The Teaching of Science

in Primary Schools
Seventh edition
Now in a fully updated seventh edition, The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools provides
essential information for students, trainee, and practising teachers about the why, what and
how of teaching primary science. Paying particular attention to inquiry-based teaching
and learning, the book recognises the challenges of teaching science, and provides
suggestions and examples aimed to increase teachers’ confidence and pupils’ enjoyment
of the subject.
This new edition explores:
Q Changes in curriculum and assessment requirements in the UK
Q Advances in knowledge of how children learn
Q Expansion in the use of ICT by teachers and children.
And expands on key aspects of teaching including:
Q The compelling reasons for starting science in the primary school
Q Strategies for helping children to develop understanding, skills and enjoyment
Q Attention to school and teacher self-evaluation as a means of improving
provision for children’s learning.
Giving the latest information about the rationale for and use of inquiry-based, constructivist
methodology, and the use of assessment to help learning, the book combines practice and
theory, explaining and advocating for particular classroom interactions and activities. This
book is essential reading for all primary school teachers and those engaged in studying
primary education.

Wynne Harlen, OBE, PhD, has been involved in teaching and research in science
education, evaluation and pupil assessment throughout her long career, during which
time she has been Sidney Jones Professor of Science Education at the University of
Liverpool, UK, and Director of the Scottish Council for Research in Education.

Anne Qualter, PhD, is Head of the Centre for Lifelong Learning at the University of
Liverpool, UK.
The Teaching of
Science in Primary
Schools
Seventh edition
Wynne Harlen
with Anne Qualter
Seventh edition published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Wynne Harlen
The right of Wynne Harlen to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published 1992 by David Fulton Publishers
Sixth edition published 2014 by Routledge
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Harlen, Wynne, author.
Title: The teaching of science in primary schools / Wynne Harlen.
Description: Seventh edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY :
Routledge, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017047107 | ISBN 9781138225718 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781138225725 (pbk) | ISBN 9781315398907 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Science—Study and teaching (Elementary)
Classification: LCC LB1585 .H298 2018 | DDC 372.35/044—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047107
ISBN: 978-1-138-22571-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-22572-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-39890-7 (ebk)
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by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 Contents

List of figures and tables xi

Acknowledgements xiii

Introduction 1

Part 1 Compelling reasons for teaching science in primary schools 5

1 The importance of primary school science 7
Introduction 7
Science education for everyone 7
The knowledge explosion and ‘big’ ideas 10
Reasons for an early start to science education 13
The contribution of primary science to scientific literacy 15
Summary 18

2 Primary school science curricula in the UK 19

Introduction 19
Early curriculum development in the UK 19
Science curricula in the twenty-first century 23
Comment: diverse approaches, similar aims 35
Summary 36

3 Primary science in action 38

Introduction 38
Key features of practice in primary science 38
Case studies 39
Summary 52

4 Experiences for learning science 53

Introduction 53
Key features of learning experiences 53
Evaluating and enriching activities 59
Summary 63
v
 Contents

Part 2 About children’s learning 65

5 What we know about children’s learning 67
Introduction 67
Views of learning 67
What do we learn about learning from neuroscience? 68
Implications for learning 75
Summary 78

6 Children’s ideas 79
Introduction 79
Reasons for taking children’s ideas seriously 79
Examples of children’s ideas 80
Characteristics of children’s ideas 87
Summary 90

7 Learning through talking 91

Introduction 91
Talk in the context of literacy 91
The importance of talk 92
Dialogic teaching: the teacher’s role 96
Introducing scientific words 100
Organising class and group discussions 102
Summary 104

8 Learning through inquiry 106

Introduction 106
Learning in the case studies 106
A model of inquiry-based learning in science 109
The role of inquiry skills 111
Evidence of the effectiveness of inquiry-based science 114
Learning through inquiry in other subjects 115
Different kinds of inquiry in science 116
Summary 119

9 Learning with ICT 120

Introduction 120
New tools for learning 120
Digital literacy 123
Roles of ICT in learning science 124
Selecting ICT tools 130
Summary 133

vi
 Contents

Part 3 The teacher’s roles 135

10 Teachers’ and children’s questions 137
Introduction 137
Teachers’ questions 137
Children’s questions 144
Handling children’s questions 145
Summary 150

