Module 2 : Basic concepts of electronic

memory
MEMORY DEVICES

A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most

electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc. All
have a storage device that stores data and/or programs.
Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory

Memory refers to the processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later

retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory:
encoding, storage, and retrieval.

The memory is organized in the form of a cell, each cell is able to be identified
with a unique number called address.

Each cell is able to recognize control signals such as “read” and “write”, generated by
CPU when it wants to read or write address.
Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory

The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and
accessing binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”.

According to the storage type of the device, electronic memory can be

divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory
a)Volatile memory: It is temporary memory and requires power to maintain its
data; Volatile memory loses all its data when the electricity is turned off. (e.g RAM )

b) Non-volatile memory : It is a memory that retains all the data when electricity is
turned off. (e.g ROM)
Classification of Electrical (electronic) Memory Devices:

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices

2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
4. Charge Transfer Type Electronic Memory Devices
Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices

Transistors are made using p-type and n type

semiconductor. It is a miniature electronic component that
can work either as an amplifier or a switch.

Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is

converted to p-type and n-type semiconductor by doping
trivalent and pentavalent impurities.
A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors; each transistor is
working as a switch, which can be switched ON or OFF. Each transistor can be
in two different states and store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE.

Since chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros
and ones, and almost every number and letter can be stored.
Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of
an electric charge.

If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral, “1” and holds “0” when the cell
is discharged.
If parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges
dissipate slowly and memory would be volatile.

On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in
nature, can maintain permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly
switched between two stable states (bistable) by an external electric field. Thus,
memory based on ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM) is non- volatile memory.
Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type

memory, or resistive random access memory (RRAM).

Electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal

structure generally referred to as MIM structure.

 A memory resistor (memristor) is a non-linear

passive electronic component with two terminals
having a variable electrical resistance.
The structure comprises of an insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two
metal (M) electrodes and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or
metal foil).

Initially, the device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically
“0”state, when resistance changed or under external applied field changes to low
resistance state or “ON” logical value “1”.

 One popular type of resistor-type memory is Programmable Read-Only

Memory or PROM
 Charge Transfer Effects Type Electronic Memory
 Charge transfer-type memory devices are a type of electronic memory that uses the
transfer of electrical charges to store information.
 In a flash memory device, the data is stored in small cells called memory cells.
Each memory cell consists of a transistor and a capacitor.
 To store data, electrical charges are transferred to the capacitor in each memory cell,
which represents a 1 or 0
 One popular type of charge transfer-type memory is called flash memory.
 Flash memory is used in many consumer electronics such as USB flash drives, solid-
state drives (SSDs), and memory cards.
Classification of electronic memory based on storage type of the device:

Electronic memory can be divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory.
Non Volatile Memory Devices:

1. ROM: Read Only Memory

 ROM is a non-volatile memory.
 Information stored in ROM is permanent.
 Information and programs stored on it, we can only read.
 Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format.
 It is used in the start-up process of the computer.
a. WORM (Write Once Read Many times)

Describes a data storage device in which information once written,

cannot be modified.

This write protection affords the assurance that the data cannot be
tampered with once it is written to the device, excluding the
possibility of data loss from human error, computer bugs, or malware.
b. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)

EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is memory that does

not lose its data when the power supply is cut off.

The data can be erased and the chip reprogrammed by shining an intense
ultraviolet (UV) light through a window designed into the memory chip.
 2. HYBRID MEMORIES :

Hybrid Memory Cube (HMC) is a high-performance computer random-access memory

(RAM) interface through silicon vias but maintain their contents without electrical power,
just like ROM. It is a Non-Volatile memory.

a. Flash :

 Flash memory, also known as flash storage, is a type of nonvolatile memory that erases
data in units called blocks and rewrites data at the byte level.

Flash memory is widely used for storage and data transfer in consumer devices,
enterprise systems and industrial applications.
b. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

EEPROM is a user-modifiable ROM.

It can be erased and reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly by applying an

electrical voltage that is higher than normal.
 Flash EEPROM

Flash is constantly rewritten EEPROMs are seldom rewritten.

