the way we process ubiquitous
data. Basically, data is analysed the moment it is collected, so you immediately
have a complete analysis. This can be really useful for security cameras so that
irrelevant data is no longer stored, for navigation devices and so on.
Privacy and Security: A wide range of smart mobility technologies are being
deployed within ubiquitous environment. These technologies are generating huge
quantities of data and much of them in real-time. However, generating, process-
ing, analysing, sharing, and storing vast amounts of actionable data also raises
several concerns and challenges. For example, data privacy, data protection, and
data security issues are caused from the creation of smart mobility [45]. Privacy-
related issues arise when a system infers or restores personal information using
Big Data analytics tools, although data are anonymized. With the proliferation
of Big Data analytics technologies used in Ubiquitous data, the privacy issue has
become a core problem in the data mining domain. Another security risk associ-
ated with Ubiquitous Data is the heterogeneity of the types of devices used and
the nature of generated data (e.g., raw devices, data types and communication
protocols). To authenticate these devices, a system should assign and maintain a
nonrepudiable identification to each device. These activities results in increased
security risks [41].

5 Conclusion
As growing Ubiquitous Data at an alarming rate by varied array of sources,
such as embedded sensors, social media sites and the internet-of-things, this is
changing our reliance on data for making decisions. Nowadays, data analytics is
moving from being conducted by/for domain experts, to becoming necessary for
the end-user. However, there are still many challenges such as data availability,
processing heterogeneous data and privacy. In this paper, we presented recent
examples (e.g. projects, methodologies, tools and frameworks) on Ubiquitous
Data analytics and discussed on key question relating Ubiquitous Data to give
an outlook on the future of data analytics, a few research topics, challenges
and opportunities. In this regard, an architecture of Ubiquitous Data Analytics
platform was also proposed by considering recent environments and research
trends.
 Unlocking Value from Ubiquitous Data 15

Acknowledgements. This work is partially supported by the European Union’s Hori-

zon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 770038, UBI-
MOB project (270785) funded by the Norwegian Research Council in 2017 through
the IKTPLUSS programme, and BDEM project funded by the Research Council of
Norway (RCN) and the Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Education
(SiU) through the INTPART programme. Authors contributed equally to this work.

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goback=%2Egde 62438 member 217099766
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MCOM.2017.1600238CM
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 On Stone by C. Shoosmith from a Sketch by Jas. Henderson.
Printed by C. Hullmandel.
VIEW OF THE WESTERN SIDE OF THE BAY OF RIO DE JANEIRO, FROM THE
SUGAR LOAF MOUNTAIN TO THE CITY.
On the 22d of May, we discovered, at a distance, Cape Frio, a
discovery which always fills with joy the breasts of those making a
voyage to this part of the world. And no wonder. For having launched
out upon the wide immeasurable ocean, where uncertainty and
dangers always accompany him, man, at this refreshing sight, feels
reassured of his safety, and obtains a promise of the eventual
success of his voyage. Besides, he experiences a rich glow of mind
at viewing the natural element of his support and existence, and a
feeling of deep interest on beholding, if for the first time, a new
portion of the world. From this promontory, the coast swells in a
north-east direction to Cape St. Roque, forming the most easterly
portion of territory in South America. Rio de Janeiro lies exactly west
from, and in the same latitude with, Cape Frio, at a distance of about
eighty miles. The coast betwixt them presents a continued
appearance of rugged mountains, and through every aperture they
are seen undulating in accumulated alpines far back into the interior
of this vast continent. Tremendous precipices, at every opening of
the nearer mountains, strike the imagination with wonder, snowy
clouds occasionally obscuring the contracted valleys at their feet,
and resting in detached and airy vapours upon their sides, whilst
their summits and other parts are brightened by the purest
atmosphere and sunshine. This scene conveys to the European
traveller a grand idea and foretaste of the peculiar magnificence of
size and aspect, with which nature has displayed herself in the new
continent. After proceeding about forty miles along this shore, a view
is commanded from Cape Frio to Gavea, or the Parrot’s Beak, a
distance of near one hundred miles. The entrance, through a narrow
inlet amongst the mountains, to the bay of Rio de Janeiro, is pointed
out by one of a singular shape, resembling a sugar-loaf, the strata of
which it is composed appearing to run perpendicularly. Here is
presented one of the most picturesque and beautiful scenes that can
well be imagined. Abrupt and towering precipices of wild and fanciful
shapes, universally robed in verdant shrubs of various kinds,
surround this fine bay, containing nearly one hundred islands, to the
