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Metaphysics, Sophistry,
and Illusion
Toward a Widespread Non-Factualism
by
MARK BALAGUER
1
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3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
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© Mark Balaguer 2021
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2021
Impression: 1
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a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2020950772
ISBN 978–0–19–886836–1
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198868361.001.0001
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for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 27/11/2020, SPi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments xi
1. Introduction 1
1.1 A Synopsis of This Book 1
1.2 The Ways in Which My View Is and Isn’t Anti-Metaphysical 7
1.3 What I Say Here Isn’t Really True 9
PART I NON-FACTUALISM
2. Against Trivialism and Mere-Verbalism (and Toward a Better
Understanding of the Kind of Non-Factualism Argued for in
This Book) 13
2.1 Opening Remarks 13
2.2 Two (or Three) Kinds of Anti-Metaphysicalism 14
2.3 Non-Mere-Verbalist Non-Factualism 19
2.4 Some General Remarks about Metaphysical Problems 20
2.5 Against Metametaphysical Verbalism 25
2.6 A Recipe for Finding Non-Verbal Debates 37
2.7 Against Actual-Literature Verbalism 39
2.8 Why Trivialism Without Metametaphysical Verbalism Is
Metaphysically Uninteresting 41
2.9 Two Kinds of Non-Factualism 43
3. How to Be a Fictionalist about Numbers and Tables and Just
about Anything Else 45
3.1 Opening Remarks 45
3.2 The Mathematics-Based Argument Against Non-Factualism 46
3.3 A Theory of Objective Fictionalistic Mathematical Correctness 52
3.4 FBC-Fictionalism to the Rescue 63
3.5 Do FBC-Fictionalists Unwittingly Commit to Abstract
Objects? 70
3.6 Generalizing the Fictionalist Strategy (or Fictionalist Views
of Other Kinds of Objects) 71
3.7 The Response to the Objection to Non-Factualism 78
3.8 A Recipe for Responding to Section-2.4-Style Arguments 79
3.9 A Possible Slight Alteration to What I’ve Said Here 79
3.10 A Worry and a Response 80
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PART II NEO-POSITIVISM
7. What Is Neo-Positivism and How Could We Argue for It? 201
7.1 Opening Remarks 201
7.2 What Is Neo-Positivism? 201
7.3 Why Neo-Positivism Isn’t Self-Refuting 203
7.4 How to Argue for Neo-Positivism: The General Plan 205
7.5 Step 1 of the Neo-Positivist Argument: How to Decompose a
Metaphysical Question 205
7.6 Step 2 of the Neo-Positivist Argument 209
7.7 Appendix on Scientism 214
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ix
References 275
Index 287
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Acknowledgments
I’ve been working on this book for a long time, and a lot of people have read parts
of it (or other works of mine that were, in some sense or other, early versions of
parts of this book) and offered helpful feedback. Thanks are due (at least!) to the
following people: Brad Armour-Garb, Jody Azzouni, Sara Bernstein, Daniel
Bonevac, Otávio Bueno, Ross Cameron, Joe Campbell, Rebecca Chan, Sam
Cowling, Foad Dizadji-Bahmani, Russell Dale, Matti Eklund, Nina Emery,
Hartry Field, John Martin Fischer, Chris Franklin, Carl Ginet, Patrick Girard,
Ricardo Gomez, Alex Grzankowski, Terry Horgan, Eli Hirsch, Manyul Im, Robert
Jones, Robert Kane, Jerry Katz, Arnie Koslow, Uriah Kriegel, Fred Kroon, Jim
Landesman, Matt Leonard, Maureen Linker, Michael Liston, Heather Logue, Ned
Markosian, Dave MacCallum, Penelope Maddy, Russell Marcus, Storrs McCall,
Michael McKenna, Colin McLarty, Henry Mendell, Elliott Mendelson, Yiannis
Moschovakis, Michael Nelson, Daniel Nolan, Timothy O’Connor, Josh Parsons,
Derk Pereboom, Josh Rasmussen, Mike Raven, Kate Ritchie, Mike Resnik, Gideon
Rosen, Raul Saucedo, Stephen Schiffer, Scott Shalkowski, Stuart Shapiro, Ted
Sider, Shel Smith, Michael Strevens, Jack Spencer, Amie Thomasson, Patrick
Todd, Kelly Trogdon, Kadri Vihvelin, Adam Vinueza, Michael Weisberg, David
Widerker, Wai-hung Wong, Steve Yablo, and Ed Zalta. I have almost certainly
forgotten to list some other people who have offered feedback on works of mine
that has been helpful in the writing of this book. For that, I apologize.