11 Helping progression in scientific ideas 151

Introduction 151
Describing progression 151
The process of progression 154
Strategies for developing children’s ideas 155
Summary 163

12 Helping progression in inquiry skills 165

Introduction 165
Inquiry skills and the development of understanding 165
Strategies for developing inquiry skills 167
Developing cross-curricular skills 178
Summary 180

13 Teaching for enjoyment, motivation and scientific attitudes 181

Introduction 181
What schools teach: the whole curriculum 181
Motivation for learning 185
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 185
Attitudes and learning 188
Summary 191

Part 4 Assessment and learning 193

14 Assessment purposes 195
Introduction 195
Meaning and purposes of assessment 195
Assessment procedures 198
Key features of assessment for learning and of learning 200
How good is the assessment? 206
Summary 208

15 Gathering evidence to help learning 210

Introduction 210
Having clear goals in mind 210

vii
 Contents

Gaining access to children’s ideas and inquiry skills 211

Summary 224

16 Interpreting evidence for feedback 225

Introduction 225
Using indicators to interpret evidence 225
Using indicators to identify next steps 230
Feedback from formative assessment 234
Summary 238

17 Children’s role in formative assessment 240

Introduction 240
Children’s role in assessing their work 240
Communicating goals 242
Communicating expectations of quality 245
Involving children in deciding next steps 247
Peer-assessment 248
Summary 250

18 Summative assessment and reporting 251

Introduction 251
Information for summative assessment 251
Using tests or tasks 253
Using evidence gathered by teachers 256
Building a record of best work 260
Increasing validity and reliability of teachers’ judgements 262
Uses of summative assessment 266
Summary 267

Part 5 Planning environments for learning science 269

19 School level planning 271
Introduction 271
Evolution of subject leadership 271
Roles of the science subject leader 272
Issues in planning 277
Summary 283

20 Class level planning 285

Introduction 285
Two-stage lesson planning 285
General planning 286
Detailed planning 288

viii
 Contents

Creative teaching for creative learning 293

Summary 295

21 Sources and resources for practical inquiry 297

Introduction 297
The value of practical work 297
Features of effective practical work 299
Organising group practical work 302
Equipment and resources 304
Safety in and out of school 307
Sources of activities and materials 308
Summary 310

22 Providing for learning outside the classroom 312

Introduction 312
Why learning outside the classroom? 312
Extending the range of resources for learning 315
Locations for learning outside the classroom 318
Making the most of visits 322
Summary 325

23 Inclusive science education 327

Introduction 327
Provision for all 327
Specific learning difficulties 329
Relevance to learning science 338
Summary 339

Part 6 Accountability and evaluation of practice 341

24 Evaluating provision at the class level 343
Introduction 343
Meaning and implications of accountability 343
Formative evaluation at the class level 345
Records to keep 346
A tool for evaluating inquiry-based learning opportunities 350
Summary 352

25 Evaluating provision at the school level 353

Introduction 353
The role of school self-evaluation 353
School self-evaluation frameworks 355
Evaluating provision for science 359

ix
 Contents

Data for school self-evaluation in science 362

Summary 364

26 Enhancing provision for children’s learning in science 366

Introduction 366
Continuing improvement: the subject leader’s role 366
Supporting and advising colleagues: the subject leader’s role 369
Provision of continuing professional development 371
Sources of continuing professional development 374
Summary 379