circumference of which the eye cannot extend. The bases of these
mountains, consisting of granite, are beautified with numerous
sweeping crescents of more perfect cultivation, edged with white
cottages and houses, from whence narrow valleys, adorned with
orange trees, are seen winding amongst the mountains. The clear,
sunny, and smiling face of nature; the verdant islands, which look in
their loveliness as if they were intended for the abode of beings more
refined in intellect and more pure in heart than weak and erring man;
the shipping dispersed about the bay, the city seen at a distance,
combined with an airy and elegant aqueduct, which conveys from
the mountains water for the supply of the town, all impressing the
idea of social happiness, of the comforts and elegancies produced
by science and civilized society, are, after a long and consequently
tedious voyage, welcome sights to the aquatic traveller, re-enlivening
his spirits, and, in the anticipation of the enjoyments of his proper
element, land, are the beginnings of the compensation it affords him
for the privations he has been enduring at sea. A little higher up, on
the opposite side to the sugar-loaf, is the fort of Santa Cruz, where
ships for a few minutes bring to, and answer various questions. From
hence a signal is made, which is repeated from a hill close by the
town, announcing to what country the ship arrived belongs. The
vessel then cast anchor off the island of Fort Villegagnon, to which
place she despatched a boat to bring on board a serjeant and two
soldiers, who remained as a guard, till nearly a day was consumed
before the captain of the port, a military officer, a doctor, &c. had,
one after the other, come off in boats, at their pleasure, to visit the
ship, creating an unnecessary and tedious delay. At last, the vessel
moved on to the vicinity of the Isle das Cobras, from whence, after a
custom-house guard had arrived, the soldiers conducted the Captain
and myself to the palace and other offices, where the ship’s name,
&c. were given in. On here taking leave of the brig, I must do justice
to my feelings by observing, that I received the most friendly
attention from the Captain, whose gentlemanly and well-regulated
conduct were highly honourable to him.
On landing, the prepossession regarding this place gives way to
an impression by no means favourable, produced by narrow streets,
crowded with negroes, whose black faces and savage songs, which
they howl out as an encouragement to each other under the burdens
and loads which they drag along, fill the mind of the stranger,
unaccustomed to such scenes, with dejection. The fairy visions in
the bay, too recent yet to have disappeared from the imagination,
vanished at such discordant sounds and uncouth appearances; and
suffering, rather than satisfaction and enjoyment, appeared to be
resident here. The discordant sounds afforded, perhaps, some
consolatory relief to the poor negroes, by dividing their attention in
some degree from their toil. They were an effort of nature, ever fertile
in resources under calamity, to drive away care; but they were on
that account a proof of their misery. They thus imparted a trifling
gratification to the sable sufferers, but they penetrated mournfully to
my heart, unused as I was to such misery-elicited minstrelsy, for it
was slavery under a temporary attempt at disguise. “Disguise thyself
as thou wilt, still, slavery!” said I, with Sterne, “still thou art a bitter
draught! and though thousands, in all ages, have been made to drink
of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account.”
 On Stone by C. Shoosmith from a Sketch by Jas. Henderson.
Redman Lithog.
CUSTOM HOUSE NEGROES. RIO DE JANEIRO.
The human frame will seldom bear, without injury, its
transmission to a climate very dissimilar to that to which its birth and
previous residence have accustomed it. Thus the English residing
here exhibit in their appearance the effects of this tropical climate,
and, although they are otherwise in health, there is a debility
manifest in their countenances, something resembling the
appearance of a person in a state of convalescence after illness.
I waited upon Henry Chamberlaine, Esq. the British charge
d’affaire, with a letter of introduction from a nobleman, and
discovered, at that interview, that my expectations of entering
actively upon the functions of a public situation were not likely to be
realized; I therefore adopted the determination, to which my mind
was pre-disposed, of devoting my time to the acquirement of such
intelligence, regarding the vast regions of the Brazil, as
circumstances would admit of. Houses of public accommodation
may be said scarcely to exist in this city, and are of such inferior
order, that strangers are peculiarly fortunate if they are received into
the residence of a friend. The liberality and frank hospitality of a
merchant, to whom I brought a letter of introduction, relieved me
from any inconvenience on this score. Previously to my entering
upon a general description of this city, and the several provinces
composing the Portuguese possessions in South America, of which it
is now the metropolis, it may not be irrelevant to give some account
of the first discovery of this widely-extended continent.
 CHAP. II.
From the First Discovery down to the Arrival of the Royal Family there,
and its present Division into Provinces—The general Character of
the Indians.