Special thanks, for reading and providing helpful feedback on large chunks of
this book, are due to Talia Bettcher, Michaela McSweeney, and David Pitt. And
extra special thanks go to David Builes for reading and giving me useful feedback
on a draft of the entire manuscript.
I would also like to thank Stephan Leuenberger and Jared Warren, who served
as referees for the book for Oxford University Press and who gave me useful
feedback on the penultimate draft. And, finally, I would like to thank Peter
Momtchiloff for helpful discussions regarding the overall structure of the book.
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1
Introduction
In this book, I’ll do two things. First, I’ll introduce a novel kind of non-factualist
view and argue that we should endorse views of this kind in connection with a
wide class of metaphysical questions—most notably, the abstract-object question
and the composite-object question (i.e., the questions that ask whether there are
any such things as abstract objects and composite objects). Most of the argument
for this claim will come in Part I, but section 9.2 is relevant to this as well. Second,
in Part II, I’ll explain how my non-factualist views fit into a general anti-
metaphysical view that I call neo-positivism; and I’ll explain how we could go
about arguing that neo-positivism is true; and I’ll take a few first steps toward
filling the argument in.
In general, if MQ is a metaphysical question, then non-factualism about MQ is
the view that there’s no fact of the matter what the answer to MQ is. It’s important
to note, however, that there are multiple kinds of non-factualist views; in
Chapter 2, I’ll clearly articulate the kind of non-factualist view that I’ll be arguing
for in this book. For now, let me just note that my non-factualist views are
importantly different from the kinds of anti-metaphysical views that have been
popular in the philosophical literature. Most notably, they’re different from views
of the following two kinds:
Trivialism about MQ: There’s a fact of the matter about the answer to MQ, but
it’s an utterly trivial fact—along the lines of the fact that all bachelors are
unmarried, or the fact that there are no married bachelors. More specifically,
the facts that settle MQ aren’t substantive metaphysical facts; they’re just semantic
facts (together perhaps with uncontroversial empirical facts).
Mere-Verbalism about MQ: The debate about MQ is merely verbal (I’ll have a
good deal to say about what this means in Chapter 2).
Trivialist and/or mere-verbalist views have been endorsed by, e.g., Hume (1748),
Carnap (1950), Putnam (1987, 1994), Parfit (1995), Sosa (1999), van Fraassen
(2002), Hirsch (2002, 2009), Sidelle (2002, 2007), Schiffer (2003), Thomasson
(2007, 2009a, 2015), Chalmers (2011), and Rayo (2013). In Chapter 2, I’ll argue
that mere-verbalist views are false, and I’ll argue that given the falsity of
Metaphysics, Sophistry, and Illusion: Toward a Widespread Non-Factualism. Mark Balaguer, Oxford University Press (2021).
© Mark Balaguer. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198868361.003.0001
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2
¹ We’ll see in Chapter 2 that mere-verbalism can be combined with non-factualism, and indeed, that
some of the people mentioned in the text are mere-verbalist-style non-factualists; but as I’ll make very
clear in Chapter 2, the non-factualist views that I’ll be arguing for in this book are not of the mere-
verbalist kind.
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The claim that there’s no fact of the matter whether there are any objects of the
above kinds—i.e., abstract objects like numbers and material objects like planets
and electrons—gives rise to an obvious problem. There are extremely good
reasons to think that (a) our mathematical theories commit to the existence of
abstract objects, and (b) our scientific theories (and many of the claims that we
make in ordinary discourse) commit to the existence of both abstract objects and
material objects. But if this is so, then my non-factualist views seem to imply that
our mathematical and scientific theories (and many of our ordinary-discourse
claims) are not true; it seems that if my non-factualist views are right, then at best,
there’s no fact of the matter whether our mathematical and scientific theories
are true.