Questions for discussion 381

References 383
Index 395

x
 Figures and table

Figures
5.1 Main features of a neuron 70
6.1 A 9-year-old’s view of how we get day and night 81
6.2 A child’s idea of what is inside a hen’s egg when incubating 82
6.3 A child’s idea of what is inside a hen’s egg when incubating 82
6.4 A child’s idea of what is inside a hen’s egg when incubating 82
6.5 A young child’s idea of what plants need to help them grow 83
6.6 An older child’s idea of what plants need to help them grow 83
6.7 A young child’s idea about how a drum makes sound and
how the sound is heard 84
6.8 An older child’s idea about how a drum makes sound and
how the sound is heard 84
6.9 A child’s idea of how a ‘string telephone’ works 85
6.10 A 10-year-old’s drawing of how we see 85
6.11 A child’s idea of how a ‘cotton reel tank’ works 86
6.12 An 8-year-old’s ideas about rust 87
6.13 A 6-year-old’s drawing of herself with her dog 88
6.14 A 5-year-old’s drawing of a tree 88
8.1 Inquiry in Graham’s lesson 108
8.2 A model of learning through inquiry 109
10.1 Flow diagram for handling questions 149
11.1 An 8-year-old’s drawing of the inside of her body 158
12.1 The original planning board 169
12.2 Children’s drawings of a closely observed kiwi fruit and a pepper 172
14.1 Formative assessment: a cyclic process 201
15.1 A 7-year-old’s ideas about evaporation of water 215
15.2 A child’s idea of the origin of a spoon 216
15.3 A 6-year-old’s writing about condensation 217
15.4 A 10-year-old using ideas about evaporation to suggest
how to prevent it 217
15.5 An 11-year-old’s prediction as part of planning an investigation 217
15.6 A 9-year-old’s reflection after reporting her investigation 218

xi
 Figures and table

15.7 Observations recorded by two 10-year-olds 218

15.8 Concept link between ice and water 219
15.9 A 6-year-old’s concept map 219
15.10 Concept cartoon about germinating seeds 220
16.1 A 9-year-old’s account of her group’s investigation 231
16.2 An 11-year-old’s drawing of lighting two bulbs from a battery 234
18.1 Item from a test for 11-year-olds 254
18.2 A model of summative assessment using evidence gathered
for formative assessment 257
18.3 The TAPS pyramid model for primary science assessment 259
18.4 Examples of special tasks embedded in a topic 263
20.1 Example of a lesson plan: Chris’s lesson (p. 43–45) 289
24.1 Record of science activities undertaken within topics 348
24.2 Simple topic record sheet 349
24.3 An end of unit record sheet completed by children 349
24.4 Tool for evaluation of children’s learning through inquiry 351

Table
9.1 Uses and values of types of ICT tools 131

xii
 Acknowledgements

In producing the last three editions of The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools,
Anne Qualter and I worked together to keep the text up to date with the frequent
changes affecting primary school science education. Although I have worked alone
on this latest revision, the influence of Anne’s input into earlier editions is evident
throughout and I wish to acknowledge her role in this book. I am deeply grateful
for her contributions, her support and her enthusiasm over the years.
There are also other friends, colleagues, teachers and children who have con-
sciously or unconsciously influenced this work. I am most grateful to all.
I would also like to thank the following for permission to reproduce figures from
their publications:
Q The Association for Science Education for permission to reproduce material
from various issues of Primary Science Review and from Primary Science.
Q Sage publications for permission to reproduce material from Assessing Science in
the Primary Classroom, Written Tasks by Schilling et al., 1990.
Q Millgate House Publishers for permission to reproduce a concept cartoon from
Concept Cartoons in Science Education, by Keogh and Naylor, 2014.
Q Routledge for permission to reproduce material from the Making Progress in
Primary Science Handbook (Second Edition) by Harlen et al., 2003.
Q Liverpool University Press for permission to reproduce various drawings from
SPACE Research Reports on ‘Growth’ (1990), ‘Sound’ (1990), ‘Processes of Life’
(1992), and ‘Evaporation and Condensation’ (1990).
Q Sarah Earle, TAPS project leader, for permission to reproduce the Key Principles
TAPS Pyramid.