The honour of discovering the new world, it is well known, justly
belongs to Christopher Columbus, a pilot of Genoa, although it
derives its name from Americanus Vespuccius, a Florentine
navigator, who performed two voyages to this hemisphere, under the
auspices of his Castilian Majesty, and two others by order of
Emanuel, King of Portugal. The latter voyages the Portuguese
writers flatly deny, and attribute the promulgation of a story so devoid
of truth to the arrogance and pride of Vespuccius; nor, in fact, does
his relation respecting this point appear to be supported by any
collateral testimony. A mere accidental occurrence, indeed, induced
Columbus first to entertain the idea of launching out upon unknown
seas. The master of a caravelleon, named Francisco Sanches, about
the year 1480, arrived at Madeira, where Columbus then was, in a
most pitiable condition, with three or four sailors only remaining, and
nearly exhausted, in consequence of a tremendous tempest which
had assailed their ungovernable bark, and driven them to a remote
western longitude, where they saw, or fancied they saw, land. It was
in those days imagined, that the eastern coast of Asia was the
western boundary of the Atlantic Ocean, and Columbus was
persuaded, that the land which Sanches had seen was the island of
Japan, or some other island upon that coast, and which was then
only arrived at by navigating around the coast of Africa. The novel
circumstance stirred up in his mind the most animating
presentiments;—the glory of opening to India a shorter and more
easy passage, by proceeding directly across the Atlantic, inspired
Columbus with enthusiasm, and he flattered himself, that the
disclosure of his ideas would produce ready concurrence in
furnishing the adequate equipments for the enterprise. He
proceeded to Genoa for the purpose of proposing his plan, but it was
regarded there as a chimera. He submitted the same proposition to
John II. of Portugal, whose subject he then was, which was rejected
by the votes of some chosen geographers. He next directed his way
to the court of Castile, where the learned ones entertained the same
sentiments upon the subject as the cosmographers of Lusitania, and
where, perhaps, he would have been equally unsuccessful had not
the spontaneous offers which Luiz de Santangal made to provide all
the money requisite for the expedition, and the voluntary proposal of
Don Pedro de Mendonca to contribute one-eighth of the expenses,
overcome every difficulty. He sailed from Palos, with three
caravelleons under his command, on the 3d of August, 1492, and,
passing the Canaries, directed his course to the westward, till the
11th of October, when he descried an island, which he called St.
Salvador, now one of the Bahama Islands. He was much
disheartened at having traversed so much of the ocean with so little
success; but he continued, however, the voyage, and discovered the
Island of Cuba, of Hispaniola, now St. Domingo, and left 38 men
there in a wooden fort. He then retraced his way back, and arrived at
Lisbon on the 6th of March, 1493. Columbus made three other
voyages across the Atlantic, under the protection of Ferdinand V. His
second voyage was commenced from Cadiz, on the 25th of
September, 1493. He re-visited the Island of Hispaniola, discovered
Jamaica, and a great many other islands to the southward of Cuba,
and which, for its fertility and picturesque beauty, he denominated
the garden of the kingdom. Upon his third voyage, in 1498, he saw
the island of Trinidad, at the mouth of the Oronocos, on the 1st of
August. He afterwards disembarked on various parts of the coast of
Paria, returned to Hispaniola, and then to Europe. He sailed again
from Cadiz on the 9th of May, 1502, a third time visited Hispaniola,
and continued to navigate onward till he discovered the Island of
Guanaia, near Cape Honduras, and subsequently explored all the
coast of the continent, from Cape Gracias to Porto Bello.
Some persons, however, affirm that it is a great injustice to
attribute the honour of discovering this hemisphere to either of those
navigators, when it is certain that the oriental Syberios, called
Choukes, were in the habit of passing the Straits of Bhering, to the
American continent, in the summer season, from time immemorial.
The Danes discovered Greenland about the end of the tenth century,
and the Norwegians colonized it in the following one; and if this land
is not a portion of the continent, it is at least an island belonging to it.
Having briefly described the first discovery of the American
continent, it will now be in unison with the object of this work, to
invite the attention to an investigation of the circumstances resulting
from the discovery of that portion of it more immediately under
consideration, and which has excited endeavours on my part, very
inadequate to render justice to a subject of such prodigious
magnitude. The Portuguese imagine (and the inscriptions met with in
the Brazil would appear to corroborate the notion) that their
countryman and ancestor, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, was the first
discoverer of that country; but this honour indubitably belongs to the
celebrated Spanish pilot, Vincente Yanez Pinson, the companion of
Columbus in his first voyage across the Atlantic; and who, it is
affirmed, would not have acquired the fame of first descrying the new
world, had not the despondency which was clouding his mind, in the
progress of that voyage, been dispelled by the animating hope of
success with which Pinson encouraged him. In virtue of a
commission granted to Vincente Yanez Pinson, by the Castilian
court, he quitted his native shores in pursuit of undiscovered
countries, in the month of December, 1499. He shaped his course
more to the southward than his late commander, Columbus; and on
the 26th of January, 1500, discovered land in about 8° south latitude,
having crossed the Atlantic in as short a period as the voyage is
commonly accomplished in at this day; evincing an undaunted spirit
and disregard to the prevailing practice then existing amongst
navigators, of taking in all sail and lying to during the night. The
discovery of this new land must have been highly consolatory and
gratifying to his feelings; he gave it, therefore, the name of Cape
Consolation, which can be no other than Cape St. Augustine,
situated about twenty miles to the south of Pernambuco. Pinson
vainly went through the ceremony of taking possession of the
country for the Spanish crown. The natives which they saw were
exceedingly shy, and they endeavoured without success to
accomplish any intercourse with them. He proceeded northward,
towards Cape St. Roque, with his ships, and, again landing upon the
intervening coast, his people had several rencounters with a horde of
savages very different to the first they had seen. These Indians used
the bow and arrow, and attacked the Spaniards with great spirit and
dexterity. This reception induced Pinson to continue his course along
the northern coast of the Brazil; and, after proceeding as far as the
Oronocos, he returned to Europe without any manifest advantage
resulting from this undertaking. Although he was unfortunate in
losing some of his ships on the homeward voyage, he displayed
considerable nautical skill in conducting his vessels in safety along
the most difficult and dangerous part of the Brazilian coast.