You might think this result is unacceptable, but in Chapter 3, I argue that it’s
not. I do this by arguing for a fictionalist view according to which there’s an
objective kind of correctness that applies to our mathematical and scientific
theories, even if those theories aren’t strictly true; more specifically, on the view
I develop, whenever realists about abstract objects and material objects say that a
mathematical or empirical theory (or an ordinary-discourse claim) is true, non-
factualists can say that the given theory (or ordinary claim) is for-all-practical-
purposes true. And I use this result to explain why our mathematical and empirical
theories are useful to us, why they seem right to us, and why it wouldn’t matter—
i.e., wouldn’t be harmful to our purposes—if they weren’t strictly speaking true.
The idea, then, is that non-factualism about the existence of kind-K objects is to
be combined with fictionalism about our discourse about kind-K objects—in
particular, a kind of fictionalism that implies that our claims about kind-K objects
can be for-all-practical-purposes true, even if there’s no fact of the matter whether
they’re strictly and literally true.
In arguing for fictionalist and non-factualist views (in Chapters 3–5), I rely in a
couple of different ways on certain kinds of modal claims. But this gives rise to
another worry about my view. For (a) I’m putting my view forward as a kind of
anti-metaphysicalism, and (b) you might think that anti-metaphysicalists can’t
countenance the existence of modal truths—because you might think that we can’t
commit to the existence of modal truths without also committing to some heavy-
duty metaphysical theory, like Lewisian realism about possible worlds, or platon-
ism (i.e., realism about abstract objects), or some sort of strong essentialist view
according to which every object has a non-trivial essence.
I respond to this worry in Chapter 6 by arguing for a theory of modality that
I call modal nothingism. Roughly speaking, modal nothingism is the view that
there are certain kinds of modal claims that are such that (a) they’re true (or
substantively true—more on what this means in Chapter 6), and (b) there’s
nothing about reality that makes them true. I’ll argue in Chapter 6 that modal
nothingism is true and that it gives us a metaphysically innocent view of modal
discourse, including certain kinds of counterfactuals. In particular, it gives us a
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4
metaphysically innocent view of the kinds of modal claims that I commit to in this
book; more specifically, it enables me to say that these modal claims are true
without committing myself to any controversial metaphysical claims—indeed,
without committing myself to any claims about the nature of reality at all.
Moreover, as I point out at the end of Chapter 6, when we combine modal
nothingism with the arguments of Chapter 3, we get a metaphysically innocent
view of logic and mathematics as well.
In Chapter 7, the first chapter of Part II, I introduce neo-positivism. Neo-
positivism is similar—in broad brush strokes, not in detail—to the view that
I think Hume is getting at in the following passage from the very end of the
Inquiry (1748):
When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we
make? If we take in our hand any volume—of divinity or school of metaphysics,
for instance—let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning
quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning
matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames, for it can contain
nothing but sophistry and illusion.
One way to think of Hume’s view here is as suggesting that there’s a (presumably
exhaustive) division of the kinds of claims we can make (or the kinds of arguments
we can mount, or some such thing) into (a) mathematical (and perhaps logical
and analytic?) claims and/or arguments, and (b) empirical-scientific claims and/or
arguments, and (c) claims and/or arguments that are . . . well, not good, or not
legitimate, or some such thing. The neo-positivist view that I articulate in
Chapter 7 involves a similar (but also importantly different) trichotomy. Very
roughly, neo-positivism is the view that for any metaphysical question MQ, MQ
decomposes into some component subquestions, call them Q₁, Q₂, Q₃, etc., such
that for each of these subquestions—i.e., for each Qi—one of the following three
anti-metaphysical views (or some combination of them) is true:
This is extremely rough; in Chapter 7, I’ll give more precise formulations of neo-
positivism, scientism, and metaphysically innocent modal-truth-ism.