Flash uses NAND-type memory EEPROM uses NOR type.

Flash is block-wise erasable EEPROM is byte-wise erasable.

Flash is used when large amounts are EEPROM is used when only small
needed amounts are needed.

Flash’s life cycle is more EEPROM life cycle is less

 Volatile Memory devices : RAM (Random Access Memory)
Random-access memory is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order,
typically used to store working data and machine code.

•RAM is known as the Primary memory of the computer.

•RAM is known to be expensive since the memory can be accessed directly.
•RAM is the fastest memory, therefore, it is an internal memory for the computer.

•RAMs consist of ferromagnetic particles embedded in a polymer matrix having a high dielectric
constant. One of the most common RAMs is called iron ball paint, which contains tiny metal-coated
spheres suspended in an epoxy-based paint. The spheres are coated with ferrite or carbonyl iron.
a. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
Dynamic random-access memory (dynamic RAM or DRAM) is a type of
random-access semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a memory
cell, usually consisting of a tiny capacitor and a transistor, both typically based on
metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology.

DRAM is a common type of random access memory (RAM) that is used in

personal computers (PCs), workstations and servers.

DRAM is an off-chip memory with a long access time.

b. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

SRAM (static RAM) is a type of random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its
memory as long as power is being supplied.

Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be continuously refreshed, SRAM does not have
this requirement, resulting in better performance and lower power usage.

However, SRAM is also more expensive than DRAM, and it requires a lot more space.

It is widely used in microprocessors, general computing applications and electronic devices.
The SRAM is volatile in nature that means the data stored in it gets all wiped out once the
power supply is cut. SRAM is a type of on-chip memory with a short access time.
ORGANIC MEMORY DEVICES

Organic molecular material used to store the data is called organic–based memory device.

Types of organic memory devices

Organic memory device stores data based on different electrical conductivity states

(ON and OFF states) in response to an applied electric field.

1. Organic molecular memory devices

2. Polymeric molecules

3. Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials

 1. Organic molecular memory devices

Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules were first

reported in several acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene,
pentacene, perylene, p-quarterphenyl and p-quinquephenyl.

The n-type and p-type semiconductor memory devices made by using organic
molecules
Organic molecules : The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene”
An Organic molecule with π conjugated system and possesses holes as major charge
carrier is called p-type semiconductor.
Ex: Pentacene
These molecules show bistable states when external field is applied i.e. ON and OFF
state. It is linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings.
It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form.
It shows good hole mobility, hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.
The n-type organic semiconducting material Perfluoropentacene
When all the hydrogen atom of pentacene is replaced by Fluorine atoms, it formed
Perfluoropentacene. Basically Fluorine is electron withdrawing nature. Hence it
convers this molecules into n-type semiconductor.
Polymeric Molecules Polymer used for organic memory device is
Polyimide (PI) with Donor-Triphenylamine and Acceptor- phthalimide.

This polymer has high thermal stability and

mechanical strength.

The donors and acceptors of PIs contribute to

the electronic transition based on an induced
charge transfer (CT) effect under an applied
electric field.
 HYBRID ORGANIC-INORGANIC MEMORY DEVICES
Hybrid inorganic/organic nanocomposites are composed of organic layers
containing metal nanoparticles, semiconductor quantum dots (QDs), core-
shell semiconductor QDs, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene
molecules or graphene oxides (GOs).

 Inorganic materials with desired optical, electronic, or magnetic

properties can be incorporated into relatively low-cost organic polymer
matrices.
 Display Systems: Photoactive and electroactive materials play an important role in
modern display technology, enabling the creation of high-quality, energy-efficient displays.

Display Systems are used to share information in a digital format

Photoactive materials are those that can absorb light and convert it into an
electrical signal.

Photoactive materials are used in photo sensors and photovoltaic cells, which are
commonly found in solar panels.