During the period that Pinson was thus occupied, Portugal was
fitting out a fleet with much pomp and parade in the river Tagus, not
with any project of discovering a new territory, but in consequence of
Don Vasco da Gama having arrived at Lisbon, with certain
intelligence of having ascertained the navigation to India, round the
Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese King, Emanuel, determined to
send a fleet to establish friendship and a treaty of commerce with the
King of Calcutta, and to create a factory in the same city.
Merchandise of the best taste was selected for the outward cargo,
and the ships were to be laden in return with spices. For the
command of this fleet, which consisted of ten caravels, and three
larger vessels, a fidalgo was chosen, called Pedro Alvarez Cabral.
The number of persons on board amounted to twelve hundred well
selected and well armed. The fleet was prepared in front of the
Rastello, now called Belem; and it was determined that it should sail
on the 9th of March, 1500. At the vespers preceding, which was on
Sunday, the King went with all the court to open mass, in the
hermitage of our Lady of Belem, (or Bethlehem,) which site is
occupied at this day by the magnificent monastery of P. P.
Jeronymos. Diogo Ortiz, Bishop of Ceuta, delivered a discourse
upon the object of the expedition; and, during the service, a flag was
placed upon the altar, with the cross of the order of Christ, which the
Bishop, with imposing ceremony, consecrated; and the King, with his
own hands, delivered it to Cabral, who was near his Majesty during
the ceremonies. The funçaō being finished, the colours were carried
in procession, accompanied by the King, to the beach, where Cabral
and most of the captains kissed his hand, and at the same time a
grand salute was fired by the whole fleet. This was considered the
most powerful and brilliant armament that had ever sailed from
Portugal for distant countries. The other captains were Sancho de
Thoar (with succession to Admiral Cabral), N. Coelho (who had been
with Vasco da Gama), S. de Miranda d’Azevedo, A. G. da Sylva, V.
d’Athayde, S. de Pina, N. Leytao, P. d’Athayde, L. Pirez, Gaspar de
Lemos, the celebrated Bartholomew Dias, discoverer of the Cape of
Good Hope, and Diogo Dias, his brother, who were to remain with
the factory to be established. There were, besides, seven Franciscan
friars, subordinate to one named Frey Henrique, who was afterwards
bishop of Ceuta, eight chaplains, and a vicar, to administer the
sacraments in the factory of Calcutta. Ayres Correa was appointed
factor, or head of the establishment; and G. Barboza, and Pedro Vas
de Caminho, escrivaōs, or writers.
On the 14th of March, the fleet passed the Canaries; and after
having seen the island of St. Nicholas, one of the Cape de Verds, on
the 22d, they discovered that the vessel of V. d’Athayde was
missing. Cabral took every pains to fall in with it again, but without
effect. He continued his voyage, and in order to avoid being detained
by the calms peculiar to the coast of Africa, and to profit by the
prevailing north-east trade wind, they stood so much to the
westward, that, on the 21st of April, (the last Oitava of Pascal,) they
met with signals of land, (which were certain floating plants,) and late
on the following day, in latitude 17° south, they saw a large round
mountain with smaller hills, which were the highest portions of the
Serra, now called Aymores, mostly covered with wood. Cabral made
a signal to the other ships to approach the land, and by sun-set they
anchored in 19 fathoms, about six leagues from it. From respect to
the oitavario,[1] Cabral gave the mountain the name of Mount
Pascal, which it yet retains; and the land he called Vera Cruz. The
following day they sailed towards the land, and came in front of the
mouth of a river now called Rio de Frade (River Friar); and remained
half a league distant from it during the night, with some difficulty, in
consequence of a strong south-east wind setting in. Captain N.
