Established as per the Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956

Approved by AICTE, COA and BCI, New Delhi

Digital Logic and Computer Architecture

School of CSA

Prof. Krishnamurthy R
 COMPUTER TYPES

⮚What is Computer ?
⮚Computer is an electronic device.
⮚Can store large amounts of data.
⮚Can performing operations on data.
⮚Performing given function on the data & displays the result as output.
⮚Process data whenever needed.
⮚Known from ‘to compute’
COMPUTER TYPES

What is Process?

⮚Computer works on data as per programme is called process.

⮚Processing means operations like…..
⮚ Calculations,
⮚ Logical decision making,
⮚ Outputting data,
⮚ Communicating with others computer etc.
 COMPUTER TYPES
History of Computers
▪First(1945-1955):
Used vacuum tubes. Were very large. Generated immense heat. Very expensive.
▪Second(1955-1965):
Used transistors. Continued to be large and expensive.
▪Third(1965-1975):
Used integrated circuits. Significant reduction in size and cost
▪Fourth(1975-1995):
Uses Very Large Scale Integration. Desktop computers would not have been possible without
VLSI. It used Microprocessor minimizing the size of P.C.
▪Fifth (in progress):
Will provide us with Artificial intelligence. Also called knowledge information processing
system
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

▪ Speed ▪ Retrieving Data and

▪ Arithmetical and Logical Programme

Operations ▪ Automation
▪ Accuracy ▪ Versatility (Flexible)
▪ Reliability ▪ Consistency
▪ Storage ▪ Communications
COMPUTER TYPES
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

▪ Personal computer :
▪ A single-user computer
▪ Can be useful at School, Home, etc.
▪ Known as Micro Computer
▪ Laptop, Desktop

▪ Workstation :
▪ A powerful, single-user computer.
▪ A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor
▪ higher-quality monitor.
▪ Can be found in companies etc.
COMPUTER TYPES
▪ Minicomputer
▪ A multi-user computer
▪ Capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users simultaneously.
▪ Can be found in banks, government departments etc.
▪ Mainframe
▪ A powerful multi-user computer
▪ Capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
▪ Supercomputer
▪ An extremely fast computer
▪ Can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second
▪ Weather, scientific research can be done by these types of computer.
 Microcomputer

• A personal computer; designed to

meet the computer needs of an
individual.
• Provides access to a wide variety of
computing applications, such as word
processing, photo editing, e-mail, and
internet.
Desktop Microcomputer

• A microcomputer that fits on a desk

and runs on power from an electrical
wall outlet.
• The CPU can be housed in either a
vertical or a horizontal case.
• Has separate components (keyboard,
mouse, etc.) that are each plugged
into the computer.
Laptop Computer

• A portable, compact computer that

can run on an electrical wall outlet or
a battery unit.
• All components (keyboard, mouse,
etc.) are in one compact unit.
• Usually more expensive than a
comparable desktop.
• Sometimes called a Notebook.
 Supercomputer

• A computer that was the fastest in the world at the time it was constructed.
• Can tackle tasks that would not be practical for other computers.
– Typical uses
• Breaking codes
• Modeling weather systems
Mainframe

• Large expensive computer capable of

simultaneously processing data for
hundreds or thousands of users.
• Used to store, manage, and process
large amounts of data that need to be
reliable, secure, and centralized.
• Usually housed in a closet sized
cabinet.
 Server

• Purpose is to “serve.”
• A computer that has the purpose of
supplying its users with data; usually
through the use of a LAN (local area
network).
Handheld

• Also called a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant).

• A computer that fits into a pocket, runs on
batteries, and is used while holding the unit
in your hand.
• Typically used as an appointment book,
address book, calculator, and notepad.
• Can be synchronized with a personal
microcomputer as a backup.
COMPUTER TYPES

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
• Science research • Management aids
• Education • Engineering designing
• Business applications • Road traffic control
• Banking • Railway
• Office Automation • Medicine
• Desktop publishing • Information services
FUNCTIONAL UNITS

Arithmetic
Input and logic

Memory

Output Control

I/O Processor

Figure 1.1.Basic functional units of a computer.