In display technology, photoactive materials are used in LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
panels, where they are used as a backlight or to control the pixels in the display.
PROCESS:

Photoactive Process:
1. Absorption and emission of light radiation in the
wavelength region from ultraviolet to near infrared.
2. Photogeneration of charge carriers (photons of light
creates electron-hole pair in the semiconductor)
3. Transport of charge carriers (Charge carriers are
particles or holes that freely move within a material and
carry an electric charge)
Electroactive materials
Electroactive materials, that can change their physical properties, such as
shape, size, or refractive index, when exposed to an electric field.

These materials are used in electroluminescent displays, which are

commonly found in watches, calculators, and other portable electronic
devices.

When an electric field is applied to an electroactive material, it emits

light, which is used to create the image on the display.
Examples are electroactive polymers and dielectric elastomers.
•Ferroelectric polymers.
•Electroactive graft polymers.
•Liquid crystalline polymers.
•Electrorheological fluid.
•Ionic polymer-metal composite.
•Stimuli-responsive gels.
Properties of Photoactive and Advantages
electroactive materials 1. Light weight and flexible
Modulus of elasticity, 2. Easily synthesized by chemical method.
Fatigue limit, 3. Production cost is less
Tensile strength,
4. Used in thin-film flexible devices
Flexibility, and
5. Properties can be fine-tuned by structure
Hardness
modification
 Nanomaterials and organo-materials used in optoelectronic devices

Any substance in which at least one dimensions is less than 100 nm is called
nanomaterials. The properties of nanomaterials are different from bulk materials due to:

1. Quantum Confinement effect

2. Increased surface area to volume ratio

The improved electronic properties yielded for nanostructured silicon in comparison to its
bulk, which led the use of Silicon Nanocrystals in electronics and optoelectronics fields.
Special properties of Silicon Nanocrystals for optoelectronics
1. Silicon Nanocrystal has wider band gap energy due to quantum
confinement.

2. SiNCs shows higher light emission property (Photoluminescence)

3. SiNCs exhibit quantum yield of more than 60%.

4. Si-NC exhibit tunable electronic structure

ORGANIC MATERIALS USED IN OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES:
 Organic compounds with Pi-electron systems and extensive conjugation are
generally used in optoelectronic devices. Organic materials are broadly classified as 3
categories. Small Molecules, Oligomers with well-defined structures, Polymers

 The presence of Pi bond with conjugation allows the delocalization of electrons

and leads to unique electronic and optical properties.

 Materials can absorb and emit light at specific wavelengths, which is important
for designing devices that can detect or produce specific colors of light.
Ex: Polythiophenes in Optoelectronic Devices such as light-emitting diodes, water
purification devices, hydrogen storage, and biosensors.

Applications:
1. P3HT-ITO forms a p-n junction permits the charge
carriers to move in opposite direction and hence, used in
Photovoltaic devices.
2. It can be used as a positive electrode in Lithium
batteries.
Structure of P3HT
3. Used in the construction of Organic Solar Cells.
4. Manufacture of smart windows.
LIQUID CRYSTALS (LC’S)

Liquid Crystal is a unique state of matter in which the degree of molecular ordering lies
intermediate between highly ordered crystalline solid state and completely disordered
liquid state.
 CLASSIFICATION

Liquid crystals are classified into two types

1) Thermotropic liquid crystals (TLC): The compounds which exhibit liquid crystal behavior with
variation of temperature are called thermotropic liquid crystals.

Ex: Cholesteryl Benzoate: (145.5°C & 178.5°C) , P-Azoxy Anisole: (118°C & 135°C)

2) Lyotropic Liquid Crystals: Some of the compounds transformed into liquid crystal phase when mixed
with another substance or solvent by the variation of concentration of the compound are called
lyotropic liquid crystals

Ex: Soap water mixture , Phospholipid water mixture

Types of Thermotropic liquid crystals:
There are four types of liquid crystals
1. Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC)
2. Chiral Liquid Crystals or Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (CLC)
3. Smectic Liquid Crystals (SLC)
4. Columnar Liquid Crystals or Discotic Liquid Crystals (DLC)
Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC)

1. These are formed by the compounds that are optically inactive.

2. The molecules have elongated shape and are oriented parallel to the
direction.

3. These molecules possess intermolecular force of the attraction such that they
stay parallel to one another to form nematic liquid crystals.