Coelho examined the river the same day, which was found incapable
of receiving even the smallest vessels of the fleet; and the wind not
being favourable to coast towards the south, Cabral ordered the fleet
to navigate northward, and despatched Affonso Lopez, his pilot, in
one of the smallest caravels, to proceed nearer the beach, and to
examine the first part he met with.
The squadron having coasted on about ten leagues, met with the
bay of Corôa Vermelha, otherwise Cabral, where, towards the
evening, the caravels nearest entered. Affonso Lopez, who was
sounding the port, met with two young Indians in a canoe, whom he
carried to the admiral, who had anchored with the larger ships a
league from the reefs, which were at the entrance of the bay. They
were next morning placed upon the beach dressed in Portuguese
clothes, accompanied by a degradado, or criminal, in order to
observe the mode of living which prevailed amongst the natives.
The fleet remained here eight days, during which time mass was
celebrated twice by Frey Henrique; the first, on Easter Sunday, upon
an island (its name is now Corôa Vermelha) within the bay, in sight of
a great number of Indians assembled upon the continental beach;
the other, on the 1st of May, at the foot of a grand cross, which had
been erected upon the main land, with the arms of King Emanuel, in
testimony of the solemn possession which in his name had been
taken of this new land of Vera Cruz.
There is a letter in the naval archives at Rio de Janeiro, written by
P. V. de Caminho (one of the escrivaōs already mentioned) to King
Emanuel, giving a minute detail of all the circumstances attending
the stay of the armament in this port, which Cabral called “Porto
Seguro,” in noticing which, the above letter, written in language
differing from that of the present day, says, “Acharam hos ditos
navios pequenos huum a recife com huum porto dentro muyti boo, e
muyti seguro com huuma muy larga entrada, e meterem-se dentro.”
Also, “entraram toda las naaos e amcoraram-se em simco, seis
bracas, ha qual amcorajem demtro he tam grande e tam fremosa, e
tam segura, que podem jaser demtro neela mais de duzentos navios
e naaos.”[2] He says the Indians were quite naked, and their bodies
painted with various colours. They wore pendants of white bone from
their ears. Their cheeks were in like manner ornamented with bones,
and their lips slit, into which similar ornaments were also introduced.
They used bows and arrows. The two natives who came on board,
when they saw the gold embroidery upon the collar of Cabral’s coat,
danced, put their hands to the ground, and then to the collar: they
showed the same feeling in regard to silver; from which it was
inferred that those precious metals were not unknown to them. This
letter also says, “Mostraram lhes huum papagayo pardo que aquy ho
capitam tras; tomaram no logo na maao; mostraram lhes huum
carneyro, non fezeram delle mençam; mostraram lhes huuma
galinha, e asy aviam medo dela, e nom lhe queriam poeer ha
maao.”[3] The Portuguese offered them bread, dressed fish, and
other things, which on tasting they put out of their mouths; also wine,
which they did not like, and would not take it a second time. They
established a friendly intercourse with those Indians, from whom
they received in exchange for trifling articles, fruits, farinha (or flour)
of the mandioca, maize, &c. This writer, with many of the captains,
went a league and a half up the country, where they met with a body
of Indians, who had nine or ten houses rudely built of wood covered
with grass; each house had two small entrances, and was large
enough to receive thirty or forty persons. It consisted of but one
apartment, without any division. They bartered with them things of no
value for large and beautiful red parrots, two small green ones, and
other things. They went on shore again the next day to get wood and
wash linen, when they found sixty or seventy Indians, without bows
or any thing else, upon the beach, which number soon increased to
two hundred, all without bows and arrows. They mixed amongst the
Portuguese, and assisted them to collect wood and put it on board
the boats. That Cabral considered this land an island is evidenced by
the conclusion of the letter. “Beijo haas maaos de V. A. deste Porto
Seguro da vosa Ilha da Vera Cruz. Hoje, Sesta feira primeiro dia de
Mayo, 1500. P. V. de Caminha.”[4]
On the 2d of May, this fleet sailed from Porto Seguro, and
proceeded on its voyage to India, leaving two degradados behind,
who were seen lamenting and crying upon the beach, and the men
of the country comforting them, demonstrating that they were not a
people devoid of pity.[5] One of them soon learnt the idiom of the
Indians called Tupininquins. He served as interpreter to the first
Portuguese who arrived there, and afterwards returned home. Some
of the Portuguese writers are piqued at the Spanish authors, Berredo
and Antonio Galvum, for pretending, as they say, that their
countryman, Vincente Yanez Pinson first discovered the Brazil; and
they bring, as testimony against the Spaniards, the following
statement of Robertson. “Vicente Yanez Pinson, one of the admiral’s
companions in his first voyage, sailed from Palos with four ships; he
stood boldly towards the south, and was the first Spaniard who
ventured to cross the equinoctial line; but he seems to have landed
on no part of the coast beyond the mouth of the Marignon, or River
of the Amazons.” Robertson does not make a positive assertion that
Pinson did not land upon any other part of the Brazilian coast, nor
does he enter into particulars or give any dates. The river Amazons
is the north-western boundary of the Brazil; and even if he only
landed at the mouth of this great river, he of course landed upon the
Brazilian territory, and was unquestionably the first discoverer of it.