INFORMATION HANDLED BY A COMPUTER

● Instructions/machine instructions
⮚ Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well as
between the computer and its I/O devices
⮚
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed
Program
⮚

● Data
⮚ Used as operands by the instructions Source
⮚ program
● Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1
MEMORY UNIT

● Store programs and data

● Two classes of storage
⮚ Primary storage
❖
Fast
❖
Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
❖
❖ Large number of semiconductor storage cells
❖ Processed in words Address
❖
RAM and memory access time
❖

⮚
Memory hierarchy – cache, main memory
Secondary storage – larger and cheaper
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

● Most computer operations are executed in ALU of the processor.

● Load the operands into memory – bring them to the processor – perform

operation in ALU – store the result back to memory or retain in the

processor.

● Registers

● Fast control of ALU

CONTROL UNIT
⮚ All computer operations are controlled by the control unit.

⮚ The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also generated by the

control unit.

⮚ Control unit is usually distributed throughout the machine instead of standing

alone.

⮚ Operations of a computer:
CONTROL UNIT
⮚ Accept information in the form of programs and data through an input unit

and store it in the memory

⮚ Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control, into an

ALU, where the information is processed

⮚ Output the processed information through an output unit Control all

activities inside the machine through a control unit

THE PROCESSOR : DATA PATH AND CONTROL

Data
PC Addres Register
s # A
Instruction Register Addres
Bank L
s s
U
Instruction Register
Data
Memory #
Register # Memory
Data

⮚ Two types of functional units:

⮚ elements that operate on data values (combinational)
⮚ elements that contain state (state elements)
REVIEW

Activity in a computer is governed by instructions.

To perform a task, an appropriate program consisting of a list of

instructions is stored in the memory.

Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor,
which executes the specified operations.

Data to be used as operands are also stored in the memory.

Connection between the Processor and memory

Memory

MAR MDR
Control

PC R0

R1
Processor
IR

ALU
R
n 1

n general purpose
registers

Figure 1.2. Connections between the processor and the memory.

Registers
● Instruction register (IR)

● Program counter (PC)

● General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)

● Memory address register (MAR)

● Memory data register (MDR)

Typical Operating Steps
● Programs reside in the memory through input devices

● PC is set to point to the first instruction

● The contents of PC are transferred to MAR

● A Read signal is sent to the memory

● The first instruction is read out and loaded into MDR

● The contents of MDR are transferred to IR

● Decode and execute the instruction

Bus Structures

● There are many ways to connect different parts inside a

computer together.

● A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for

several devices is called a bus.

● Address/data/control
BUS STRUCTURE
Single bus Structure

Input Output Memory Processor

Figure 1.3. Singlebus structure.

PERFORMANCE
Processor time to execute a program depends on the hardware involved in
the execution
●
of individual machine instructions

Main memory Cache

Processor
memory

Bus

The processor cache.

PERFORMANCE

● The most important measure of a computer is how

quickly it can execute programs.
● Three factors affect performance:
⮚ Hardware design
⮚ Instruction set
⮚ Compiler
BASIC PERFORMANCE EQUATION

T – processor time required to execute a program that has been

prepared in high-level language
N – number of actual machine language instructions needed to complete
the execution (note: loop)
S – average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine
instruction. Each step completes in one clock cycle
R – clock rate
Note: these are not independent to each other

N×S
T = R
How to improve T?
PIPELINE AND SUPERSCALAR OPERATION
Instructions are not necessarily executed one after another.

The value of S doesn’t have to be the number of clock cycles to execute one instruction.

Pipelining – overlapping the execution of successive instructions.

Add R1, R2, R3

Superscalar operation – multiple instruction pipelines are implemented in the processor.

Goal – reduce S (could become <1!)

CLOCK RATE
● Increase clock rate
⮚ Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to make the circuits faster
⮚ Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic step (however, this
⮚
may increase the number of basic steps needed)

● Increases in R that are entirely caused by improvements in IC

technology affect all aspects of the processor’s operation
equally except the time to access the main memory.
CISC AND RISC

Tradeoff between N and S

A key consideration is the use of pipelining
⮚ S is close to 1 even though the number of basic steps per instruction may be
considerably larger.
⮚ It is much easier to implement efficient pipelining in processor with simple
instruction sets

● Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

● Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
 COMPILER
A compiler translates a high-level language program into a sequence of
machine instructions.
To reduce N, we need a suitable machine instruction set and a compiler that
makes good use of it.
Goal – reduce N×S
A compiler may not be designed for a specific processor; however, a
high-quality compiler is usually designed for, and with, a specific processor.