xiii
 Introduction

Change is the norm in education, which is as it ought to be, since education is a

preparation for life and a life that constantly makes new demands for development
in skills and ideas. In the parts of education with which this book is concerned – the
science education of children in the early, primary and middle years of schooling –
there have been changes at national, school and classroom levels. Since the previous
edition of the book, in 2014, most changes have been evolutionary rather than
revolutionary; not the introduction of ideas or practices that are entirely new, but
rather the continuation and strengthening of existing trends, often with support
from research.
An exception to this, however, is what can only be regarded as a step change in
the application of information and communications technology (ICT) in the class-
room and school. Five years ago, although teachers were beginning to make use
of ICT in planning, managing and assessing children’s work, the use in classroom
activities was rather slow to take off. It was not uncommon, then, for children to
be ahead of teachers in the use of new technology for problem solving. Things have
now moved on and the use of computers goes far beyond word processing and
PowerPoint. Tablets, iPads and data-loggers mean that children can gather more
detailed and relevant evidence in their investigations and analyse and interpret their
data more efficiently. The change has been characterised as being from ‘computer
literacy’ to ‘digital literacy’, the latter including skills of using computers, but also
importantly extending to knowledge of their safe and socially acceptable use for
communication and problem solving. The aim of digital literacy is now being firmly
embedded in national curriculum policies and frameworks.
One of the continuing trends that is a theme in this book is greater attention
given to learning and teaching through inquiry, at all levels – in national curricula,
school planning and classroom practice. The relevance of inquiry-based pedagogy
to learning in several areas is now recognised, but its application has gone furthest
in science. At the same time, we have recognised that implementation of inquiry
is incompatible with ‘covering’ a curriculum that is overcrowded with content.
This is one of several reasons for expressing the aims of learning science in terms
of the development of a relatively small number of overarching ideas, described as
‘big ideas’ of science education. The trend can be seen in the development of new
national curricula, as in Wales, and in planning at school and class levels.

1
 Introduction

A view of progression in ideas and skills is needed in order to keep in mind the
long-term aims of working towards big ideas and developing inquiry skills, when
planning classroom activities. The nature of progression and the route it takes are
matters where we know less than we would like to know. There is a need to map
out the route from small to big ideas and from skills used in certain contexts to ones
that can be widely applied. We also need to know more about how the context
affects the use of skills and processes and whether context-free skills, such as ‘learn-
ing skills’, really exist. This does not deny the role of inquiry skills in developing
ideas and therefore the importance of developing these skills. But it supports the
view, expressed in the National Curriculum for England, that these skills are best
developed through activities that involve science content. This is just a recent move
in the long-running search for an understanding of the connection between content
and process in primary science. It reminds me of my article, published in 1978, with
the title ‘Does content matter in primary science?’, written at a time (pre-national
curriculum) when the view was quite widely held that ‘what is important is the way
a problem or enquiry is tackled, not the knowledge that comes out of it’ (Harlen,
1978: 614).
Another area of continuing change over many years, right at the heart of chil-
dren’s learning experiences, recognises the importance of interaction and talk among
children as well as between children and teacher. Rather than children working in
silence, it is the buzz of talk that is the hallmark of an effective learning environ-
ment. What has changed is not just that there is more of this practice but that there
is a greater understanding of the reasons for it. We realise the importance of putting
ideas into words and making thinking explicit.
Promoting talk is now widely advocated in many areas of the curriculum but
is particularly valued in science because it makes each learner’s thinking available
to others, supporting learning as a social activity and a constructivist approach to
learning. Talking in pairs and working in groups helps to develop understanding
as participants try to express their ideas and, in the process, often reformulate and
clarify their thinking to themselves as well as others. So, the very act of talking and
exchanging views can change understanding.
Assessment is an area where change has both positive and negative consequences.
The formative use of assessment continues to be a feature of aspirations at policy,
school and classroom levels, but its implementation is often limited by the require-
ments for summative assessment. Although the termination in England of external
national testing in science at the end of primary years was welcomed for several
reasons, surveys showed that the positive effects (less narrowing of experiences by
teaching to the test) were counterbalanced by negative effects (less time spent teach-
ing science). The introduction of biennial sampling tests since 2014 promises to
provide useful information about trends in national performance that can be of use
to teachers in reflecting on the performance of their own pupils. However, the
summative assessment of individual children for school records and reporting to
parents across the full range of goals of science education requires further attention,
despite some recent developments in teacher-based assessment.

