Network Technology - Q .1. Explain Guided transmission media in detail.

Guided transmission media refer to the physical mediums through which data signals are transmitted in a network.
Unlike wireless transmission, where data is sent through the airwaves, guided transmission media use physical
pathways, such as cables or wires, to transmit signals. These mediums guide the signals along a specific path, hence
the name "guided."Here are some common types of guided transmission media:
1. **Twisted Pair Cable:**
- Twisted pair cables are made up of pairs of copper wires twisted together. The twisting helps to reduce
electromagnetic interference from external sources.They are commonly used in telephone lines and local area
networks (LANs).Twisted pair cables come in two main categories: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP). STP has additional shielding to further reduce interference.
2. **Coaxial Cable:* - Coaxial cables consist of a central copper conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation, a
metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. They are widely used for cable television (CATV) and high-speed internet
connections.Coaxial cables have higher bandwidth and can transmit signals over longer distances compared to
twisted pair cables.
3. **Optical Fiber:**Optical fibers use light signals to transmit data through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.
- They offer extremely high bandwidth and are immune to electromagnetic interference.Optical fibers are
commonly used in long-distance telecommunications networks, high-speed internet connections, and backbone
networks.
Guided transmission media offer several advantages:
- **Security:** Since the signals are confined within the physical medium, it's more difficult for unauthorized users to
intercept the data compared to wireless transmission.
- **Reliability:** Guided media are less susceptible to environmental interference and can provide more stable
connections.
- **Higher Bandwidth:** Optical fibers, in particular, offer extremely high bandwidth, making them suitable for
transmitting large amounts of data at high speeds.
However, guided transmission media also have some limitations:
- **Physical Limitations:** They require physical installation, which can be costly and labor-intensive, especially for
laying cables over long distances.
- **Susceptibility to Damage:** Cables can be damaged by environmental factors such as moisture, temperature
fluctuations, and physical stress.
- **Limited Mobility:** Devices connected via guided media are typically stationary since they rely on physical
connections.

Q.2. Compare OSI model Vs TCP/IP model.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) model are both conceptual frameworks used to understand and standardize the communication
process in computer networks. While they serve similar purposes, there are differences in their structure
and approach:
**OSI Model:**
1. **Layers:** The OSI model consists of seven layers, each representing a specific function in the
communication process. These layers are:
- Application Layer
- Presentation Layer
- Session Layer
 - Transport Layer
- Network Layer
- Data Link Layer
- Physical Layer
2. **Encapsulation:** Each layer in the OSI model encapsulates data as it moves down the stack, adding
headers and trailers specific to that layer's function.
3. **Standardization:** The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was intended to be a comprehensive and universal model for
network communication, fostering interoperability between different vendors' products.
4. **Connection-Oriented:** The OSI model is connection-oriented, meaning that it distinguishes between
the physical connection (Data Link Layer) and logical connections (Transport Layer).
**TCP/IP Model:**
1. **Layers:** The TCP/IP model, on the other hand, comprises four layers, which are sometimes grouped
into a five-layer model. These layers are:
- Application Layer
- Transport Layer
- Internet Layer
- Link Layer (or Network Access Layer)
2. **Encapsulation:** The TCP/IP model also encapsulates data as it moves through the layers, but it has a
less strict separation between layers compared to the OSI model.
3. **Development:** The TCP/IP model was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the 1970s to
create a robust, fault-tolerant communication system for military use. It became the foundation of the
modern Internet.
4. **Connectionless:** TCP/IP is a connectionless protocol suite, meaning that it does not maintain a
connection state between communicating devices like the OSI model does. Each packet is treated
independently.
**Comparison:**
1. **Number of Layers:** OSI has seven layers, while TCP/IP has four (or five, depending on how you group
them). This makes the OSI model more detailed and granular.
2. **Standardization vs. Implementation:** OSI is more of a theoretical model, while TCP/IP is more
focused on real-world implementation and practicality.
3. **Universal Adoption:** TCP/IP has become the de facto standard for networking, especially in the
context of the Internet, while the OSI model is mainly used as a reference model for understanding
network architectures.
4. **Flexibility:** TCP/IP is more flexible and adaptable to different network architectures and
technologies, whereas OSI is more rigid in its structure.
Q.3. Explain Ethernet Frame Format & Access method.
Ethernet is a widely used networking technology that defines the standards for how devices communicate
over local area networks (LANs). The Ethernet frame format and access method are fundamental aspects of
Ethernet networks, governing how data is packaged for transmission and how devices access the network
medium.Ethernet Frame Format:
An Ethernet frame is the basic unit of data transmission in an Ethernet network. It consists of several fields
that encapsulate the data being transmitted. The most common Ethernet frame format used today is based
on the IEEE 802.3 standard. Here's a breakdown of the fields in an Ethernet frame:
Preamble: The preamble is a sequence of alternating 1s and 0s that serves as a synchronization pattern to
allow the receiving device to synchronize its clock with the incoming data stream.
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): The SFD immediately follows the preamble and indicates the start of the
frame. It consists of a specific bit pattern (10101011) that marks the beginning of the frame.
Destination MAC Address: This field contains the MAC (Media Access Control) address of the intended
recipient device. It is typically 6 bytes long.
Source MAC Address: This field contains the MAC address of the sender device, also 6 bytes long.
EtherType/Length: In Ethernet II frames, this field indicates the type of protocol data encapsulated in the
frame. In IEEE 802.3 frames, this field specifies the length of the data payload rather than the type of
protocol.
Data: The data field contains the payload of the frame, which can vary in size depending on the protocol
being used.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS): The FCS is a checksum value calculated over the entire frame (excluding the
preamble and SFD) to detect errors during transmission.
The Ethernet frame format may vary slightly depending on the specific Ethernet standard being used (e.g.,
Ethernet II, IEEE 802.3), but the basic structure remains similar.Ethernet Access Method:
Ethernet networks use a contention-based access method known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Here's how it works:
Carrier Sense: Before transmitting data, a device listens to the network medium to check if it is busy. If the
medium is idle, the device can proceed with transmission. If it detects activity on the medium, it waits until
it becomes idle.
Multiple Access: Multiple devices share the same network medium in Ethernet networks. When multiple
devices attempt to transmit simultaneously, a collision can occur.
Collision Detection: If two or more devices transmit data simultaneously and a collision occurs, they detect
the collision by monitoring the medium while transmitting. Once a collision is detected, the transmitting
devices stop sending data and enter a backoff algorithm, waiting for a random amount of time before
attempting to retransmit.
Q.4. Explain Need of Layering with example.
Layering in network technology is essential for several reasons, primarily to manage complexity, facilitate
interoperability, and promote standardization. Let's explore the need for layering with an example:
Example: Sending an Email
Imagine you want to send an email to a friend. The process involves several steps, each representing a layer
in the network stack:
Application Layer:
You compose the email using an email client application like Gmail, Outlook, or Thunderbird. The
application layer provides services and interfaces for creating, sending, and receiving emails.
Transport Layer:
Once you click "Send," your email client uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to transmit the
email over the Internet. The transport layer ensures reliable end-to-end communication between your
computer and the email server.
Network Layer:
The email server forwards your email to the recipient's email server using the Internet Protocol (IP). The
network layer is responsible for routing packets across different networks, ensuring the email reaches its
destination.
Data Link Layer:
At this layer, the Ethernet protocol (or other data link protocols) comes into play if the email is transmitted
over a local network. The data link layer handles framing, error detection, and flow control as the email
packet is transmitted over physical network links.
Physical Layer:
Finally, the email data is converted into electrical signals or light pulses and transmitted over physical
network media, such as Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi radio waves, or fiber optic cables.
Need for Layering:
Abstraction:
Layering provides abstraction, allowing network engineers and developers to focus on specific functions
without needing to understand the complexities of lower layers. For example, email application developers
can focus on creating user-friendly interfaces without worrying about the intricacies of network routing or
physical transmission.
Modularity:
Each layer operates independently, with defined interfaces between adjacent layers. This modularity
enables easier development, testing, and maintenance of network protocols and applications. For instance,
changes to the transport layer (e.g., switching from TCP to UDP) do not impact the application layer.
Interoperability:
Standardized layer interfaces facilitate interoperability between different networking devices and
technologies. For example, email clients and servers from different vendors can communicate seamlessly
because they adhere to common protocols at each layer of the network stack.