Conceding to the Portuguese the passage which they adduce from
Robertson, it offers no contradiction to the circumstances and dates
already detailed of Pinson’s voyage, which show him to have
anticipated the Portuguese at least three months in this discovery.
Cabral despatched Gaspar de Lemos from Porto Seguro, to
announce to the King this new land, which had been taken
possession of in his Majesty’s name. It is said that Lemos coasted
northward as far as Cape St. Roque, to ascertain the extent of this
territory which they had considered an island. Emanuel was so
delighted with the discovery of Vera Cruz, that he resolved to send
out another squadron to explore more minutely its extent; and it
appears that three caravels were ordered to sail upon this project
from the Tagus, on the 1st of May, 1501, but there is a considerable
doubt who was the commander of them; some say it was
Americanus Vespuccius, others, that it was Gonsalo Coelho. Cabral
met this squadron at Goree on his return from India, but the
commander’s name is not mentioned. “Che gamos ao Cabo da Boa
Esperance dia de Pascoa e encontrando alli bom tempo,
continuamos a viagem, e aportamos junto a Cabo Verde em
Bezenegue, onde encontramos tres caravellas, que El Rey de
Portugal mandara para descubrir a terra nova que tinhamos achado
hindo para Calecute.”[6] Francisco de Cunha, author of the
Geographical Description of Portuguese America, states that
(“Gonsala Coelho fora o primeiro explorador da Costa Bazillica
depois de Cabral e Lemos,”) Gonsalo Coelho was the first explorer
of the Brazilian coast after Cabral and Lemos. Americanus
Vespuccius, in his own manuscript, asserts that he undertook two
voyages for the King of Portugal, this being the first. It is difficult to
arrive at a fair conclusion from this conflicting testimony, whether he
or G. Coelho had the command of those three caravels. The
Portuguese deny positively that it was Vespuccius; and a French
writer of “the General History of Voyages” peremptorily falsifies all
that Vespuccius has advanced upon the subject. “Les relations
d’Americ Vespuce contienent le recit de deux voiages, qu’il fit sur la
même côte (du Brezil), au nom d’Emanuel, Rio de Portugal; mais les
dates en sont fausses, et c’est en quoi consiste l’imposture; car il est
prouvé par tous les temoignages contemporains que dans le tems
qu’il nomme, il étoit emploie à d’autres expeditions.”[7] Antonio
Galvum mentions the expedition but not the commander. All the
evidence however, regarding this squadron, concur as to the time of
its sailing, and arrival at the Brazil on the 17th of August. After a long
and tempestuous voyage, they made land near Rio Grande, to the
south of Cape St. Roque, where they met with Indians of a savage
nature and decidedly cannibals. Several people from the Portuguese
ships were seized by them, roasted over a large fire in presence of
their countrymen, with loud shoutings and rejoicings. The cannibals
were so expert with their bows and arrows, that this fleet was
considerably annoyed by them, and induced to coast on to the
latitude of 8° south, near Pernambuco, where they met with friendly
Indians,[8] and established an intercourse with them. After a few
days, they continued their voyage along the coast, and met with a
kind reception every where from the natives, who allowed them to
land and make their observations without injury upon the country and
its productions. They described the natives as being exceedingly
well made, and universally attached to the custom of perforating their
faces and ears, and wearing bones and stones as ornaments. They
coasted on to 32° south latitude, and, standing out to sea, reached
as high a latitude as 52° south, where, in consequence of a
tempestuous lebeccio, they were compelled to return, and arrived at
Lisbon in September, 1502, having lost two vessels.