2
 Introduction

Although we can point to several areas of improvement, it is still not possible to

claim that science has the status in primary education that is justified by its key role
in preparing children for life in a world that is increasingly dependent on science
and its applications in technology and engineering. For this to happen it means that
all involved in education, as policy-makers, policy implementers or practitioners,
need to be convinced of the importance of science education as an integral part of
children’s learning from their earliest years. It is for this reason that the first part of
this book reiterates, and hopefully strengthens, the ‘compelling reasons for teaching
science in primary schools’.

The structure of the book

The 26 chapters are arranged in six parts. The first, which presents the rationale for
teaching science in the primary school and analyses some examples of teaching and
learning in action, logically comes first, but otherwise the parts can be read in any
order. Each part is prefaced by a brief overview of its constituent chapters. Individ-
ual chapters begin with an introduction setting out its framework and end with a
summary of main points. Throughout there are frequent references to research and
sources which may be of use to those wishing to take certain subjects further. This
is further encouraged by some questions for discussion for each part at the end of
the book.
Part 1, Compelling reasons for teaching science in primary schools comprises four chap-
ters. The first two chapters are concerned with making the case for the importance
of science in the primary school and describing the recent history and current situa-
tion of science in the primary curricula of the four countries of the UK. Case stud-
ies of science in action, in Chapter 3, are followed in Chapter 4 by a discussion of
features of good learning environments for primary school science. These features
provide standards or criteria that can be used in the evaluation and enrichment of
learning activities.
In Part 2, About children’s learning, there are five chapters all related to children’s
learning and how it takes place. Chapter 5 considers what is known from neurosci-
ence about changes in the brain associated with learning. Chapter 6 gives examples
of the, often unscientific, ideas children develop from their everyday experiences.
A summary of the characteristics of these ideas is used later in the book when con-
sidering strategies for helping children develop ideas which are more consistent with
evidence. The other chapters in this part discuss the roles in children’s learning of talk
and dialogue (Chapter 7), using inquiry skills (Chapter 8) and using ICT (Chapter 9).
Part 3, The teacher’s roles concerns aspects of teachers’ practice that directly affect
children’s learning. The first of four chapters relates to the questions that teachers
ask and the effect of the form, content and timing of these questions on children’s
learning. Ways of encouraging and handling children’s questions are also suggested.
The following chapters focus on the progression and ways of developing children’s
scientific ideas (Chapter 11), inquiry skills (Chapter 12) and attitudes relevant to
learning science (Chapter 13).

3
 Introduction

In Part 4 Assessment and learning, the first of five chapters introduces terms and
concepts used in the discussion of the assessment of children’s learning. It discusses
the importance and key features of the two main purposes of assessment in the
primary school – formative and summative. The next three chapters discuss aspects
of formative assessment: collecting evidence of learning (Chapter 15), interpreting
and using evidence (Chapter 16) and involving children in assessing their work
(Chapter 17). The fifth chapter discusses the pros and cons of using tests and teachers’
judgements for assessing achievement for summative purposes.
Part 5 Planning environments for learning science, brings together five chapters which
concern the provision of learning experiences both in and outside the classroom. It
begins in Chapter 19 with the role of science subject leaders in planning the policy
and programme for science at the school level, within which the planning of class
programmes takes place (Chapter 20). The next chapter (21) concerns the provision
of materials, resources and equipment needed for active learning in the classroom,
followed (in Chapter 22) by discussion of the importance and range of opportunities
for learning outside the classroom. The part ends (Chapter 23) with a discussion of
ways of ensuring inclusive opportunities for learning science, by identifying teach-
ing strategies that are equally helpful to the learning of all pupils including those
with learning difficulties.
Part 6 Accountability and evaluation of practice comprises three chapters concerned
with ways in which provision for science at class (Chapter 24) and school (Chapter 25)
levels can be evaluated and improved. In both cases this involves identifying stan-
dards of criteria for judging performance. Examples showing how relevant data can
be collected include an evaluation tool specifically focused on inquiry-based learn-
ing. Purposes and approaches to school self-evaluation are discussed. Chapter 26
turns attention to action to improve provision and the role of the science subject
leader in the professional development of colleagues, ending with an overview of
key sources of professional development in science for primary teachers.