Flexibility:
Layering allows for the addition or modification of protocols at different layers without disrupting other
layers. This flexibility enables networks to adapt to evolving technologies and requirements. For instance,
new application layer protocols like HTTP/3 (based on QUIC) can be introduced without changing lower
layers.
By breaking down the networking process into discrete layers, layering enables efficient, reliable, and
scalable communication in complex network environments, from sending emails to browsing the web and
streaming videos.
Q.5. Draw & explain IPv6 packet format.
0 15 16 31
+-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Version (4 bits) | Traffic Class (8 bits) |
 +-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Flow Label (20 bits) | Payload Length (16 bits) |
+-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Next Header (8 bits) | Hop Limit (8 bits) |
+-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Source Address (128 bits) |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| Destination Address (128 bits) |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
+ +
| |
+ Payload (variable length) +
| |
+ +
| |
Explanation of IPv6 packet format fields:
Version (4 bits):
Specifies the IP version number. For IPv6, the value is 6.
Traffic Class (8 bits):
Similar to the Type of Service (TOS) field in IPv4, it defines the priority and treatment of the packet in the
network. It includes features like Differentiated Services (DiffServ) and Explicit Congestion Notification
(ECN).
Flow Label (20 bits):
Used for flow identification and quality of service (QoS) management. It allows packets belonging to the
same flow to be handled consistently across routers.
Payload Length (16 bits):
Specifies the length of the payload in octets (bytes). This field does not include the size of the IPv6 header.
Next Header (8 bits):
Indicates the type of the next header following the IPv6 header. It can be a transport-layer protocol (e.g.,
TCP, UDP) or an extension header.
Hop Limit (8 bits):
Similar to the Time to Live (TTL) field in IPv4, it specifies the maximum number of hops (routers) that the
packet can traverse before being discarded.
Source Address (128 bits):
Contains the IPv6 address of the packet's source, typically a 128-bit global unicast address assigned to the
sender.
Destination Address (128 bits):
Contains the IPv6 address of the packet's intended destination, also a 128-bit global unicast address.
Payload:Contains the actual data being transmitted, such as the payload of a higher-layer protocol (e.g.,
TCP, UDP) or optional extension headers.

Q.6. Generate CRC code for the data word – 11001010 using the divisor – 10101.
To generate a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) code for the given data word "11001010" using the divisor
"10101," you would perform polynomial division. Here's how you can do it step by step:
Append zeros to the data word to match the length of the divisor minus 1. In this case, the divisor has a
length of 5, so append 4 zeros to the data word:Data Word: 11001010 0000
_______________________________
Divisor: | 1 0 1 0 1
Data Word: | 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
| 1 0 1 0 1 <-- Divisor * Quotient
| ---------
1 0 0 1 0 1 <-- Remainder (CRC)
The remainder obtained after the division is the CRC code. So, the CRC code for the given data word
"11001010" using the divisor "10101" is "100101."
Q.8. Describe any two Error- detection techniques.
Certainly! Here are descriptions of two common error detection techniques used in networking and data
communication:
1. **Checksum:**
- The checksum is a simple error detection technique used to detect errors in data transmission. It
involves adding up the binary values of all the data units (such as bytes or words) in a message and
appending the resulting sum (checksum value) to the message. When the message is received, the receiver
recalculates the checksum using the same algorithm and compares it to the transmitted checksum. If the
calculated checksum matches the transmitted checksum, it indicates that the message was received
without errors.
- Example: Suppose we have a message consisting of the bytes 01011001, 10101010, and 11001100. To
calculate the checksum, we sum up these bytes (01011001 + 10101010 + 11001100 = 110000011). The
checksum value is then appended to the message. Upon receiving the message, the receiver performs the
same checksum calculation. If the calculated checksum matches the transmitted checksum (110000011),
the message is assumed to be error-free.
2. **Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):**
- CRC is a more sophisticated error detection technique widely used in network communication protocols
such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi. It involves polynomial division, where the data to be transmitted is treated as a
binary polynomial. A fixed-length binary divisor (known as the generator polynomial) is used to divide the
data polynomial, resulting in a remainder called the CRC code. This CRC code is appended to the data
before transmission. At the receiver's end, the same divisor is used to perform polynomial division on the
received data. If the remainder obtained after division is zero, it indicates that no errors were detected in
the data transmission.
- Example: Let's say we want to transmit the data word 11001010 using the divisor 10101 for CRC
calculation. We perform polynomial division, as shown in the previous answer, and obtain a CRC code of
100101. This CRC code is then appended to the data word before transmission. Upon receiving the data
word with the appended CRC code, the receiver performs the same polynomial division. If the remainder is
zero, it indicates that the data was received without errors.
Q.9. Find the maximum number of Hosts available on – Class -B IP address with subnet mask
255.255.255.240. Also find maximum number of subnets available.
To find the maximum number of hosts available and the maximum number of subnets available with a Class
B IP address and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 (which corresponds to a /28 subnet), we can use the
following formulas:

1. Maximum number of hosts per subnet:

- Given a subnet mask of /28, there are 32 - 28 = 4 bits available for host addresses.
- The number of host addresses available per subnet is 2^4 - 2, where 2 represents the network and
broadcast addresses, which cannot be assigned to hosts.
- Therefore, the maximum number of hosts per subnet is 2^4 - 2 = 16 - 2 = 14 hosts.
2. Maximum number of subnets:
- Given a Class B IP address, the default subnet mask is /16, leaving 16 bits for the network portion.
- When using a /28 subnet mask, 28 bits are used for the network portion, leaving 16 - 28 = 12 bits
available for subnetting.
- The number of subnets available is 2^12, where 12 represents the number of subnet bits.
- Therefore, the maximum number of subnets available is 2^12 = 4096 subnets.
So, for a Class B IP address with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 (/28):
- Maximum number of hosts per subnet: 14
- Maximum number of subnets: 4096

Q.10. Describe HDLC protocol with its sub types and frame format.
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) is a bit-oriented synchronous data link layer protocol used to
encapsulate data frames for transmission over synchronous serial communication links. It is a widely used
protocol in telecommunications and networking, often serving as the basis for other protocols like SDLC
(Synchronous Data Link Control) and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol). HDLC defines both the frame format and
the rules for frame exchange between devices.
**Frame Format:**
The HDLC frame format consists of several fields, including flags, address, control, data, and frame check
sequence (FCS). Here's a breakdown of the HDLC frame format:
1. **Flag:**
 - A special bit pattern (01111110) used to indicate the beginning and end of an HDLC frame. Flags are
used for synchronization and framing, allowing the receiver to identify the boundaries of the frame.
2. **Address:**
- A field used to specify the address of the recipient device. In some configurations, this field is optional
and may be omitted.
3. **Control:**
- The control field contains information about the type of frame and the specific operation being
performed (e.g., data transfer, acknowledgment). It also includes flow control and error control
information.
4. **Data:**
- The data field contains the payload of the frame, which may include user data, control information, or
padding to fill the frame to a minimum size.
5. **Frame Check Sequence (FCS):**
- The FCS field contains a checksum or CRC value computed over the entire frame, excluding the flag
fields. It is used to detect errors introduced during transmission.
6. **Flag:**
- Another flag field marks the end of the frame, similar to the start flag.
**HDLC Subtypes:**
HDLC supports several subtypes, each with specific characteristics and functions. The most common HDLC
subtypes include:
1. **Normal Response Mode (NRM):**
- In NRM, devices communicate in a point-to-point or multipoint configuration, with one device acting as
the primary (sender) and the other as the secondary (receiver). Frames are exchanged using a combination
of polling and acknowledgment mechanisms.
2. **Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM):**
- ARM is similar to NRM but allows for asynchronous communication between devices, typically over dial-
up or packet-switched networks. Devices can transmit data independently, and acknowledgments are not
always required.
3. **Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM):**
- ABM supports bidirectional communication between devices, allowing either device to initiate frame
exchange. ABM is often used in networking scenarios where devices have equal roles and responsibilities.
4. **Asynchronous Balanced Mode Extended (ABME):**
- ABME extends ABM by adding additional functionality, such as selective reject and window flow control,
to improve performance and reliability in high-speed or noisy environments.
HDLC is a versatile protocol that can be adapted to various network topologies and requirements, making it
a popular choice for data link layer communication in telecommunications and networking applications. Its
simplicity, efficiency, and reliability make it well-suited for both synchronous and asynchronous
communication environments.