Another expedition of six caravels sailed from Lisbon on the 10th
of June, 1503, with the avowed object of prosecuting still further the
examination of Vera Cruz. A variety of contradictory statements
render it doubtful who was the real commander of this squadron,
although the balance of testimony in this, as in the former case, is
much in favour of Gonsalo Coelho. Americanus Vespuccius again
alleges that he accompanied this fleet, and with two ships proceeded
forward to the coast of the Brazil, leaving the other four vessels at an
island, some of them wrecks; and he says those four vessels were
all lost through the want of ability on the part of the commander,
whose name he does not disclose. A work published at Paris,
attributing the command of the three first caravels to Vespuccius,
continues thus:—“El Rey D. Manuel extremamente affeicoado a
Vespucio deu lhe o commando de seis navios com os quaes sahiu a
dez de Mayo, 1503, e passou ao longo das costas d’Africa, e do
Brazil, com o intuito de descubrir uma passagem pelo occidente
para as Ilhas Mallucas, como ao depois se-descubriu: depois
d’apportar na Bahia de todos os Santos, navegou athe os Abrolhos
e rio Curababo, como nāo tinha mantimentos senāo para Vinte
mezes, tomou a resoluçao de voltar a Portugal onde chegou a
dezoito de Junho, 1504.”[9] Maneol Ayres de Cazal supposes
Christovam Jacques to have been the commander, and Francisco de
Cunha says, that the King “Mandou logo preparar outra armada de
caravellas que entregou a Christovam Jacques, fidalgo de sua casa
e com o titulo de Cap-Mor, o mandou continuar n’este empressa
descubrindo aquella costa, sahui armada, e seguindo viagem
chegou a costa, sondando baixos e rios pondo padroes d’armas
Portuguezes, foi dar a huma bahia, aque poz o nome de Todos
Santos, e depois deligencias se recolhou a Portugal.”[10] But Damian
de Goes assigns the command to Goncallo Coelho. “No mesmo
anno de 1503 mandou Goncallo Coelho com seis naus a terra de St.
Cruz com que partiu de Lisboa a hos dez dias de mez de Junho; das
quaes por ainda terem pouca noticia da terra perdeu quatro, e has
outras duas trouxe aho regno com mercadorias da terra que entam
nam eram outras que pau vermelho que chamam Brazil, e
papagaios.”[11]
The testimony of three writers attribute the command of these six
caravels to three distinct individuals; but, from a fair investigation of
each statement, that of Goes, who assigns the command to Coelho,
appears more consonant with truth and the intentions of the King,
than the other two relations. The collateral supporter of Vespuccius’
claim, represents the object of the expedition to be for the discovery
of the Moluccas, which certainly does not coincide with the desire of
an immediate and continued exploration of St. Cruz, (or Vera Cruz,)
that seemed to actuate his Majesty solely in fitting it out; nor does
this account say any thing of the loss of four of the caravels, which is
generally admitted. Cunha, who gives the command to Jacques,
most probably alludes to the armament which that person had under
his orders in the year 1516, when he proceeded to the Brazil, and
then entered the bay of All Saints.
Assuming that G. Coelho was the admiral of these caravels, on
traversing the Atlantic they were driven by a severe gale to 3° south
latitude, where a loss of four was sustained upon some rocks in the
proximity of an island, which beyond a doubt was Fernando de
Noronha, situated in 3° 50′ south latitude. The two remaining vessels
continued their course to the coast of Vera or St. Cruz, and made
land near a magnificent bay (Bahia), which they entered, and gave
the appellation of Todos os Santos, (being All Saints Day.) They
coasted on southward, constantly approximating to the land, where
the shore presented no obstacles, minutely inspecting all its
remarkable rivers, ports, capes, and headlands, the adjacent islands,
and the coast generally, as far as Cape Virgins, near the Straits of
Magellan. They erected stone pillars, bearing the arms of Portugal,
in some of the most conspicuous situations. They left at Porto
Seguro, a colony consisting of a part of the persons who had
escaped from the shipwrecked vessels, with two Franciscan
missionaries, and returned to Portugal laden with Brazil wood. This
wood had now acquired such reputation in Europe, that the name of
St. Cruz, otherwise Vera Cruz, given to the country by Cabral, was
lost in the denomination which it universally received of the Brazil,
(or Brazil wood country.)
In the same year, 1503, before the explorer Coelho reached the
land of Vera Cruz, Don Affonso d’Albuquerque arrived upon the
coast, having left Lisbon, on the 6th of April, with a squadron under
his command for India: the latitude or part of the Brazil that he saw is
not stated, but he observed the cassia and verniz trees. (“Buona
somma di cassia et di vernizo, altro di momenti non abiamo
compreso”—Ramuzio.) Shortly after Coelho’s return, a contract was
granted for the Brazil wood, and the colony began to be frequently
visited by the caravels of the contractors.