Wynne Harlen,
August 2017

4
The importance of primary school science
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Experiences for learning science

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Primary Science Education. Hatfield: ASE, 53–60.
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What we know about children's learning

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to Primary Science Education. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
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Children's ideas
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SPACE Research Reports available on the National STEM Centre website:
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Learning through talking
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Learning through inquiry

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Learning with ICT

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RSPB Big Schools’ Birdwatch: www.rspb.org.uk/schoolswatch/
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competence-framework/?lang=en

Teachers' and children's questions

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edition. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 25–35.
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the primary classroom: 1976–96, British Educational Research Journal 25(1): 23–37.
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Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 69–76.
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the Plunge, 2nd edition. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 36–47.
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Helping progression in scientific ideas

Asoko, H. and de Boo, M. (2001) Analogies and Illustrations. Representing Ideas in Primary Science. Hatfield:
Association for Science Education.
Russell, T. (2011) Progression in learning science, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science Education, new
edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 17–24.
Helping progression in inquiry skills
Harlen, W. (ed.) (2001b) Primary Science. Taking the Plunge, 2nd edition. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, chs 6, 7 and 8.
James, M. et al. (2007) Improving Learning How to Learn. London: Routledge, ch. 6.
Osborne, J. Erduran, S. and Simon, S. (2004) Enhancing the quality of argumentation in school science. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching 41(10): 994–1020.

Teaching for enjoyment, motivation and scientific attitudes

Keogh, B. and Naylor, S. (2006) Access and engagement for all, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science
Education. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
Keogh, B. and Naylor, S. (2011) Creativity in teaching science, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science
Education, new edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
McCrory, P. (2011) Developing interest in science through emotional engagement, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to
Primary Science Education, new edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
Primary upd8: www.primaryupd8.org.uk (on subscription for non-ASE members or included as part of ASE e-
membership for primary schools).

Assessment purposes
Harlen, W. (2010) What is quality teacher assessment? in J. Gardner , W. Harlen , L. Hayward and G. Stobart , with M.
Montgomery , Developing Teacher Assessment. Maidenhead: Open University Press, 29–52.
Harlen, W. (2014) Assessment, Standards and Quality of Learning in Primary Education. York: Cambridge Primary
Review Trust.
Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2010) Issues in primary assessment: 1 Assessment purposes, Primary Science 115: 5–7.
Wiliam, D. (2008) Quality in assessment, in S. Swaffield (ed.) Unlocking Assessment. London: David Fulton, 123–137.

Gathering evidence to help learning

Constantinou, Y. (2016) Concept cartoon conversations lead to inspiring investigations, Primary Science 142: 11–13.
Keogh, B. , Naylor, S. , Downing, B. , Maloney, J. and Simon, S. (2006) Puppets bringing stories to life in science,
Primary Science Review 92: 26–28.
Liston, M. (2015) Using puppets to provide opportunities for dialogue and scientific inquiry, Primary Science 138:
11–13.
Naylor, S. and Keogh, B. (2000) Concept Cartoons in Science Education. Sandbach: Millgate House.
Naylor, S. , Keogh, B. with Goldsworthy, A. (2004) Active Assessment. Thinking Learning and Assessment in Science.
London: David Fulton in association with Millgate House.
Puppets Project Resources from Millgate House Education Ltd: www.millgatehouse.co.uk

Interpreting evidence for feedback

Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2009) Inside the Primary Black Box. London: GL Assessment.
Schofield, K. (2011) Formative feedback and self-assessment, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science
Education, new edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 85–93.
Swaffield, S. (2008b) Feedback: the central process in assessment for learning, in S. Swaffield (ed.) Unlocking
Assessment. London: David Fulton, 57–72.
Children's role in formative assessment
Earl, L. and Katz, S. (2008) Getting to the core of learning: using assessment for self-monitoring and self-regulation, in
S. Swaffield (ed.) Unlocking Assessment, Understanding for Reflection and Application. London: David Fulton.
Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2009) Inside the Primary Black Box. Assessment for Learning in Primary and Early Years
Classrooms. London: GL Assessment.
Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2011) Issues in primary assessment: 2 Assessment for learning: how and why it works in
primary classrooms, Primary Science 116: 5–7.