Q.11. Explain performance of TCP protocol in wireless network.
The performance of the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol in wireless networks can be affected
by several factors inherent to wireless communication. While TCP was originally designed for wired
networks, it is commonly used over wireless links in modern networking environments. However, the
characteristics of wireless networks, such as variable channel conditions, limited bandwidth, and higher
error rates, can impact TCP's performance. Here's how:
1. **Packet Loss and Retransmissions:**
- Wireless networks are prone to packet loss due to factors like signal interference, fading, and collisions.
When TCP detects packet loss through timeouts or duplicate acknowledgments, it assumes congestion and
initiates congestion control mechanisms such as TCP's slow start, congestion avoidance, and fast
retransmit/recovery. However, in wireless networks, packet loss can also occur due to reasons other than
congestion, such as channel errors. This can lead to unnecessary retransmissions, reducing TCP's
throughput and efficiency.
2. **Latency and Delay:**
- Wireless networks often have higher latency compared to wired networks due to factors like signal
propagation delay, protocol overhead, and contention for the shared wireless medium. TCP's performance
can be affected by latency, especially in applications sensitive to delay, such as real-time communication or
interactive applications. Long round-trip times (RTTs) can impact TCP's congestion control algorithms,
causing suboptimal throughput and inefficient resource utilization.
3. **Bandwidth Variability:**
- Wireless networks experience variability in available bandwidth due to factors like channel fading,
interference, and contention among multiple users sharing the same wireless medium. TCP's congestion
control algorithms are designed to adapt to changes in available bandwidth by dynamically adjusting the
sending rate based on network conditions. However, sudden fluctuations in bandwidth can trigger
aggressive congestion control responses, leading to underutilization of available capacity or unnecessary
reductions in throughput.
4. **Channel Errors and Link Quality:**
- Wireless channels are prone to errors due to noise, interference, and attenuation. TCP's reliability
mechanisms, such as checksums and selective retransmission, help detect and recover from errors.
However, frequent errors can degrade TCP's performance by triggering retransmissions, increasing latency,
and reducing throughput. In extreme cases, poor link quality may lead to link-layer retransmissions or link-
layer protocols (e.g., ARQ) discarding packets, impacting TCP's congestion control mechanisms.
5. **Wireless Mobility:**
- Mobile devices moving between different wireless access points or changing network conditions can
experience handoffs or roaming events. TCP connections may be disrupted or experience transient
congestion during handoffs, leading to packet loss, retransmissions, and degraded performance. Mobile
TCP enhancements, such as Mobile IP and Fast Handover, aim to mitigate the impact of mobility on TCP
performance in wireless networks.
Overall, while TCP can operate over wireless networks, its performance may be affected by the unique
characteristics and challenges of wireless communication. Various TCP enhancements, adaptations, and
optimizations have been proposed to improve TCP's performance in wireless environments, including
modifications to congestion control algorithms, error recovery mechanisms, and transport-layer protocols
tailored for wireless communication.
Q.12. Detect & correct the single error in the received Hamming code word 110011100110 with odd
parity.
To detect and correct errors in a received Hamming code word with odd parity, we first need to determine
the parity bit positions and then calculate the parity for each position to identify any errors. The received
code word is 110011100110.
1. Determine the number of parity bits required: In this case, the received code word has 12 bits, so we
need 4 parity bits (2^3 = 8 < 12 < 2^4 = 16).
2. Identify the positions of the parity bits (using 1-based indexing): P1, P2, P4, and P8.
3. Check the parity for each parity bit position:
- P1: (Position 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) - Check if the total number of 1s is odd. (Should be odd)
- P2: (Position 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11) - Check if the total number of 1s is odd. (Should be even)
- P4: (Position 4, 5, 6, 7, 12) - Check if the total number of 1s is odd. (Should be odd)
- P8: (Position 8, 9, 10, 11, 12) - Check if the total number of 1s is odd. (Should be even)

Let's calculate the parity for each position:

1. P1: Parity is odd (1+1+1+1+1+0 = 5)
2. P2: Parity is odd (1+1+0+0+1+0 = 3)
3. P4: Parity is even (1+1+0+0+0 = 2)
4. P8: Parity is even (0+1+1+0+0 = 2)
Now we identify the incorrect parity bits:
- P1: Correct
- P2: Incorrect (Expected even parity, actual parity is odd)
- P4: Correct
- P8: Incorrect (Expected even parity, actual parity is odd)
So, the incorrect parity bits are P2 and P8. To correct the errors, we change the values at these positions.
The bit at position P2 is incorrect. We flip it from 1 to 0.
The bit at position P8 is incorrect. We flip it from 1 to 0.
The corrected Hamming code word is 100011100110.
Q.13. Explain different security attacks. Security attacks encompass a wide range of malicious activities
aimed at compromising the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of computer systems, networks, and
data. Here are explanations of different types of security attacks:
1. **Malware:**
- Malware, short for malicious software, refers to software designed to disrupt, damage, or gain
unauthorized access to computer systems or data. Common types of malware include viruses, worms,
trojans, ransomware, spyware, and adware. Malware can be distributed through various vectors, including
email attachments, malicious websites, infected USB drives, and software downloads.
2. **Phishing:**
- Phishing attacks involve deceptive attempts to trick users into revealing sensitive information, such as
usernames, passwords, credit card numbers, or other personal data. Phishing attacks typically use spoofed
emails, fake websites, or social engineering techniques to impersonate legitimate entities (e.g., banks,
companies, government agencies) and persuade users to disclose confidential information.
3. **Denial-of-Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attacks:**
- DoS and DDoS attacks aim to disrupt or degrade the availability of online services, websites, or networks
by overwhelming them with a flood of malicious traffic. In a DoS attack, a single attacker floods a target
system with traffic, while in a DDoS attack, multiple compromised devices (botnets) coordinated by a
central attacker collectively flood the target. DoS and DDoS attacks can exploit vulnerabilities in network
protocols, servers, or applications, causing service downtime or slowdowns.
4. **Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) Attack:**
- In a MitM attack, an attacker intercepts and potentially alters communication between two parties
without their knowledge. The attacker may eavesdrop on sensitive information exchanged between the
parties, modify the content of messages, or impersonate one of the parties to gain unauthorized access.
MitM attacks can occur in various scenarios, including unsecured Wi-Fi networks, compromised routers,
and insecure communication channels.
5. **SQL Injection (SQLi) and Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) Attacks:**
- SQL injection attacks exploit vulnerabilities in web applications' input validation mechanisms to inject
malicious SQL queries into the underlying database. Successful SQLi attacks can allow attackers to extract or
manipulate sensitive data stored in the database. Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attacks involve injecting
malicious scripts into web pages viewed by other users, enabling attackers to steal session cookies, deface
websites, or perform other malicious actions on behalf of legitimate users.
6. **Social Engineering:**
- Social engineering attacks exploit human psychology and manipulation techniques to deceive individuals
into divulging confidential information, performing unauthorized actions, or compromising security
controls. Examples of social engineering tactics include pretexting, baiting, phishing, vishing (voice
phishing), and spear phishing. Social engineering attacks often target employees, customers, or individuals
with access to sensitive information or systems.
7. **Insider Threats:**
- Insider threats refer to security risks posed by individuals within an organization who misuse their
authorized access to systems, data, or resources for malicious purposes. Insider threats can involve
employees, contractors, or business partners who intentionally or unintentionally disclose sensitive
information, steal intellectual property, sabotage systems, or engage in fraudulent activities.
Q.14. Explain MIME in detail. MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a standard that extends the
format of email messages to support attachments, non-ASCII characters, and multimedia content such as
images, audio, and video. MIME was originally defined in RFC 2045 to RFC 2049 and has since been widely
adopted for email and other internet communication protocols.
Here's a detailed explanation of MIME:
1. **Purpose:**
- MIME was developed to address the limitations of the original email format, which only supported plain
text messages with 7-bit ASCII characters. MIME allows email clients to exchange messages containing
various types of content, including binary files, rich text, HTML, and multimedia.
2. **Content Types:**
- MIME defines a set of content types that describe the format and structure of the data included in email
messages. Common MIME content types include:
 - text/plain: Plain text content.
- text/html: HTML-formatted content.
- image/jpeg, image/png, image/gif: Image files.