You might think that neo-positivism is self-refuting. For you might think that
it’s neither a modal claim nor a physical-empirical claim, and so you might think
that neo-positivism entails that we should endorse non-factualism about the
question of whether neo-positivism is true. I’ll respond to this worry in
Chapter 7. In a nutshell, my response is that neo-positivism isn’t self-refuting
because we can endorse scientism about the question of whether it’s true. Roughly
speaking, the idea is that (a) neo-positivism is an empirical claim about a certain
finite cluster of actual, real-world questions (namely, the questions that are
actually discussed by actual metaphysicians); and (b) we should motivate neo-
positivism with an empirical argument—in particular, by showing that neo-
positivism is true of a randomly selected sample of actual metaphysical questions
and then arguing by induction that it’s probably true of all metaphysical
questions.²
At the end of Chapter 7, I propose a two-step strategy for arguing for neo-
positivist views of specific metaphysical questions. Step 1 is to decompose the
original metaphysical question into some subquestions, and step 2 is to argue that
neo-positivism is true of all of the subquestions. On the method of decomposition
that I propose, one of the component subquestions is always (or almost always) a
conceptual-analysis question (or something like a conceptual-analysis question)—
where a conceptual-analysis question is just a question like ‘What is free will?’, or
‘What is knowledge?’, or ‘What is a person?’ So, for example, the question ‘Do
human beings have free will?’ decomposes into the following two subquestions:
² You might wonder how neo-positivism could be an empirical claim given that (a) it’s a claim about
questions, and (b) questions are presumably abstract objects. I’ll address this worry in section 1.3.
³ When I say that the do-we-have-free-will question decomposes into these other two questions, all
I mean is that if we could answer these two new questions, then we would have all the information we
would need (and obviously more) to answer the do-we-have-free-will question. So I’m not claiming
that my decompositions are the uniquely correct decompositions. I’ll say more about this in Chapter 7.
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6
much easier for neo-positivists; for it follows from this that, in every case, once
neo-positivists decompose the original metaphysical question into its component
subquestions, they’ll already have a ready-made account of the conceptual-
analysis question, and so they’ll only have to worry about the other subquestions
of the original metaphysical question. E.g., in connection with the do-we-have-
free-will question, neo-positivists will only have to worry about the which-kinds-
of-freedom-like-abilities-do-we-have question. And as we’ll see in Chapters 7 and
9, the nice thing about these other subquestions—the ones that remain after we
decompose the original metaphysical question and dispense with the conceptual-
analysis question—is that they’re couched in terms of art that have clear, stipu-
lated definitions. So, e.g., the which-kinds-of-freedom-like-abilities-do-we-have
question asks about libertarian-freedom, and Hume-freedom, and so on; and,
importantly, the term ‘free will’ doesn’t appear at all in that question.
As will become clear in Chapter 7, the job of arguing that neo-positivism is true
of each and every metaphysical question is an enormous job—much too big for
one book. Now, if we dedicated a very long book to the task, we might be able to
produce a decent inductive argument of the kind mentioned in the paragraph
before last—an argument in which we showed that neo-positivism is true of a
sample of metaphysical questions and then concluded, via induction, that it’s
probably true of all metaphysical questions. But I won’t try to produce such an
argument in this book; all I want to do here is start the argument. As I’ve already
pointed out, in Chapters 4 and 5, I’ll argue for non-factualist views of the abstract-
object question and the composite-object question. And in Chapter 9, I’ll say a few
words about how we could argue for neo-positivist views of a few other meta-
physical questions. I’ll focus mostly on cases in which I think the main contro-
versial subquestions are non-factual; but at the end of Chapter 9, I’ll say a few
words about a few cases in which I think neo-positivists should endorse scientistic
views, rather than non-factualist views, of the main controversial subquestions.
The remarks of the last few paragraphs—about how I think we should go about
arguing for neo-positivism—are extremely brief. I’ll say much more about this in
Chapters 7–9; but it should already be clear from what I’ve said here that while
neo-positivism is similar in spirit to Hume’s view, the argument that I think we
should use to motivate neo-positivism is completely unlike Hume’s argument
(and it’s also unlike the arguments of the logical positivists—e.g., Carnap (1928,
1934, 1950)—who held similar views).
Finally, Chapter 10 is a very short chapter in which I briefly articulate the
worldview that’s implied (or at least suggested) by the arguments of the rest of
the book.