The King of Castile despatched Juan Dias de Solis, in the year
1509; and it is said the celebrated pilot Vincente Yanez Pinson
accompanied him, to take possession of a part of the newly-
discovered country, and in pursuance of this project they erected
crosses upon different parts of the coast. The King of Portugal
remonstrated against this proceeding as an intrusion upon his share
of the division of undiscovered countries, which Alexander VI. had
very artfully assigned to those two nations. Feelings of bitter regret
cannot but arise in the mind, on contemplating, at the present day,
this fine and fairest portion of the new world, placed in such hands
by an imaginary partition of unknown lands. Had this best and richest
region of America fallen to the share of the English, French, or
Dutch, it would no doubt have assumed a very different appearance,
compared with its actual state. That this would have been the case is
evident, from the present immensely superior condition of the Anglo-
American states, the territory of which was colonized at a later period
than Brazil, and whose soil is in general so inferior to the latter
country. The occasion of the difference may be mainly attributed to
the very opposite genius of the governments and religion under the
English and Portuguese; the free and wise character of the former
giving every facility to talent and industry of all descriptions, while the
ignorant and oppressive nature of the latter, especially in relation to
the commercial restrictions, which, till the arrival of the King, had
unfortunately existed, and in the domination of the priesthood over
the consciences and property of the people, operating as a paralysis
on agricultural, commercial, and scientific enterprise, and upon all
the beneficial pursuits of the mind. It is now, however, pleasing to
observe, that a very striking change has and is taking place in these
matters, the views of his present Majesty being favourable to the
amelioration of the country.
In 1510, a Portuguese ship was wrecked at the entrance of the
Bay of All Saints. The greater part of the crew escaped, and twenty-
five years afterwards nine sailors were found living amongst the
Indians. Another account affirms that they were all seized by the
natives and devoured excepting Diogo Alvarez, a man of
distinguished family, who contrived to make himself useful to those
cannibals; and acquired the name of “Caramura”—“a man of fire,” on
his first discharging a gun, which he had saved from the wreck.
In 1513, George Lopez Bixorda presented to King Emanuel three
Brazilian Indians, whom he had brought home in a contract vessel.
They were dressed with feathers, according to the fashion of their
tribe.
The King of Castile ordered Solis upon a second expedition, in
the year 1515, with a view of discovering a western passage to India.
In the prosecution of this voyage he discovered a large river, which
he called the River Solis. This name was very improperly
superseded by the appellation of Prata, or Plate, (the Silver River.)
He lost his life upon its banks by the hands of the Indians, who slew
him with their clubs, and roasted and devoured him within sight of his
countrymen. In justice, the river ought to have retained his name. His
death frustrated the object of the voyage, and the ships put back,
took in Brazil wood near the island of Itamaraca, and returned to
Spain. The Portuguese again demanded satisfaction for this
infringement, which was at last amicably adjusted.
Christovam Jacques, in the year 1516, entered the bay of All
Saints with a squadron of caravels, and in the course of exploring its
extensive limits, its rivers, and creeks, he fell in with two French
ships, which had previously entered the bay, and were loading with
Brazil wood, of which they had a considerable quantity on board, as
well as parrots and monkeys. He engaged the vessels, and after a
spirited defence they were destroyed. Subsequently, it would appear
from the testimony of a letter of donation to Pedro Lopez de Souza,
(who chose Itamaraca for part of his grant,) and by one which John
III. ordered to be written to Martim Affonso de Souza, that
Christovam Jacques was employed in establishing a factory upon
the channel which separates the island of Itamaraca from the
continent, destined to facilitate the exportation of Brazil wood, and to
impede the attempts of other nations who might visit that quarter in
quest of it.
Diogo Garciam, a Portuguese pilot in the service of the Castilian
court, arrived near the mouth of the river Paraguay, in the year 1527,
and found there the ships with which Sebastian Caboto had sailed
from Cadiz, with the intention of proceeding to the Moluccas by the
straits of All Saints, now Magellan’s. He learned that the captain had
gone up the Paraguay, then River Solis, and proceeded with two
launches much above the confluence of the Parana in pursuit of him.
He found him engaged in the construction of the fort of St. Anna,
where they mutually agreed to give to the river Solis the name of the
river Prata, in consequence of seeing small pieces of that metal in
the possession of the Indians. Herrera states, that Diogo Garciam,
on his way to the river Solis, entered the bay of St. Vincente, (then
the River Innocentes,) where a Portuguese, who had been
shipwrecked, provided him with refreshments; also, that Garciam
anchored off the island of Patos, at the present day St. Catherine’s,
where the Indians furnished him with some provisions. He carried
with him sixty men, in two brigantines, to the fort of St. Anna; and
before his departure he despatched one of the largest vessels of his
squadron to St. Vincente, to take in a cargo, which he had agreed
with the Portuguese mentioned, to be sent to Portugal. It is probable
that this individual was either Joam Ramalho or Antonio Rodriguez,
whom Martim Affonso de Souza found there five years afterwards. It
would appear that some Portuguese had been established at St.
Vincente some years; and the evidence of Herrera, that some
Indians had been shipped from thence to Portugal in 1527, would
tend to demonstrate that a factory had existed there previous to the
arrival of Martin A. de Souza, (the first donatory,) and which factory
had conceded to Pedro Goes the power of shipping to Portugal a
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