- audio/mpeg, audio/wav: Audio files.
- video/mp4, video/avi: Video files.
- application/pdf, application/msword: Binary files (e.g., PDF documents, Microsoft Word files).
3. **Multipart Messages:**
- MIME introduces the concept of multipart messages, allowing emails to contain multiple parts with
different content types. Multipart messages are composed of a main body part and one or more additional
parts, each with its own content type and optional headers.
- The main body part of a multipart message typically contains the primary content of the email (e.g.,
plain text or HTML), while additional parts can include attachments, inline images, or alternative versions of
the message (e.g., plain text and HTML versions).
4. **Content-Disposition:**
- MIME includes a Content-Disposition header that specifies how the content of an email attachment
should be displayed or handled by the recipient's email client. Common values for the Content-Disposition
header include "attachment" (indicating that the attachment should be saved or opened separately) and
"inline" (indicating that the attachment should be displayed within the message)
5. **Encoding:**
- MIME supports various encoding methods to represent non-ASCII characters and binary data in email
messages. Common encoding schemes include:
- Quoted-Printable: Encodes non-ASCII characters and certain control characters as printable ASCII
characters using a special encoding format.
- Base64: Converts binary data into a sequence of ASCII characters, making it safe for transmission over
email and other text-based protocols.
6. **Message Headers:**
- MIME extends the standard email message headers to include additional information about the content
types, character encodings, and attachments included in the message. MIME headers include Content-
Type, Content-Transfer-Encoding, Content-Disposition, and Content-ID, among others.

Q.15. Explain symmetric key cryptography with example.

Symmetric key cryptography, also known as secret key cryptography, is a cryptographic technique that uses
a single secret key for both encryption and decryption of data. In symmetric key cryptography, the same key
is used by both the sender and the receiver to encrypt and decrypt messages, ensuring confidentiality and
integrity of the communication. Symmetric key cryptography is faster and more efficient than asymmetric
key cryptography but requires secure key distribution between communicating parties.
Here's how symmetric key cryptography works with an example:
**Example:**
Alice wants to send a confidential message to Bob using symmetric key cryptography.
1. **Key Generation:**
- Alice and Bob agree on a secret key, known only to them. This key will be used for both encryption and
decryption of messages. They securely exchange this key through a trusted channel before communication
begins.
2. **Encryption:**
- Alice encrypts her message using the secret key agreed upon with Bob. She uses a symmetric encryption
algorithm such as AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) to perform the encryption. The plaintext message is
transformed into ciphertext using the secret key. Only Bob, who possesses the same secret key, will be able
to decrypt the ciphertext and retrieve the original message.
3. **Transmission:**Alice sends the encrypted message (ciphertext) to Bob over an insecure channel, such
as the internet or a wireless network. Since the message is encrypted, it is protected from eavesdroppers
and attackers who may intercept the communication.
4. **Decryption:**
- Upon receiving the encrypted message from Alice, Bob uses the same secret key to decrypt the
ciphertext and recover the original plaintext message. He applies the symmetric decryption algorithm (e.g.,
AES decryption) using the shared secret key to reverse the encryption process and obtain the original
message.
5. **Message Verification:**
- Bob verifies the integrity and authenticity of the decrypted message by comparing it to the original
plaintext message. If the decrypted message matches the original message, Bob can be confident that the
message was not tampered with during transmission and that it originated from Alice.
6. **Key Management:**
- Alice and Bob must securely manage and protect the shared secret key to prevent unauthorized access
and ensure the security of their communication. They may use techniques such as key rotation, key
expiration, and key destruction to maintain the confidentiality and integrity of their encrypted messages
over time.
In summary, symmetric key cryptography enables secure communication between parties by using a single
secret key for encryption and decryption of messages. It provides confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity
of the communication, as long as the secret key remains secure and confidential between the
communicating parties.
Q.16. What is HTTP? Explain HTTP request and response messages in detail.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the foundation of data communication on the World Wide Web. It is
an application layer protocol that governs how web clients (such as web browsers) and web servers
communicate with each other to exchange data, typically in the form of hypertext documents (web pages),
images, videos, and other resources.
**HTTP Request Message:**
An HTTP request message is sent from a client to a server to request a resource, such as a web page or a
file. It contains several components:
1. **Request Line:**
- The first line of an HTTP request message contains the request method, the requested URL (Uniform
Resource Locator), and the HTTP version.
- Example: `GET /index.html HTTP/1.1`
2. **Headers:**
- HTTP headers provide additional information about the request, such as the client's user-agent,
accepted content types, cookies, and authentication credentials.
- Example:
Host: www.example.com
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko)
Chrome/96.0.4664.110 Safari/537.36
Accept:
text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/avif,image/webp,image/apng,*/*;q=0.8,appl
ication/signed-exchange;v=b3;q=0.9
3. **Body (Optional):**
- Some HTTP request messages include a message body, which contains additional data sent along with
the request, such as form data or file uploads. The presence of a message body depends on the request
method and the nature of the request.
- Example:
```
POST /submit_form HTTP/1.1
Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded
username=johndoe&password=secretpassword
**HTTP Response Message:**
An HTTP response message is sent from a server to a client in response to an HTTP request. It contains the
requested resource or an error message if the request cannot be fulfilled. An HTTP response message
consists of several components:
1. **Status Line:**
- The first line of an HTTP response message contains the HTTP version, a three-digit status code, and a
textual status message.
- Example: `HTTP/1.1 200 OK`
2. **Headers:**
- Similar to request headers, response headers provide additional information about the response, such
as the server's software version, content type, content length, caching directives, and cookies.
- Example:
```
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8
Content-Length: 12345
Server: Apache/2.4.41 (Unix)
```
3. **Body:**
 - The message body contains the requested resource, such as an HTML document, an image, or a video.
The content of the message body depends on the nature of the requested resource and the server's
response.
- Example:
```
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Example Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Hello, World!</h1>
</body>
</html>
Q.17. Explain path vector protocol in brief.Path vector routing is a type of routing protocol used in
computer networks to determine the best path for routing data packets between network nodes. Unlike
distance vector or link-state routing protocols, path vector routing protocols consider the entire path to the
destination when making routing decisions, taking into account factors such as policy, path characteristics,
and network topology.
Here's a brief explanation of path vector routing:
1. **Vector and Path:**
- In path vector routing, routing information is represented as a vector that includes the sequence of
autonomous systems (ASes) through which the data packet must pass to reach the destination. Each entry
in the vector corresponds to an AS along the path.
- The path vector includes not only the destination network's identifier but also the sequence of ASes (or
"hops") that the packet must traverse to reach the destination.
2. **Path Vector Protocol:**
- Path vector routing protocols exchange routing information among routers or autonomous systems
using messages containing path vectors. These messages are often referred to as "routing advertisements"
or "routing updates."
- Examples of path vector routing protocols include BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), which is widely used
in the internet's inter-domain routing, and EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol), an older protocol used for
similar purposes.
3. **Path Selection:**
- When a router receives multiple path vectors for the same destination from different neighboring
routers, it selects the best path based on various criteria, such as the shortest AS path, policy preferences,
and path attributes (e.g., bandwidth, latency).
- The selection criteria may be determined by the network administrator's configuration, local policy
settings, or the protocol specifications.
4. **Policy-Based Routing:**
- Path vector routing protocols allow network administrators to implement policy-based routing decisions
based on business requirements, network policies, and traffic engineering objectives.
- By manipulating path attributes and applying routing policies, administrators can influence routing
decisions to optimize network performance, balance traffic loads, enforce security policies, and comply
with regulatory requirements.
5. **Scalability and Stability:**
- Path vector routing protocols offer scalability and stability features suitable for large-scale networks,
such as the internet. By aggregating routing information into AS-level paths and employing loop prevention
mechanisms, path vector protocols can efficiently handle complex routing scenarios and adapt to changes
in network topology and traffic patterns.

