UNIT UNIT TITLE TEACHING MARKS

NO HRS
I APPLICATIONS OF 8 12
TRANSDUCERS

II PRESSURE MEASUREMENT 10 14
III FLOW MEASUREMENT 12 16
IV LEVEL MEASUREMENT 8 14
V TEMPERATURE 10 14
MEASUREMENT
TOTAL 48 70
 UNIT 1. Applications of Transducers
1.1 Function of each block of Instrumentation system.
1.2 Transducer: Need, Classification- Active and Passive,
Analog and Digital, Primary and Secondary, Mechanical and
Electrical.
1.3 Electrical Transducers: Resistive Transducers- Linear and
Angular potentiometers, Strain gauge, types, gauge factor.
1.4 Capacitive Transducer
1.5 Inductive Transducer – LVDT, RVDT
1.6 Piezoelectric Transducer, photo electric transducer LDR,
photo voltaic cell
1.7 Selection criteria of transducers

Q) Draw and explain block diagram of instrumentation system.

Ans: block diagram of instrumentation system:
1. Primary Sensing Element:-
• It is also known as "First Sensing Elements“ The Element (Part) of an
instrument which makes first contact with the measure and is called the
primary sensing element.
• For example, In Ammeter (which is used to measure current), the coil
carrying the current to be measured is the primary sensing element
2. Variable conversion Element:-
• The output of the Primary sensing element may not be suitable for the
actual measurement system.
• A variable conversion element merely converts the output signal of the
primary sensing element into a more suitable variable or condition useful
to
the function of the instruments
• Also keep in mind, that the original information about the measured
quantity
must be retained during the process of such conversion.
3. Variable Manipulation Element:-
• The level of the output from the Variable conversion element may not be
enough for the next stage
• It manipulates the signal represented by some physical variable, to
perform
the intended task of an instrument.
4. Data Transmission Element:-
• If the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to
transmit the data from one stage to the other. So we need this Data
Transmission element
5. Data presentation Element:
• It performs the translation function, such as present the data in a
suitable
form so that it is easily understood by the observer and for this the Data
Presentation Element is used.

Q) State the need of transducer.

Instrumentation system basically consist of measurement and

controlling of different variables such as temperature, pressure, flow,
level, humidity, sound, pressure etc. Transducer is a one device of
instrumentation system which convert a physical energy into an electrical
energy so that it measure the physical quantities and convert it in
electrical quantities can be measured and transmitted easily.
OR
The main function of a transducer is to change the signal from
mechanical to electrical. Transducer is important device of
instrumentation system for detecting physical quantities such as
temperature, pressure, flow, level, humidity, sound, pressure, light etc.
These physical quantities are transformed into electrical signal in modern
instrumentation system.
OR
To determine the exact magnitude of physical parameters such as like
temperature and pressure is difficult. But, if these physical parameters are
converted into an electrical signal, then their values can be easily
determined using a standard meter. The primary function of transducer is
to convert a physical parameter into an electrical signal so that it can be
easily handled and transmitted for measurement.
Q) Give classification of transducer on any two factors.

The transducers can be classified as: -

1. Active and passive transducers.
2. Analog and digital transducers.
3. On the basis of transduction principle used.
4. Primary and secondary transducer
5. Transducers and inverse transducers
OR

Q) Classification of electrical transducer in detail.

Ans: Classification of Electrical transducer :

Q) Define active and passive transducers.

Ans: 1. Active Transducer: -

• These transducers do not need any external source of power for their
operation. Therefore, they are also called as self-generating type
transducers.
• The active transducer are self-generating devices which operate under
the energy conversion principle.
2. Passive Transducer: -
• These transducers need external source of power for their operation. So
they are not self-generating type transducers.
Q) Compare Active and Passive transducer.

Q) State the selection criteria for transducers.

1. Operating range
2. Operating principle
3. Sensitivity
4. Accuracy
5. Frequency response and resonant frequency
6. Errors
7. Environmental compatibility
8. Usage and ruggedness.
9. Electrical aspect.
10. Stability and Reliability
11. Loading effect
12. Static characteristics
 13. Noise immunity
OR)

Q) List criteria for selecting a transducer for an application.

