Computer Graphics

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Graphics Systems and Models: Applications of Computer Graphics, A Graphics System,

Images: Physical and Synthetic, Imaging Systems, The Synthetic-Camera Model, The
Programmer’s Interface, Graphics Architectures, Programmable Pipelines, Performance
Characteristics.

Interactive and Non Interactive graphics in Computer Graphics

• Interactive computer graphics refers to the dynamic and responsive
generation of visual images on a display device, coupled with real-
time user interaction.

• Non-interactive computer graphics on the other hand, involve the

generation and display of visual content without direct, real-time user
interaction.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS:
It is the creation and manipulation of graphic images by means of a
computer.
▪ Computer graphics started as a technique to enhance the display of
information generated by a computer.
▪ This ability to interpret and represent numerical data in pictures has
significantly increased the computer’s ability to present information
to the user in a clear and understandable form.
▪ Large amount of data are rapidly converted into bar charts, pie charts,
and graphs.
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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS:

1. Display of information
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GRAPHICS SYSTEM:
There are five major elements in Graphics System
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Frame buffer
4. Input devices
5. Output devices

Pixels and the Frame Buffer

Most graphics systems are raster-based.
The raster is an array of picture elements — pixels.
The pixels are stored in the frame buffer.
The depth of the frame buffer = num.
bits used per pixel.
1-bit-deep ⇒ black and white only.
8-bit-deep ⇒ 28 = 256 colours.
24-bit-deep ⇒ the RGB-colour system: red, green, blue, 256 shades for each.
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The resolution of the frame buffer = number of pixels.

Rasterization or scan conversion is the assignment of values to pixels in the
frame buffer that best represent graphical primitives: lines, circles, polygons,
etc. Done by the processor. Sophisticated graphics systems use special-purpose
processors for this.
The depth, or precision, of the frame buffer, defined as the number of bits that
are used for each pixel, determines properties such as how many colors can be
represented on a given system.
For example, a 1- bit-deep frame buffer allows only two colors, whereas an
8-bit-deep frame buffer allows 28 (256) colors. In full-color systems, there are
24 (or more) bits per pixel. Such systems can display sufficient colors to
represent most images realistically
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Processor:
Display Processor is a part of computer graphics which is used to convert the
code into pictures. In other words, we can say that the Display Processor is
used to convert the digital information or the digital signal into analog. Hence,
the display Processor in simple terms can also be called digital to analog
converter. The conversion in the Display Processors depends on the types of
devices and the functions used for graphical representations.

Input devices

Output devices
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The usual display type is a cathode-ray-tube (CRT). Pixels in the frame buffer
are displayed as points on the surface of the display. The points last only a few
milliseconds, so the content of the frame buffer must be redisplayed or
refreshed. The rate must be high enough to avoid flicker: the refresh rate.

There are two ways of displaying pixels:

Interlaced:
In this technique, the screen displays odd lines first, then even lines. This
means that only every other line is drawn during each refresh
cycle. Interlacing is used to reduce flicker and improve image quality, but it
can cause a vertical "bounce" in images with strong horizontal
detail. Interlaced displays are better for televisions because they can have a
higher frame rate.
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Non-Interlaced:
In this technique, all lines are drawn in each refresh cycle. This results in a
smoother, sharper image with less flickering. Non-interlaced displays are
better for computer monitors and for displaying video and other moving
images.

Cathode-Ray Tubes:

❖ A beam of electrons, emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and

deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor-
coated screen.
❖ The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the
electron beam and the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly.
❖ One way to maintain the screen picture is to store the picture information as a charge
distribution within the CRT in order to keep the phosphors activated.
❖ The most common method now employed for maintaining phosphor glow is to
redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over the
same screen points. This type of display is called a refresh CRT.
❖ The frequency at which a picture is redrawn on the screen is referred to as the
refresh rate.
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❖ The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal cathode
and a control grid.
❖ The heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire,
called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure.
❖ This causes electrons to be “boiled off” the hot cathode surface.
❖ Inside the CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are then accelerated
toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage
❖ Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by the voltage at the control grid.
❖ Since the amount of light emitted by the phosphor coating depends on the number of
electrons striking the screen, the brightness of a display point is controlled by
varying the voltage on the control grid.
❖ The focusing system in a CRT forces the electron beam to converge to a small cross
section as it strikes the phosphor and it is accomplished with either electric or
magnetic fields.
❖ With electrostatic focusing, the electron beam is passed through a positively charged
metal cylinder so that electrons along the centre line of the cylinder are in
equilibrium position.
❖ Deflection of the electron beam can be controlled with either electric or magnetic
fields.
❖ Cathode-ray tubes are commonly constructed with two pairs of magnetic-deflection
coils.
❖ One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the CRT neck, and the other pair is
mounted on opposite sides of the neck.
❖ The magnetic field produced by each pair of coils results in a traverse deflection
force that is perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field and the
direction of travel of the electron beam.
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❖ Horizontal and vertical deflections are accomplished with these pair of coils

i)Raster-Scan Displays or Raster based:

❖ The electron beam is swept across the screen one row at a time from top to bottom.
❖ As it moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a
pattern of illuminated spots.
❖ This scanning process is called refreshing. Each complete scanning of a screen is
normally called a frame.
❖ The refreshing rate, called the frame rate, is normally 60 to 80 frames per second,
or described as 60 Hz to 80 Hz.
❖ Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the frame buffer.
❖ This frame buffer stores the intensity values for all the screen points. Each screen
point is called a pixel (picture element).
❖ Property of raster scan is Aspect ratio, which defined as number of pixel columns
divided by number of scan lines that can be displayed by the system.

ii). Random-Scan Displays

❖ When operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the electron beam
directed only to those parts of the screen where a picture is to be displayed.
❖ Pictures are generated as line drawings, with the electron beam tracing out the
component lines one after the other.
❖ For this reason, random-scan monitors are also referred to as vector displays
(or stroke writing displays or calligraphic displays).
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❖ The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-

scan system in any specified order.
❖ A pen plotter operates in a similar way and is an example of a random-scan,
hard-copy device.
❖ Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be
displayed on that system.
❖ Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area
of memory referred to as the display list, refresh display file, vector file, or
display program.
❖ To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands
in the display file, drawing each component line in turn.
❖ After all line-drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles back
to the first line command in the list.
❖ Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a
picture 30 to 60 times each second, with up to 100,000 “short” lines in the
display list.
❖ When a small set of lines is to be displayed, each refresh cycle is delayed to
avoid very high refresh rates, which could burn out the phosphor.

Shadow-mask CRT:
❖ It produces wide range of colours as compared to beam-penetration technique
❖ This technique is generally used in raster scan displays. Including colour TV.
❖ In this technique CRT has three phosphor colour dots at each pixel position.
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❖ One dot for red, one for green and one for blue light. This is commonly
known as Dot triangle.
❖ Here in CRT there are three electron guns present, one for each colour dot.
And a shadow mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen.
❖ The shadow mask grid consists of series of holes aligned with the phosphor
dot pattern.
❖ Three electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow
mask and when they pass through a hole they excite a dot triangle.
❖ In dot triangle three phosphor dots are arranged so that each electron beam
can activate only its corresponding colour dot when it passes through the
shadow mask.
❖ A dot triangle when activated appears as a small dot on the screen which has
colour of combination of three small dots in the dot triangle.
❖ By changing the intensity of the three electron beams we can obtain different
colours in the shadow mask CRT.

Flat Panel Display:

❖ The term flat panel display refers to a class of video device that have reduced
volume, weight & power requirement compared to a CRT.
❖ As flat panel display is thinner than CRTs, we can hang them on walls or
wear on our wrists.
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❖ Since we can even write on some flat panel displays they will soon be
available as pocket notepads.
❖ We have three types in this:
Plasma Panels displays

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

❖ In this display a matrix of multi-colour light emitting diode is arranged to form
the pixel position in the display and the picture definition is stored in refresh
buffer.
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❖ Similar to scan line refreshing of CRT information is read from the refresh
buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce
the light pattern on the display.

It is the width to height ratio of the frame buffer

Until recently, the most display had a 4:3 aspect ratio.