Q.18. Write a TCP server socket program which accept which accept a request from client to capitalize
string and sending the response in the form of capitalized sentence back to the client. Here's a Python
example of a TCP server socket program that accepts a request from a client to capitalize a string and
sends the response in the form of a capitalized sentence back to the client:
python
import socket
# Define the server's IP address and port
SERVER_HOST = '127.0.0.1'
SERVER_PORT = 12345
# Create a TCP socket
server_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
# Bind the socket to the address and port
server_socket.bind((SERVER_HOST, SERVER_PORT))
# Listen for incoming connections
server_socket.listen(1)
print(f"[*] Listening for incoming connections on {SERVER_HOST}:{SERVER_PORT}")
while True:
# Accept a client connection
client_socket, client_address = server_socket.accept()
print(f"[*] Accepted connection from {client_address[0]}:{client_address[1]}")
try:
# Receive data from the client
data = client_socket.recv(1024).decode().strip()
if data:
# Capitalize the received string
 capitalized_string = data.upper()
# Send the capitalized string back to the client
client_socket.send(capitalized_string.encode())
print(f"[*] Sent capitalized string '{capitalized_string}' back to
{client_address[0]}:{client_address[1]}")
except Exception as e:
print(f"[!] Error: {e}")

finally:
# Close the client socket
client_socket.close()
To test the server, you can create a simple TCP client program that sends a string to the server and receives
the capitalized response. Here's a simple example of a TCP client in Python:
```python
import socket
# Define the server's IP address and port
SERVER_HOST = '127.0.0.1'
SERVER_PORT = 12345
# Create a TCP socket
client_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
# Connect to the server
client_socket.connect((SERVER_HOST, SERVER_PORT))
# Send a string to the server
string_to_capitalize = "hello, world!"
client_socket.send(string_to_capitalize.encode())
# Receive the capitalized string from the server
capitalized_string = client_socket.recv(1024).decode()
print(f"Received capitalized string from server: {capitalized_string}")
# Close the socket
client_socket.close()
Q.19. Explain RIP in detail. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a distance-vector routing protocol used
in computer networks to dynamically exchange routing information among routers. It is one of the oldest
and simplest routing protocols and is commonly used in small to medium-sized networks. Here's a
detailed explanation of RIP:
1. **Operation:**
 - RIP routers exchange routing information periodically by broadcasting their routing tables to
neighboring routers. Each router advertises the routes it knows about to its neighbors.
- RIP routers use the Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each destination network
based on hop count (the number of routers a packet must pass through to reach the destination).
- RIP routers maintain a routing table that lists known destinations, next-hop routers, and associated
metrics (hop counts). They update their routing tables based on incoming routing updates from
neighboring routers.
2. **Distance Vector Algorithm:**
- RIP uses a distance vector algorithm, where each router maintains a vector of distances (hop counts) to
reachable destinations. Routers exchange these vectors with their neighbors, allowing each router to
update its routing table based on the received vectors.
- RIP routers periodically send routing updates (RIP messages) containing their entire routing table to
inform neighboring routers of their known routes. Neighboring routers compare the received routes with
their own and update their routing tables accordingly.
3. **Split Horizon and Poison Reverse:**
- RIP includes mechanisms such as split horizon and poison reverse to prevent routing loops and improve
convergence.
- Split horizon prevents a router from advertising routes back to the neighbor from which it learned them,
reducing the likelihood of routing loops.
- Poison reverse is an extension of split horizon where a router advertises unreachable routes back to the
neighbor with an infinite metric (infinity), signaling that the route is no longer valid.
4. **Metric:**
- RIP uses hop count as its metric for path selection. A hop count represents the number of routers (hops)
a packet must pass through to reach a destination network.
- RIP imposes a maximum hop count limit of 15, beyond which a route is considered unreachable
(infinity). This limitation makes RIP unsuitable for large networks with more than 15 hops between routers.
5. **Versions:**
- There are two versions of RIP: RIP version 1 (RIPv1) and RIP version 2 (RIPv2). RIPv1 is the original
version and has limited capabilities, such as support for classful routing and absence of support for subnet
information. RIPv2 is an enhanced version that supports classless routing, Variable Length Subnet Masking
(VLSM), and authentication.
6. **Convergence and Stability:**
- RIP routers converge relatively quickly in small to medium-sized networks, thanks to their frequent
routing updates and simple algorithm.
- However, RIP may suffer from slow convergence and instability in larger networks or networks with high
link or router failure rates, as frequent routing updates and limited metric information can lead to routing
loops and suboptimal paths.
Q.20. Write client & Server programs for establishing and termination of connection between client and
server using TCP.
Sure, here's an example of a TCP client-server pair written in Python that establishes a connection,
exchanges a simple message, and then terminates the connection:
**Server (server.py):**
```python
import socket
# Define the server's IP address and port
SERVER_HOST = '127.0.0.1'
SERVER_PORT = 12345
# Create a TCP socket
server_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
# Bind the socket to the address and port
server_socket.bind((SERVER_HOST, SERVER_PORT))
# Listen for incoming connections
server_socket.listen(1)
print(f"[*] Listening for incoming connections on {SERVER_HOST}:{SERVER_PORT}")
# Accept a client connection
client_socket, client_address = server_socket.accept()
print(f"[*] Accepted connection from {client_address[0]}:{client_address[1]}")
try:
# Receive data from the client
data = client_socket.recv(1024).decode().strip()
print(f"[*] Received message from client: {data}")
# Send a response to the client
response = "Hello from the server!"
client_socket.send(response.encode())
print("[*] Sent response to client")
finally:
# Close the client socket
client_socket.close()
# Close the server socket
server_socket.close(
**Client (client.py):**
```python
import socket
# Define the server's IP address and port
SERVER_HOST = '127.0.0.1'
SERVER_PORT = 12345
# Create a TCP socket
client_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
try:
# Connect to the server
client_socket.connect((SERVER_HOST, SERVER_PORT))
print(f"[*] Connected to server at {SERVER_HOST}:{SERVER_PORT}")
# Send a message to the server
message = "Hello from the client!"
client_socket.send(message.encode())
print("[*] Sent message to server")
# Receive a response from the server
response = client_socket.recv(1024).decode().strip()
print(f"[*] Received response from server: {response}")
finally:
# Close the client socket
client_socket.close()
To use these programs, run the server script first (`python server.py`), then run the client script (`python
client.py`). You should see output indicating the establishment of the connection, the message exchange,
and the termination of the connection.
Q.21. Encode a binary word 11001 into the even parity hamming code.
[Given number of data bits, n=5]
To encode the binary word "11001" into an even parity Hamming code with 5 data bits, we need to follow
these steps:

1. Determine the number of parity bits required. Since we have 5 data bits, we need to calculate the
number of parity bits required to make a total of 5 + p bits, where p is the number of parity bits.
2. Determine the positions of the parity bits. Parity bits are typically placed at positions that are powers
of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.).
3. Calculate the values for the parity bits based on the data bits.

Here's how to encode "11001" into an even parity Hamming code:

1. Insert the data bits into the code word, leaving spaces for the parity bits:
__1_1001_0001
2. Determine the positions of the parity bits (1-based indexing): P1, P2, P4.
3. Calculate the values for the parity bits:
• P1: Check the data bits in positions where the least significant bit is 1. (Positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
11) P1 = (1 + 1 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 (odd parity)
• P2: Check the data bits in positions where the second least significant bit is 1. (Positions 2, 3,
6, 7, 10, 11) P2 = (1 + 1 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 (odd parity)
 •
P4: Check the data bits in positions where the third least significant bit is 1. (Positions 4, 5, 6,
7, 12) P4 = (1 + 0 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 0 (even parity)
4. Insert the calculated parity bits into their respective positions:
111110010001

So, the even parity Hamming code for the binary word "11001" with 5 data bits is 111110010001.

Q.22. The received code word is 1100100101011, check if there is error in the code word if
divisor is 10101.

To check if there is an error in the received code word "1100100101011" using a divisor "10101",
we can perform polynomial division (binary division) using the received code word and the divisor.
If the remainder after the division is zero, then there is no error. Otherwise, there is an error.

Perform the polynomial division:

1100100101011 (Received code word)

------------------

10101 | 1100100101011

-10101

--------

01000101011

-10101

-------

010010110

-10101

------

01011101

-10101

------

001001

-10101

-----

1101

-10101

-----

1011

-10101

-----
 1001

-10101

-----

110 (Remainder)

The remainder is not zero, there is an error in the received code word when divided by the divisor "10101".

Q.23. A receiver received the hamming code 11001010101 with even parity. Find the error in
received code.