Summative assessment and reporting

Black, P. , Harrison, C. , Lee, C. , Marshall, B and Wiliam, D. (2003) Assessment for Learning. Putting it into Practice.
Maidenhead: Open University Press, ch. 4.
Davies, D. , Collier, C. , McMahon, K. and Howe, A. (2010) E-SCAPE assessment, Primary Science 115: 18–21.
Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2010) Issues in primary assessment: 1 Assessment purposes, Primary Science 115: 5–7.
Nuffield Foundation (2012) Developing Policy, Principles and Practice in Primary School Science Assessment. London:
Nuffield Foundation. Available for download from www.nuffieldfoundation.org/primary-science-assessment

School level planning

Blacklock, K (2012) Science on a tight budget, Primary Science 121: 5–7.
Johnson, A. (2013) Is science lost in ‘The world around us’? Primary Science 126: 8–10.
Lawrence, L. (2011) The science subject leader, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science Education, new
edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 133–140.
Peacock, A. and Weedon, H. (2002) Children working with text in science: disparities with ‘Literacy Hour’ practice,
Research in Science and Technological Education 20(2): 185–197.
Smith, M. , Howard, D. and Hoath, L. (2011) Head in the cloud, feet on the ground, Primary Science 119: 21–23.
The Leonardo Effect: www.leonardoeffect.com/
Primary Connections – linking science with literacy: https://primaryconnections.org.au/
Sutton Trust EEF: https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/resources/teachinglearning-toolkit/parental-
involvement/
Wellcome Trust Croydon School Science project: http://blog.wellcome.ac.uk/2012/05/24/the-croydon-school-science-
project/

Class level planning

Bianchi, L. (2005) Creative space, Primary Science Review 90, 15–18.
Feasey, R. (2011) Planning: elements of an effective lesson plan, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science
Education, new edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 44–52.
Frost, J. (1997) Creativity in Primary Science. Buckingham: Open University Press.
McCrory, P. (2011) Developing interest in science through emotional engagement, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to
Primary Science Education, new edition. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 94–101.
McFall, D. and Macro, C. (2004) Creativity and science in the nursery, Primary Science Review 81: 17–19.

Sources and resources for practical inquiry

Burrows, P. (2003) Managing health and safety in primary science, Primary Science Review 79: 18–20.
Mant, J. , Wilson. H. and Coates, D. (2007) The effect of increasing conceptual challenge in primary science lessons on
pupils’ achievement and engagement, International Journal of Science Education 29(14): 1707–1719.
Naylor, S. , Keogh, B. and Downing, B. (2007) Argumentation in primary science, Research in Science Education 37:
177–189.
Sharpe, R. (2015) Students’ attitudes to practical work by age and subject, School Science Review 96(357): 25–39.

Providing for learning outside the classroom

Adams, J. (2006) Starting out in your own backyard, Primary Science Review 91: 7–10.
Davids, S. (2008) Growing faster than their sunflowers, Primary Science 101: 5–8.
Dixon-Watmough, R. and Rapley, M. (2012). The Great Bug Hunt is back! Primary Science 123: 24–26.
Fradley, C. (2006) Welly Walks for science learning, Primary Science Review 91: 14–16.
Graham, B. (2012) Visit a farm? Surely not! Primary Science 122: 15–17.
Walker, M. (2017) Root and branch reform: teaching city children about urban trees, Primary Science 146: 21–23.
City Tree Champions (Sheffield): www.sites.google.com/site/citytreechampions
Council for Learning Outside the Classroom: www.lotc.org.uk.
DfES (Department for Education and Skills) (2006) Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto. Available for download
from the Council for Learning Outside the Classroom website: www.lotc.org.uk/about/manifesto/
Farming and Countryside Education (FACE): www.face-online.org.uk/
Let’s Go! Science Trails: https://pstt.org.uk/resources/curriculum-materials/lets-go-sciencetrails
The Primary Science Teaching Trust (PSTT) website section on planning for visits to hands-on science centres:
https://www.pstt-cpd.org.uk/ext/cpd/enrich-sciencelearning/index.html
Transforming Outdoor Learning in Schools: Lessons from the Natural Connections Project:
https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/7/7634/Transforming_Outdoor_Learning_in_Schools_S
CN.pdf
24 Hour Museum: www.culture24.org.uk