Ex: a) P-Azoxy Anisole (PAA)

b) P-Azoxy Phenetole
Chiral Liquid Crystals or Cholesteric Liquid Crystals

1. These are formed by optically active compounds having chiral centre.

2. Hence molecules acquire spontaneous twist about an axis normal to molecular direction.

3. The twist may be right or left depending on molecular conformation.

4. Molecules are arranged themselves in such a way that group of molecules alike at different
angles with respect to their adjacent groups.

Ex: Cholesteryl benzoate, Cholesteryl format etc.

Smectic Liquid Crystals (SLC):

1. These liquid crystals have small amount of positional order and orientational
order.

2. If the direction is perpendicular to the plane, it is called smectic A. These are least
ordered of the orthogonal smectic phases. The molecules are arranged in columns.

3. If the direction is perpendicular to the plane and molecules are arranged in

hexagonal order, it is called smectic B.

4. If the direction makes an angle other than 90°, it is called smectic C.

Columnar Liquid Crystals or Discotic Liquid Crystals (DLC)

1. In these liquid crystals, there is an orientation order but no positional

order.

2. There is a random motion of the molecules perpendicular to the plane.

3. The molecules orient themselves along the director.

4. The molecules tend to position themselves in columns.

5. The columns are arranged in hexagonal lattice.

Nematic Chiral Smectic Columnar
Properties
 Liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order
 These are elongated and have some degree of rigidity
 They have less orientational order
 Transition from crystalline solids to liquid crystals caused by a change of temperature.

Applications of liquid crystals in Display system (LCD):

1) Liquid crystals are used in watches, calculators, mobile telephones, laptops, computers etc.
2) These are used in blood pressure instrument, digital thermometers and TV Channel
indicators.
3) These are used in potentiometer, conductometer, Colorimeter etc.
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s)

OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers

sandwiched between two electrodes. OLEDs operate by converting
electrical current in to light via an organic emitter.

OLED is an electroluminescent device that uses organic molecules as a

source of light emission. Light is emitted by organic material when an
external field is applied across it.
Properties: Some of the key properties of Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) include:

1. Thinness and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for use in
curved or flexible displays.
2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce deep blacks
and bright whites, resulting in images with vivid and rich colours.
3. Fast response time: OLEDs have a fast response time, which means that they can switch on and off
quickly, resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content.
4. Wide viewing angle: OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, which means that the image quality is
maintained even when viewed from different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: OLEDs are energy efficient as they do not require a back light like traditional LCD
displays, resulting in lower power consumption.
Applications

1. Flat-panel TV screen
2. Digital cameras
3. Mobile phones
Quantum Light Emitting Diodes (QLED): is an electroluminescent device that
uses quantum dots (QD’s) as a source of light emission.

Properties:

1. Accurate and vibrant colours: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate
and vibrant colours due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific
colour when they are excited by a light source or an electrical current.

2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays

because they do not require as much back lighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the
difference between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater,
resulting in more detailed and life like images.
4. Long life span: QLEDs have a longer life span than traditional LCD displays
because they do not suffer from the same issue soft back light burnout or colour
fading over time.
5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which mean that
they can display fast-moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the
creation of flexible displays that can be bent or curved.
Applications

1. Flat-panel TV screen
2. Digital cameras
3. Mobile phones
 Differences between OLED & QLED

OLED QLED

Display technology based on organic Quantum dots (QD’s) as a source of light

light emitting diodes. emission.

OLEDs operate by converting electrical OLEDs operate by converting electrical

current in to light via an organic emitter. current in to light via quantum dots

OLED has a clear advantage over QLED QLED displays tend to lose significant color
when it comes to drastic viewing angles. and luster at far off viewing angles

Sharper pictures with an optimal level of Awfully brighter than OLEDs, making them
intensity without losing out an contrast better suited for overly bright rooms.