To find the error in the received Hamming code "11001010101" with even parity, we'll follow these
steps:

1. Determine the number of parity bits and their positions in the received code.
2. Calculate the parity for each position and check if it matches the received parity.
3. If there's a discrepancy, locate the error by considering the position of the faulty parity bit.
4. The received Hamming code has 11 bits, so it requires 4 parity bits: P1, P2, P4, and P8.
5. Calculate the parity for each position:
1. P1: (Position 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) - Check if the total number of 1s is even. (Should be
even)
2. P2: (Position 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11) - Check if the total number of 1s is even. (Should be
even)
3. P4: (Position 4, 5, 6, 7, 12) - Check if the total number of 1s is even. (Should be even)
4. P8: (Position 8, 9, 10, 11, 12) - Check if the total number of 1s is even. (Should be
odd)

calculate the parity for each position:

• P1: Parity is odd (1+0+1+0+0+1 = 3)

• P2: Parity is even (1+1+0+1+0+1 = 4)
• P4: Parity is even (0+1+0+1+0 = 2)
• P8: Parity is even (1+0+1+0+1 = 3)
3. Identify the incorrect parity bits:
• P1: Incorrect (Expected even parity, actual parity is odd)
• P8: Incorrect (Expected odd parity, actual parity is even)

The incorrect parity bits are P1 and P8. To locate the error, we convert the positions of the
incorrect parity bits to decimal:

• P1 is at position 1.
• P8 is at position 8.

The error bit is at the position corresponding to the sum of the positions of the incorrect parity
bits. So, the error bit position is 1 + 8 = 9.

Now, we flip the value of the bit at position 9 to correct the error.

The corrected Hamming code is "11001010101".

Q.24. Generate the hamming code for the data 111011011 with odd parity.

To generate the Hamming code for the data "111011011" with odd parity, we need to follow these
steps:

1. Determine the number of parity bits required.

2. Insert the data bits into the Hamming code, leaving spaces for the parity bits.
3. Calculate the values for the parity bits based on the data bits.
4. Insert the calculated parity bits into their respective positions.
5. Determine the number of parity bits required:
1. For n data bits, we need to find the smallest r such that 𝑛+𝑟+1≤2𝑟n+r+1≤2r. Here, n = 9.
2. 9+𝑟+1≤2𝑟9+r+1≤2r
3. 𝑟+10≤2𝑟r+10≤2r
4. Trial and error shows that 𝑟=4r=4 is the smallest value that satisfies this inequality.
6. Insert the data bits into the Hamming code, leaving spaces for the parity bits:
1. _ _ 1 _ 1 1 0 1 _ 0 1 1
7. Calculate the values for the parity bits:
1. P1: Check the data bits in positions where the least significant bit is 1. (Positions 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,
11) P1 = (1 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1) mod 2 = 1 (odd parity)
2. P2: Check the data bits in positions where the second least significant bit is 1. (Positions 2, 3,
6, 7, 10, 11) P2 = (1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 (odd parity)
3. P4: Check the data bits in positions where the third least significant bit is 1. (Positions 4, 5, 6,
7, 12) P4 = (1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 0 (even parity)
4. P8: Check the data bits in positions where the fourth least significant bit is 1. (Positions 8, 9,
10, 11, 12) P8 = (1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 1) mod 2 = 1 (odd parity)
8. Insert the calculated parity bits into their respective positions:
1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

So, the Hamming code for the data "111011011" with odd parity is "111111011011".
Q.25. Determine the network address for the following IP-addresses

1) 87.52.26.71 2)77.12.133.86 3)193.56.77.22 4)128.76.44.37 5)100.77.44.13

To determine the network address for the given IP addresses, we need to perform a bitwise AND
operation between each IP address and its corresponding subnet mask. The network address
represents the common bits between the IP address and the subnet mask.

Assuming that we're using default subnet masks for the IP addresses provided, we'll consider the following:

1. IP Address: 87.52.26.71 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A default subnet mask) Network Address:
87.0.0.0
2. IP Address: 77.12.133.86 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A default subnet mask) Network Address:
77.0.0.0
3. IP Address: 193.56.77.22 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A default subnet mask) Network Address:
193.0.0.0
4. IP Address: 128.76.44.37 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A default subnet mask) Network Address:
128.0.0.0
5. IP Address: 100.77.44.13 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A default subnet mask) Network Address:
100.0.0.0

The network addresses for the given IP addresses are as follows:

 1. 87.52.26.71 -> 87.0.0.0
2. 77.12.133.86 -> 77.0.0.0
3. 193.56.77.22 -> 193.0.0.0
4. 128.76.44.37 -> 128.0.0.0
5. 100.77.44.13 -> 100.0.0.0

Q.26. Explain IP addressing with network masks and network addresses.

IP addressing, along with network masks and network addresses, are fundamental concepts in
computer networking.
1. IP Address: An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical label assigned to each
device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. IP addresses are used for identifying and locating devices on a network.
They are typically written in dotted-decimal notation, such as 192.168.1.1.
2. Network Mask (Subnet Mask): A network mask, or subnet mask, is a 32-bit number used
to divide an IP address into two parts: the network address and the host address. It
determines which portion of the IP address is used to identify the network and which
portion is used to identify the specific host on that network. Network masks consist of a
series of contiguous 1 bits followed by a series of contiguous 0 bits.
For example, in the subnet mask 255.255.255.0, the first 24 bits (8 bits for each of the first
three octets) are set to 1, indicating the network portion, while the last 8 bits are set to 0,
indicating the host portion.
3. Network Address: The network address is the portion of the IP address obtained by
applying the network mask. It identifies the specific network to which a device belongs. The
network address is obtained by performing a bitwise AND operation between the IP address
and the network mask.
For example, if we have an IP address of 192.168.1.100 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0,
applying the bitwise AND operation gives us the network address of 192.168.1.0, indicating
that the device belongs to the network 192.168.1.0.

In summary, IP addressing involves assigning unique numerical labels to devices on a network,

while network masks are used to divide these addresses into network and host portions. The
network address, obtained by applying the network mask to the IP address, identifies the specific
network to which a device belongs.

Q.27. Draw and explain IPV4 packet format

The IPv4 packet format is the structure in which data is encapsulated for transmission across an IPv4
network. It consists of several fields, each serving a specific purpose. Here's a textual representation
followed by an explanation:
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Version | IHL | Type of Service | Total Length |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Identification |Flags| Fragment Offset |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Time to Live | Protocol | Header Checksum |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Source IP Address |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Destination IP Address |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Options (if any) |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

| Data (Payload) |

+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

1. Version (4 bits): Specifies the version of the Internet Protocol. For IPv4, this field is set to 4.
2. Internet Header Length (IHL) (4 bits): Specifies the length of the IP header in 32-bit
words. This is necessary because the header length can vary due to the presence of optional
fields like options.
3. Type of Service (8 bits): Provides information about the quality of service requested for
the packet, such as prioritization and handling instructions.
4. Total Length (16 bits): Indicates the total length of the IP packet in bytes, including both
the header and the data.
5. Identification (16 bits): Used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram.
6. Flags (3 bits): Used for controlling and identifying fragments. The three flags are:
• Reserved (bit 0): Must be set to 0.
• Don't Fragment (bit 1): If set to 1, indicates that the packet should not be
fragmented.
• More Fragments (bit 2): If set to 1, indicates that more fragments follow.
7. Fragment Offset (13 bits): Indicates the offset of the current fragment relative to the
beginning of the original IP datagram.
8. Time to Live (TTL) (8 bits): Specifies the maximum number of hops (routers) that the
packet can traverse before being discarded.
9. Protocol (8 bits): Specifies the protocol used in the data portion of the packet, such as TCP,
UDP, ICMP, etc.
10. Header Checksum (16 bits): Used for error-checking the header. It ensures the integrity of
the header during transmission.
11. Source IP Address (32 bits): Specifies the IP address of the sender.
12. Destination IP Address (32 bits): Specifies the IP address of the intended recipient.
13. Options (variable): Optional field used for various purposes, such as timestamping,
security, or debugging. This field may or may not be present.
14. Data (Payload): Contains the actual data being transmitted, such as segments of a TCP
stream or an ICMP message.

Q.28. Determine the network subnetwork & host addresses if IP address is 27.54.19.33 and
subnet mask is 255.255.224.0.