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I have two things I want to say in response to this worry. First, there are obviously
multiple things we might mean by the term ‘anti-metaphysical’, and I don’t claim
to be using it in the only reasonable way. So I want to acknowledge that there
might be some reasonable ways of talking on which the non-factualist views that
I argue for in this book don’t count as anti-metaphysical. Second, I just want to
explain why I think it’s reasonable to say that non-factualist views are anti-
metaphysical in at least one obvious sense; the reason is that non-factualist
views entail that there’s something wrong with the relevant metaphysical
questions—in particular, they entail that there are no right answers to these
questions. Now, different kinds of non-factualism will give us different stories
about why there are no right answers to the relevant questions, and some kinds of
non-factualist views might seem less anti-metaphysical than others. But according
to the versions of non-factualism that I’ll be arguing for in this book, the reason
that there are no right answers to the relevant metaphysical questions is (roughly)
that the language in which these questions are formulated is catastrophically
imprecise, and so the sentences that state the competing answers to these ques-
tions are indeterminate. Given this, I think it’s reasonable to say that according to
non-factualist views of this kind, there’s something wrong with the relevant
metaphysical questions, and so I think it’s reasonable to say that non-factualist
views like this are anti-metaphysical in at least one reasonable sense. But, again,
I don’t want to deny that there might be other kinds of non-factualist views that
seem less anti-metaphysical or that there might be some reasonable senses of
‘anti-metaphysical’ according to which my non-factualist views aren’t anti-
metaphysical.
8
⁴ I think that Unger (2014) is a paradigm case of the dismissive/eye-rolling kind of anti-
metaphysicalist; but he’s certainly not the only philosopher who writes dismissively of metaphysical
problems.
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In Chapters 4 and 5, I’m going to argue that there’s no fact of the matter whether
there are any composite objects or abstract objects. But it’s very hard to say
anything without referring to such things. E.g., as I pointed out above, we refer
to these things all the time in our mathematical and empirical theories and in
our ordinary discourse. But, again, I argue in Chapter 3 that we can admit that
our theories and ordinary claims aren’t strictly speaking true (because they refer
to composite objects and abstract objects and arguably other non-existent
things—or other things about which there’s no fact of the matter whether they
exist) and still maintain that there’s a sort of correctness that attaches to our
theories and ordinary claims. Above, I said that this kind of correctness is a kind
of for-all-practical-purposes truth. We can also think of it as a kind of truth in
the story; for, roughly, the sentences that are correct in this sense are the ones
that would have been true if composite objects and abstract objects had existed.
I’ll make this more precise in Chapter 3, but the point I want to make here is
that I adopt the same attitude toward my own claims in this book that I adopt
toward our empirical scientific theories. It would be extremely awkward for me
to write in a way that avoided reference to, and quantification over, composite
objects and abstract objects; if I did that, this book would be unreadable. But
the arguments of Chapter 3 show that there’s no reason for me to do this. For,
again, I can just say that my claims in this book have the same status that our
empirical theories have—they might not be strictly speaking true, but they’re
for-all-practical-purposes true because they’re true in the story of composite
objects and abstract objects. For more on this, see Chapter 3.
Here’s an example of this: I said above that I take the neo-positivist view that
I introduce in Chapter 7 to be an empirical claim; moreover, as we’ll see in
Chapter 7, I would say the same thing about my non-factualist views—e.g., non-
factualism about the abstract-object question. But you might wonder how this
could be right; for (a) neo-positivism and non-factualism about the abstract-object
question are claims about questions, and (b) questions are presumably abstract
objects. My response: (i) all of our best empirical theories make reference to
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10
abstract objects as well, and Chapter 3 explains why this isn’t a problem for me;
and (ii) I endorse the same view of neo-positivism and my non-factualist views
that I endorse of other empirical theories that make reference to abstract objects,
e.g., quantum mechanics. In particular, on my view, these theories aren’t strictly
true, but that’s OK because they’re for-all-practical-purposes true. Again, for more
on this, see Chapter 3.
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PART I
NON-FACTUALISM
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2
Against Trivialism and Mere-Verbalism
(and Toward a Better Understanding
of the Kind of Non-Factualism
Argued for in This Book)
As I pointed out in Chapter 1, I will argue in this book for non-factualist views of a
fairly wide class of metaphysical questions. We can think of non-factualist views as
anti-metaphysical views of a certain kind; but there are many different kinds of
anti-metaphysical views, and my arguments for non-factualist views rely upon the
rejection of anti-metaphysical views of a different kind, namely, trivialist views.
In this chapter, I will argue against trivialist views. I’ll also argue against mere-
verbalist views. More precisely, what I’ll argue is that (a) mere-verbalist views of a
certain kind are false, and because of this, (b) trivialist views are metaphysically
irrelevant in a certain sense—i.e., even if they’re true, they’re metaphysically
uninteresting and unimportant.