Inclusive science education

ASE (2008) SEN and Science (P1.4 for science tutors) available for download at:
www.ase.org.uk/resources/scitutors/professional-issues/p14-sen-and-science/ CLEAPSS guides for members on
activities for primary schools:
■ PST56 – looks at primary-aged pupils with motor impairment.
■ G077 Science for secondary-aged pupils with special educational needs or disability – although written with
secondary schools in mind, provides information and ideas of use to teachers in all mainstream and special schools.
There are sections on teaching science to children with cognitive and learning difficulties, behavioural and emotional
difficulties, communication difficulties, sensory and physical difficulties and hypersensitivity.
Hainsworth, M. (2012b) Lifting the barriers in science, Primary Science 125: 11–13.
Oswald, S. (2012) Narrowing the gap for children with special educational needs, Primary Science 125: 8–10.
Wellington, W. and Wellington, J. (2002) Children with communication difficulties in mainstream classrooms, School
Science Review 83(305): 81–92.

Evaluating provision at the class level

Fibonacci (2012) Tools for Enhancing Inquiry in Science Education. Available for free download from: www.fibonacci-
project.eu/
Harlen, W. (2007b) Holding up a mirror to classroom practice, Primary Science Review 100: 29–31.
Harrison, C. and Howard, S. (2009) Inside the Primary Black Box. Assessment for Learning in Primary and Early Years
Classrooms. London: GL Assessment.
Evaluating provision at the school level
Harlen, W. (2007b) Holding up a mirror to classroom practice, Primary Science Review 100: 29–31.
Ofsted (2013) Maintaining Curiosity: A Survey into Science Education in Schools. Manchester: Ofsted. Download from
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/379164/Maintaining_20curiosity_20a_20
survey_20into_20science_20education_20in_20schools.pdf
Richardson, I. (2006) What is good science education? in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary Science Education,
Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 16–23.
Wright, L. (2006) School self-evaluation of teaching and learning science, in W. Harlen (ed.) ASE Guide to Primary
Science Education. Hatfield: Association for Science Education, 73–79.
The Child at the Centre – Self-evaluation in the Early Years: www.gov.scot/Resource/Doc/158152/0042794.pdf
Guidance Handbook for the Inspection of Primary Schools (Wales) from September 2017:
https://www.estyn.gov.wales/sites/default/files/documents/Guidance%20handbook%20for%20the%20inspection%20of
%20primary%20schools%20-%202017.pdf
How Good Is Our School? The Journey to Excellence, Part 3: Self-evaluation questionnaire:
https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fround-lake.dustinice.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.cne-
siar.gov.uk%2Feducation%2Fdocuments%2FHGIOS3%2520Self%2520Evaluation%2520QI%25205.1–5.9.doc
Looking at Our School. A Quality Framework for Primary Schools (Ireland) DES (Department of Educations and Skills)
(2016) Dublin: DES: https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspection-Reports-Publications/Evaluation-Reports-
Guidelines/Looking-at-Our-School-2016-A-Quality-Framework-for-Primary-Schools.pdf.

Enhancing provision for children's learning in science

CLEAPSS (2006) A Guide for Primary Science Coordinators, L255. Uxbridge: Brunel University.
DfE (Department for Education) (2016b) Standard for Teachers’ Professional Development. London: DfE.
Nuffield Primary Science (1996) Science Coordinators’ Handbook. London: Collins Educational.
Association for Science Education (ASE): www.ase.org.uk/
Chartered Science Teacher (CSciTeach): www.ase.org.uk/professional-development/asechartered-science-teacher-
csciteach/
CLEAPSS: www.cleapss.org.uk/
Enthuse awards: www.stem.org.uk/bursaries
National Science Learning Centres: www.stem.org.uk/
Northern Ireland Education Authority: www.eani.org.uk/
Primary Science Quality Mark (PSQM): www.PSQM.org.uk/
Primary Science Teaching Trust (PSTT): www.pstt.org.uk/
Scottish Schools Education Research Centre (SSERC): www.sserc.org.uk/

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