To determine the network, subnetwork, and host addresses, we need to perform a bitwise AND
operation between the given IP address and the subnet mask.
Given IP address: 27.54.19.33 Subnet mask: 255.255.224.0

Converting the IP address and subnet mask to binary form:

IP address (27.54.19.33):

00011011.00110110.00010011.00100001

Subnet mask (255.255.224.0):

11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000

Performing the bitwise AND operation:

IP address: 00011011.00110110.00010011.00100001
Subnet mask: & 11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000
-----------------------------------
Network part: 00011011.00110110.00000000.00000000

So, the network address is 27.54.0.0.

To find the subnetwork and host addresses, we'll need to determine the number of bits used for
the subnetwork and host portions based on the subnet mask. In this case, the subnet mask
255.255.224.0 leaves 11 bits for host addresses.

The remaining 11 bits for host addresses allow for 211−2211−2 host addresses per subnetwork
(subtracting 2 for the network address and the broadcast address). So, each subnetwork will have
211−2=2046211−2=2046 host addresses.

Thus, the subnetwork address and host address within that subnetwork for the given IP address
are:

• Subnetwork address: 27.54.0.0

• Host address within the subnetwork: 0.19.33.0
Q.29. Determine the network address for the following IP-addresses
1) 87.52.26.71 2) 77.12.133.86 3) 193.56.77.22 4) 128.76.44.37 5) 100.77.44.13
To determine the network address for each of the given IP addresses, we'll need to perform a
bitwise AND operation with the appropriate subnet mask. However, without knowing the subnet
mask, we can't determine the exact network address. In typical IP addressing, the subnet mask is
provided to define the network portion of the IP address.
1. For Class A: 255.0.0.0
2. For Class B: 255.255.0.0
3. For Class C: 255.255.255.0

calculate the network addresses for each IP address using these assumptions:
 1. IP address: 87.52.26.71
Subnet mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A)Performing the bitwise AND operation:
IP address: 01010111.00110100.00011010.01000111

Subnet mask: & 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

Network part: 01010111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Network address: 87.0.0.0

2.IP address: 77.12.133.86
Subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 (Class B)Performing the bitwise AND operation:
IP address: 01001101.00001100.10000101.01010110

Subnet mask: & 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

Network part: 01001101.00001100.00000000.00000000

Network address: 77.12.0.0

3.IP address: 193.56.77.22
Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 (Class C)Performing the bitwise AND operation:
IP address: 11000001.00111000.01001101.00010110

Subnet mask: & 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

-----------------------------------

Network part: 11000001.00111000.01001101.00000000

Network address: 193.56.77.0

4.IP address: 128.76.44.37 Subnet mask: 255.0.0.0 (Class A)Performing the bitwise AND
operation:

IP address: 10000000.01001100.00101100.00100101

Subnet mask: & 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

Network part: 10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000

Network address: 128.0.0.0

5.IP address: 100.77.44.13 Subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 (Class B)Performing the bitwise AND
operation:
IP address: 01100100.01001101.00101100.00001101

Subnet mask: & 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

-----------------------------------

Network part: 01100100.01001101.00000000.00000000

1. Network address: 100.77.0.0

These are the network addresses for each of the given IP addresses based on the assumed default
subnet masks for their respective classes.
Q.30. Explain TCP protocol's working in detail.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP).
It provides reliable, connection-oriented communication between devices on a network.

1. Establishing a Connection:
• TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection between a client and a
server.
• The client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server to initiate the connection.
• The server responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledgment) packet,
indicating that it has received the SYN packet and is willing to establish a connection.
• Finally, the client acknowledges the SYN-ACK packet with an ACK (acknowledgment)
packet, indicating that the connection has been successfully established.
2. Reliable Data Transfer:
• TCP ensures reliable data transfer by using sequence numbers, acknowledgment
numbers, and checksums.
• Each segment of data sent over TCP is assigned a sequence number by the sender.
• The receiver acknowledges the receipt of data segments by sending
acknowledgment packets back to the sender.
• If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment for a segment within a certain
timeout period, it retransmits the segment.
• TCP also implements flow control to prevent overwhelming the receiver with data.
The receiver advertises a window size indicating how much data it can accept, and
the sender adjusts its transmission rate accordingly.
3. Ordered Delivery:
• TCP guarantees that data sent by the sender will be delivered to the receiver in the
same order it was sent.
• Each segment of data includes a sequence number, allowing the receiver to
reassemble the data in the correct order.
4. Connection Termination:
• When the data transfer is complete, TCP tears down the connection using a four-way
handshake.
• The client sends a FIN (finish) packet to the server, indicating that it has finished
sending data.
• The server acknowledges the FIN packet with an ACK packet.
• The server then sends its own FIN packet to the client.
• Finally, the client acknowledges the server's FIN packet, and the connection is
terminated.
5. Error Detection and Correction:
• TCP uses checksums to detect errors in transmitted data.
• The sender calculates a checksum for each segment of data and includes it in the
TCP header.
• The receiver recalculates the checksum upon receipt and compares it to the
checksum in the header. If they don't match, the segment is discarded and the
sender is notified.
Q.31. Explain DNS & DNS - resource records in detail.
DNS Resource Records:
DNS uses resource records (RRs) to store information about domain names. Each resource record contains
specific data associated with a domain name. Some common types of resource records include:

1. A Record (Address Record):

• Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.
• Example: example.com. IN A 192.0.2.1
2. AAAA Record (IPv6 Address Record):
• Maps a domain name to an IPv6 address.
• Example: example.com. IN AAAA 2001:db8::1
3. CNAME Record (Canonical Name Record):
• Alias of one domain name to another (canonical) domain name.
• Example: www.example.com. IN CNAME example.com
4. MX Record (Mail Exchange Record):
• Specifies the mail server responsible for receiving email messages on behalf of the domain.
• Example: example.com. IN MX 10 mail.example.com
5. NS Record (Name Server Record):
• Specifies authoritative name servers for the domain.
• Example: example.com. IN NS ns1.example.com
6. PTR Record (Pointer Record):
• Maps an IP address to a domain name (used in reverse DNS lookups).
• Example: 1.2.3.4.in-addr.arpa. IN PTR example.com
7. TXT Record (Text Record):
• Contains arbitrary text data, often used for domain verification or to provide additional
information.
• Example: example.com. IN TXT "v=spf1 ip4:192.0.2.0/24 -all"

These are just a few examples of DNS resource records. DNS is a critical component of Internet
infrastructure, facilitating the translation of human-readable domain names into machine-readable IP
addresses and enabling the seamless navigation of the Internet.
Q.32. What is open shortest path first protocal? Explain in detail.

OSPF Operation:

1. Neighbor Discovery:
• OSPF routers discover neighboring routers by sending Hello packets.
• Routers become neighbors if they agree on parameters such as area ID, network
type, and authentication.
2. Exchange of Link-State Advertisements (LSAs):
• Upon forming adjacencies, OSPF routers exchange LSAs to build their link-state
databases.
• LSAs contain information about local router interfaces, neighboring routers, and
network topology.
3. Link-State Database Synchronization:
• OSPF routers synchronize their link-state databases by flooding LSAs to all routers
within the same area.
• This ensures that all routers have an identical view of the network topology.
4. Shortest Path Calculation:
 • After building the link-state database, each router runs Dijkstra's algorithm to
calculate the shortest path to each destination.
• The shortest path is determined based on the cost associated with each link, where
cost is inversely proportional to link bandwidth.
5. Routing Table Update:
• OSPF routers update their routing tables based on the calculated shortest paths.
• The routing table contains entries specifying the next-hop router for each destination
network.
6. Route Convergence:
• OSPF routers continuously monitor the network for changes in topology.
• Upon detecting a change, routers recalculate routes and update their routing tables
accordingly to ensure route convergence.
Q.33. Explain the functioning of SMTP protocol.

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a communication protocol used to transmit electronic mail
(email) messages across the Internet. SMTP is a fundamental protocol in the email delivery process,
responsible for sending outgoing email messages from a sender's mail server to the recipient's mail server.
how SMTP works:

SMTP Operation:

1. Handshake and Connection Establishment:

• The SMTP client (sending mail server) establishes a TCP connection with the SMTP
server (receiving mail server) on port 25.