In the process of arguing against trivialist and mere-verbalist views, I will also
be clarifying the precise way in which my non-factualist views differ from trivi-
alism and mere-verbalism. This is important because trivialist and mere-verbalist
views have been extremely popular in recent years. Views of these kinds have been
defended by, e.g., Carnap (1950), Putnam (1987, 1994), Parfit (1995), Sosa (1999),
van Fraassen (2002), Hirsch (2002, 2009), Sidelle (2002, 2007), Schiffer (2003),
Thomasson (2007, 2009a, 2015), Chalmers (2011), Dennett (2013), and Rayo
(2013)—and, in a limited way, by Button (2013).¹ Also, going back further,
Hume (1748) endorsed a mere-verbalist view of the free will debate.
(Others have argued against trivialist and mere-verbalist views as well—e.g.,
Hawthorne (2006), Sider (2006, 2009), Eklund (2008, 2016), Bennett (2009),
McSweeney (2016), and again, in a limited way, Button (2013). The arguments
I provide here are different from these other arguments, although my argument
¹ Button argues against a very specific kind of trivialism; and he defends another kind; and he leaves
open which metaphysical questions are trivial or merely verbal (and how widespread the phenomenon is).
Metaphysics, Sophistry, and Illusion: Toward a Widespread Non-Factualism. Mark Balaguer, Oxford University Press (2021).
© Mark Balaguer. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198868361.003.0002
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 4/12/2020, SPi
Non-factualism about MQ: There’s no fact of the matter about the answer to
MQ. E.g., if MQ is the question of whether there are any abstract objects, then
non-factualism about MQ is the view that there’s no fact of the matter whether
there are any abstract objects.
Trivialism about MQ: There’s a fact of the matter about the answer to MQ, but
it’s an utterly trivial fact—along the lines of the fact that all bachelors are
unmarried, or the fact that there are no married bachelors. More specifically,
the facts that settle MQ are not substantive metaphysical facts at all; on the
contrary, they’re just semantic facts (i.e., facts about the meanings or truth
conditions of our sentences), together perhaps with ordinary empirical facts
that are entirely uncontroversial.
2.2.2 Merely Verbal Debates: The basic idea behind the concept of a merely
verbal debate is pretty straightforward and can be brought out with an example.
Here’s one from Bennett (2009): A bartending purist and a young upstart get into
a debate about a certain drink D, a vile concoction of vodka and green apple
² I won’t say anything in this book about epistemicist views—i.e., views that say that we’re
epistemically cut off from being able to answer some metaphysical question (see, e.g., Ladyman and
Ross (2007), Bennett (2009), and Chakravartty (2013)). Views of this kind don’t seem very anti-
metaphysical to me because they allow for the existence of deep, non-trivial metaphysical facts that
don’t reduce to physical-empirical facts or logical/modal facts.
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 4/12/2020, SPi
liqueur in a V-shaped glass. The upstart says that D is a martini, and the purist
says it’s not. But the debate is merely verbal because (i) the purist and the upstart
mean different things by ‘martini’ (in the purist’s mouth it means drink made of
gin and a splash of vermouth, and in the upstart’s mouth it means alcoholic drink
in a V-shaped glass); and (ii) both parties would agree that D is a martini in the
upstart’s sense but not in the purist’s sense, or that ‘D is a martini’ is true in the
upstart’s language and false in the purist’s language. Or to put the point differ-
ently, they would agree on the relevant worldly facts—that D consists of vodka
and green apple liqueur in a V-shaped glass—and they would only assign different
truth values to ‘D is a martini’ because of differences in meaning.
Now, you might think that, in fact, the purist and the upstart mean the same
thing by ‘martini’ because they’re both speaking English and so, in both of their
mouths, it means whatever it means in English.³ But (a) ‘martini’ might have
multiple meanings in English, and (b) even if it doesn’t, we can sidestep this
quibble by defining different languages for the two disputants. Following Hirsch
(2009), we can say that if P is a person, then P’s language, or the language of P, is
the language that would be spoken by a community of people just like P. Given
this, we can define ‘merely verbal’ in terms of the languages of the two disputants.
But I won’t always speak this way; I’ll sometimes speak—perhaps sloppily—of
“what the disputants mean,” and “what languages the disputants speak,” and so
on. But I intend all of these phrases to be interpreted along the lines of the above
definition of ‘the language of P’.