• This connection is used to transmit commands and data between the client and
server.
2. Command/Response Interaction:
• Once the connection is established, the SMTP client initiates the SMTP session by
sending a "HELO" or "EHLO" (extended HELO) command to the server.
• The server responds with a status code (usually 250 OK) to acknowledge the client's
greeting.
3. Sender and Recipient Specification:
• The client specifies the sender's email address using the "MAIL FROM" command.
• The server validates the sender's address and acknowledges the command with a
status code (usually 250 OK).
• The client then specifies one or more recipient email addresses using the "RCPT TO"
command.
• The server validates each recipient's address and acknowledges the command with a
status code (usually 250 OK).
4. Message Transmission:
• Once the sender and recipient addresses are specified, the client initiates the
transmission of the email message.
• The client sends the "DATA" command to indicate the start of the message data
transmission.
• The server responds with a status code (usually 354 Start mail input) to indicate
readiness to receive the message data.
• The client sends the email message content, including headers and body, terminated
by a special sequence ("CRLF.CRLF") to indicate the end of the message.
 •The server acknowledges the successful receipt of the message data with a status
code (usually 250 OK).
5. Session Termination:
• After the message is successfully transmitted, the client can choose to end the SMTP
session.
• The client sends the "QUIT" command to terminate the session gracefully.
• The server acknowledges the termination request with a status code (usually 221
Bye) and closes the connection.
Q.34. What are security attacks? Explain passive attacks in detail.

Security attacks refer to deliberate actions or attempts to compromise the confidentiality, integrity,
availability, or authenticity of information or information systems. These attacks can target various
components of a system, including networks, devices, software, and users. Security attacks are typically
classified into two main categories: passive attacks and active attacks. Let's focus on explaining passive
attacks in detail:

Passive Attacks:

Passive attacks are characterized by attackers attempting to access or intercept information

without altering it. These attacks are often difficult to detect because they do not disrupt the
normal operation of the system. Instead, they aim to gather sensitive information covertly. Passive
attacks include:

1. Eavesdropping (Sniffing):
• Eavesdropping involves the interception and monitoring of network communications
between parties.
• Attackers use network sniffers or packet analyzers to capture data packets
transmitted over a network.
• By analyzing captured packets, attackers can extract sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords, credit card numbers, or other confidential data.
2. Traffic Analysis:
• Traffic analysis involves the examination and analysis of network traffic patterns to
infer sensitive information.
• Attackers analyze the frequency, timing, size, and destination of network packets to
deduce patterns and relationships.
• For example, an attacker might monitor the timing and volume of data exchanged
between two parties to infer the nature of their communication (e.g., financial
transactions, email correspondence).
3. Reconnaissance (Information Gathering):
• Reconnaissance involves passive information gathering about a target system or
network.
• Attackers collect publicly available information, such as domain names, IP addresses,
system configurations, or employee names, to identify potential vulnerabilities and
attack vectors.
• Reconnaissance techniques include passive DNS enumeration, WHOIS queries, social
engineering, and dumpster diving.
Q.35. WAP for establishing termination of connection between clinet & server using TCP.
simple Python script demonstrating how to establish and terminate a TCP connection between a client and
server:

import socket

def main():

# Server configuration

server_host = '127.0.0.1' # Server IP address

server_port = 12345 # Server port number

# Create a socket object

server_socket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)

# Bind the socket to the server address

server_socket.bind((server_host, server_port))

# Listen for incoming connections

server_socket.listen(5)

print("Server is listening on {}:{}".format(server_host, server_port))

client_socket, client_address = server_socket.accept()

print("Connection established with {}:{}".format(client_address[0], client_address[1]))

# Receive data from the client

data = client_socket.recv(1024)

print("Received data from client:", data.decode())

# Send response to the client

response = "Hello from server!"

client_socket.sendall(response.encode())

print("Sent response to client")

# Close the connection

client_socket.close()

print("Connection with client closed")

 # Close the server socket

server_socket.close()

print("Server socket closed")

if __name__ == "__main__":

main()

This script creates a simple TCP server that listens for incoming connections on a specified host and port.
When a client connects to the server, the server receives data from the client, sends a response, and then
terminates the connection. Finally, it closes the server socket.

To test this script, you can create a corresponding TCP client script that establishes a connection to
the server, sends some data, receives a response, and then terminates the connection.

Q.36. Explain OSI model in detail

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions
of a telecommunication or computing system into seven abstraction layers. Each layer represents a specific
set of functions and protocols that facilitate communication between devices across a network. The OSI
model serves as a reference model to understand and design network architectures. Here's an in-depth
explanation of each layer:

1. Physical Layer:

• The physical layer deals with the transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium, such
as cables or wireless signals.
• It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural characteristics for transmitting data.
• Example devices and protocols: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, Wi-Fi standards, hubs,
repeaters.

2. Data Link Layer:

• The data link layer provides error detection and correction mechanisms to ensure reliable
data transmission between directly connected nodes.
• It organizes raw bits into frames and adds addressing information (MAC addresses) to
enable communication between devices on the same network.
• Example devices and protocols: Ethernet switches, MAC addresses, IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet),
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

3. Network Layer:

• The network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets between different
networks.
• It uses logical addresses (IP addresses) to identify devices and determine the best path for
data transmission.
• Example devices and protocols: Routers, IP addresses, IPv4, IPv6, ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol).
4. Transport Layer:

• The transport layer ensures reliable end-to-end communication between hosts by providing
error detection, flow control, and data segmentation.
• It establishes connections (TCP) or sends data without establishing connections (UDP)
between applications.
• Example protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

5. Session Layer:

• The session layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes communication sessions between
applications.
• It handles session management, including session establishment, maintenance, and
termination.
• Example functions: Authentication, authorization, session checkpointing.

6. Presentation Layer:

• The presentation layer ensures data is presented in a readable format by translating,

encrypting, or compressing data as necessary.
• It handles data format conversions, encryption/decryption, and data compression.
• Example functions: Data encryption (SSL/TLS), data compression (JPEG, PNG), character
encoding (ASCII, UTF-8).

7. Application Layer:

• The application layer provides network services directly to end-users and applications.
• It facilitates communication between software applications and network services, such as
email, web browsing, file transfer, and remote access.
• Example protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP.
Q.37. Write a program for implementing the sliding window protocol of window size 5.

def sender(data):

window_size = 5

base = 0

next_seq_num = 0

while base < len(data):

print("\nSending frames from {} to {}".format(base, min(base + window_size, len(data))))

for i in range(base, min(base + window_size, len(data))):

print("Sending frame:", data[i])

next_seq_num += 1

print("\nWaiting for acknowledgment...")

ack = input("Enter acknowledgment (0 for none, 1 for positive, 2 for negative): ")
 if ack == '1':

base += 1

elif ack == '2':

base = 0

next_seq_num = 0

else:

print("No acknowledgment received. Resending frames in the current window.")

print("\nAll frames successfully transmitted.")

def receiver(data):

window_size = 5

expected_seq_num = 0

while expected_seq_num < len(data):

print("\nExpecting frames from {} to {}".format(expected_seq_num, min(expected_seq_num + window_size,

len(data))))

for i in range(expected_seq_num, min(expected_seq_num + window_size, len(data))):

print("Receiving frame:", data[i])

expected_seq_num += 1

if expected_seq_num == len(data):

break

print("\nSending acknowledgment...")

ack = input("Enter acknowledgment (0 for none, 1 for positive, 2 for negative): ")

if ack == '2':

expected_seq_num = 0

else:

print("Acknowledgment sent for frames received.")

print("\nAll frames successfully received.")

def main():

data = ["Frame 1", "Frame 2", "Frame 3", "Frame 4", "Frame 5", "Frame 6", "Frame 7", "Frame 8", "Frame 9",
"Frame 10"]

print("Sender:")

sender(data)

print("\nReceiver:")

receiver(data)
if __name__ == "__main__":

main()

This program simulates a simple sender and receiver implementing the sliding window protocol with a
window size of 5. The sender sends frames sequentially, while the receiver acknowledges the frames and
requests retransmission if necessary.