It’s a bit tricky to come up with a perfectly precise and fully satisfying definition
of ‘merely verbal debate’, but for our purposes, we don’t need one. The following
stipulation—about what I’ll mean in this book—will be good enough:
Suppose that Smith and Jones are having a debate about whether some sentence
S is true; in particular, suppose that Smith says that S is true and Jones says it’s
false. Then the debate between Smith and Jones is merely verbal if and only if (a)
Smith and Jones mean different things by S—or S expresses different proposi-
tions in the languages of Smith and Jones, or some such thing; and (b) Smith and
Jones would agree that S is true in Smith’s language and false in Jones’s language,
or that the proposition that S expresses in Smith’s language is true and the
proposition that S expresses in Jones’s language is false, or something along
these lines.⁴,⁵
³ For an argument for this sort of semantic externalism, see Burge (1979).
⁴ The word ‘would’ is playing an important role in clause (b). Without getting too precise, the idea is
that if Smith and Jones were to consider the propositions that S expresses in the two languages, then
they would agree that the one proposition is true and the other is false—or some such thing.
⁵ I don’t claim that this definition is particularly original; it’s pretty similar to definitions given by
various others; see, e.g., Hirsch (2009).
OUP CORRECTED AUTOPAGE PROOFS – FINAL, 4/12/2020, SPi
Note that on this definition, if the purist and the upstart got into a debate about
the meaning of the word ‘martini’ in English, it would not be a merely verbal
debate. We can say that debates like this are about meaning. For our purposes,
though, the difference between a merely verbal debate and a debate that’s about
meaning won’t be very important. For I want to distinguish debates of both of these
kinds from debates that are, so to speak, “about the world”—or, more precisely, the
non-verbal part of the world. Thus, when I speak of non-verbal debates, I’ll be
talking about debates that are neither merely verbal nor about meaning.
Let me illustrate this with the debate between presentists and eternalists. Roughly
speaking, presentism (or at any rate, classical presentism⁶) is the view that only present
objects exist, and eternalism is the view that past, present, and future objects all exist.⁷
(To get a better handle on these two views, you can think of presentism as the view
that physical reality is 3-dimensional, and you can think of eternalism (or, at any rate,
standard eternalism⁸) as the view that time is “like space” in a certain way, so that
physical reality is a 4-dimensional spatiotemporal block, and temporally distant
objects like dinosaurs are analogous to spatially distant objects like Saturn—so just
as Saturn exists in the outer solar system, dinosaurs exist in the Jurassic period, where
the outer solar system and the Jurassic period are both just different regions of the 4-
dimensional spatiotemporal manifold.⁹) In any event, we can think of the debate
between presentists and eternalists as being about the truth values of sentences like
"Pane alle!"
2
Veturin 375 hytissä ei vallinnut oikea toverisuhde. Erkki sai kokea
nöyryytyksen toisensa jälkeen. Karhulan omituisuudet eivät
miellyttäneet häntä. Hänessä oli jotakin tavattomasti ärsyttävää, joka
kuohutti mieltä. Hänen täytyi hillitä itsessään petoa, joka kiihoitti
johonkin kamalaan tekoon, jota hän ei sen tarkemmin osannut
määritellä. Ja joka kerta, kun hänen piti tulla yhteen Karhulan
kanssa, ahdisti tuo epämääräinen tunne — matkalla, kahden ollessa
enimmän. Veturiin astuttuaan olivat he kuin vihityt juuri samallaisiin
tehtäviin, joita olivat suorittaneet viikkoja toistensa jälkeen, samoihin
asentoihin, samoihin ammattisanoihin. Heidän katseensa kiertelivät
höyrykelloon, vesilasiin, radalle. — Toiminta järjestyi niiden mukaan.
Kun siinä sitten jostakin syystä rupesi kasvamaan erimielisyys,
kääntyivät miesten seljät kuin itsestään vastakkain. Toinen katsoi
vasemman olkansa, toinen oikean olkansa yli kumpikin akkunastaan
eteensä radalle; siellä etäisyydessä näytti yhtyvän kaksi teräskiskoa,
joita myöten heidän veturinsa kolisi eteenpäin. —
Muuta ei.
Mutta Erkkiä olivat alkaneet nämä juottelut kiusata. Mitä hän sitä
tyrkytteli, joisi itse. Ensin ylimielinen kohtelu, sitten kahvikuppi,
aivankuin piiskatulle lapselle piparikakku. Hän oli jo kauvan hautonut
mielessään mitä tehdä, nakatako kahvi Karhulan eteen lattialle vai
kieltäytyä siivosti ja kohteliaasti.
"Juo!"
Ja Erkki joi.
Veturi kiisi kuin riivattu rinnettä alas aivan kuin sekin olisi juonut
jonkun hulluksi tekevän pisaran. Karhula repi vuoroin viheltimiä,
vuoroin höyrynsulkijaa. Vaunut paiskautuivat kiskoilla, jarruttajat
huojuivat torneissaan, sinkoillen seinästä toiseen, kauhistuen
kamalaa vauhtia. Varaventtiilit puhalsivat pois kattilan liikaa painetta,
joka oli kohonnut huomaamatta riidan aikana. Niin kiisi juna kähisten
ja kiskojen liitekohtia hakaten halki metsän kuin saalistaan takaa
ajava ärsytetty eläin. Oli onni, ettei ketään sattunut tielle…
"Ei suinkaan sinun ole välttämätöntä mennä itse sinne, laita joku
noutamaan."
"Älä, älä!"
"Hyvä ystävä, älä juo nyt. Älä ainakaan noin paljon!" pyysi Erkki.
Hän joi sen ahmien kuin janoinen eläin, ja Erkki riensi pullon
kanssa ulos. Ensi ajatuksensa oli lyödä se rikki rakennuksen
kivijalkaan, mutta hän uskoi sentään asian selviytyvän ilman sitäkin,
vei pullon omaan kaappiinsa ja pisti avaimen taskuunsa.
"Niin juuri, vettä ynisevä vasikka sinä olet, ellet anna pulloa tänne.
Loppu Knorrimäessä."
Erkki tarttui pulloon vetääkseen sen pois, mutta Sirola piti sitä
lujasti kiinni.
Erkki ajatteli kauhulla, mihin tämä olisi päättyvä. Sirola oli juonut
huimaavan paljon. Pullo täytyi saada pois ja siten viimeiset ryypyt
siirretyksi lähemmäksi kotia. Hän laski matkaa, mikä oli
Knorrimäestä Oulankaan. Onneksi ei tarvinnut ottaa puita sillä välillä.
Ei hän oikein tiennyt, mistä syystä teki noita laskelmia. Ne vain
tulivat mieleen. Saatuaan vihdoin houkutelluksi pullon Sirolalta pani
hän sen kaappiinsa, mutta katsoi sitä tehdessä, mitä muuta sinne oli
kertynyt aikojen kuluessa: tivistelankakerä, vyyhti sormenvahvuista
männänvarren tivistettä, trasseleita, ruuveja, muttereita… pala köyttä
— mitähän lämmittäjä Nevala sillä oli tehnyt?
"Miten niin?"
Erkki oli toivonut, ettei hän sitä enää muistaisikaan, mutta huomasi
erehtyneensä. Nyt oli mentävä mukaan niin pitkälle kuin suinkin. Hän
antoi pullon, johon toinen tarttui kiihkeästi.
Kun Sirola ei vastannut, sulki hän sen. Mutta silloin Sirola kohosi
asennostaan ja hänen silmänsä leimahtivat heikossa valossa, joka
peitetyn kattolampun kupuun leikatun raon kautta lankesi hänen
kasvoilleen.
Erkki otti usein esille Irjan kortin ja katsoi sitä pitkään. Olipa siellä
tyttö riemuissaan. Ja olihan siitä räiskähtänyt pieni pisara tännekin.
Miksi oli hän siihen ollenkaan vastannut? Ensi vaikutuksesta kohta,
ja olikin se vilpitön tervetuloa. Puuttui vain, että olisi sen saanut
kädestä pitäen sanoa.
"Niinkuin näet. Missäs sinä olet ollut, kun ei ole täällä näkynyt?"
*****
"Sen arvasin."
"Tulenko heti, kun joudun?"
"Tule vain."
*****
"Neiti Lillström ei ole tullut vielä. Hänellä lienee joku este. Mutta
voinemmehan odottaa kahdenkin?"
*****
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