Transducer is a device which transforms energy from one form to

another. The following points should be considered while selecting a
transducer for particular application.
1. Operating range: The range of transducer should be appropriate for
measurement to get a good resolution.
2. Operating principle: The transducers are selected on the basis of
operating principle it may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, optical etc.
3. Sensitivity: The transducer should be more sensitive to produce the
output or sensitivity should be as per requirement.
4. Accuracy: The accuracy should be as high as possible or as per the
measurement.
5. Frequency response and resonant frequency
6. Errors: The error produced by the transducer should be low as possible.
7. Environmental compatibility: The transducer should maintain input and
output characteristic for the selected environmental condition.
8. Usage and ruggedness.: it should be rugged in construction
9. Electrical aspect.
10. Stability and Reliability: Transducer should produce stable and
accurate output in any environmental condition.
11. Loading effect: The transducer’s input impedance should be high and
output impedance should be low to avoid loading effect.
Q) Write one example of each type: (i) Active transducer (ii) Primary
transducer. (iii) Electrical transducer. (iv) Digital transducer, (v) Passive
Transducers.(i) Active transducer:-Thermocouple, piezoelectric,
photovoltaic cell, Tacho generator
(ii) Primary transducer:- Bourdon tube, bellows,
(iii) Electrical transducer:- LVDT,RVDT, Hall effect, strain gauge, ultrasonic
meter, optical pyrometer, radiation pyrometer
(iv) Digital transducer:- Linear Encoder, digital taco generator
(v) Passive Transducers :-Thermistor, RTD, LVDT, Strain Gauge,
Electromagnetic flowmeter, Capacitive transducers. Etc.
OR)

Q) Define transducer. Give the classification of transducer with one

example each.

Transducer:

Transducer is the device which converts one form of energy into another.
Classification of transducer with one example each
1) Based on Physical Phenomenon:

i) Primary transducer. Ex- Bourdon tube

ii) Secondary transducer Ex-LVDT
2) Based on Power type classification :

i) Active transducer Ex- Piezoelectric Crystal, Thermocouple etc.

ii) Passive transducer Ex-Thermistors, strain Gauges
3) Based on type of output :

i) Analog transducer Ex- Strain Gauges, Potentiometers

ii) Digital transducers Ex- Rotary Encoder
4) Based on Transduction phenomenon :

i) Transducer (Electrical) Ex-Thermistor

ii) Inverse Transducer(Mechanical) Ex- Bourdon Tube, Bellows

Q) Give one application each of following transducer: (i) LVDT (ii) RVDT
(iii) Capacitive (iv) Piezoelectric.
i) LVDT

➢ LVDT used to measure force

➢ LVDT used to measure strain

➢ LVDT used to measure weight

➢ LVDT used to measure tension

➢ LVDT used to measure pressure

➢ The LVDT can be used for displacement measurement ranging

from fraction of mm to few cm.

➢ Testing of soil strength

➢ PILL making Machine

➢ “Brain Probing” medical device

➢ Robotic Cleaner

➢ Dollar bill thickness in ATM Machine.

➢ Hydraulic cylinder Displacement

➢ temperature transducers,

➢ valve control,

➢ servo valve displacement sensing

ii) RVDT

➢ Hydraulic pump control

➢ Valve position

➢ Rotary actuator feedback

➢ Arm position

➢ Throttle lever position feedback

➢ Reeler / Dereeler

➢ Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic

➢ Modern machine tools

➢ Controls Fuel

➢ Brake with cable systems

➢ Engines bleed air-systems

➢ Robotics

iii) Capacitive

➢ The capacitive transducers are used to measure humidity in

gases.

➢ It is used to measure volume, liquid level, density etc.

➢ It is used for measurement of linear and angular displacement.

➢ Capacitive displacement sensors are used for distance

measurement

➢ Other typical applications are tolerance testing in mass

production,

➢ Vibration measurement,

➢ Strain measurement,

➢ Thickness measurement and thickness control of thin metal

foils,

➢ Thickness measurement of plastic foils during production,

➢ beveling and bending of wafers in semiconductor production and

many more.
(iv) Piezoelectric

➢ Piezoelectric transducers are used in high frequency

accelerometer.

➢ Piezoelectric materials are used in industrial cleansing

apparatus.
 ➢ It is used in under water detection system i.e. SONAR.

➢ These are used in measurement of surface roughness in

accelerometers and vibration picks ups.

➢ It is used in ultrasonic flow meters, non-destructive test (NDT)

equipment’s

➢ Piezoelectric materials are used in ultrasonic transducers.

Q) Compare between primary transducer and secondary transducer.

Q) Define strain gauge. State different types of strain gauge.

Ans: Strain gauge:

It is a resistive transducer whose resistance varies with applied force; It
converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical
resistance which can then be measured.
Types of strain gauge:

1. Unbonded metal strain gauges

2. Bonded metal wire strain gauges
3. Bonded metal foil strain gauges
4. semiconductor strain gauges
Q) State function of strain gauge. Give its types and explain working of
any one type of it.

Function of strain gauge: -

➢ The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which converts the

mechanical elongation and compression into a resistance change.

➢ This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and

cross-sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external force act on it.
OR

➢ A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It

converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical

resistance which can then be measured
Types of strain gauge: -

The types of strain gauge are as

➢ Wire gauge

1. Bonded strain gauge

2. Unbonded strain gauge
3. Foil type strain gauge

➢ Semiconductor gauge

1. Bonded Resistances wire Strain Gauge

➢ STRAIN is defined as change in length divided by original length

➢ This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and
cross- sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external force act on it.
➢ When a strain produced by a force is applied on the wires, L increase
and A
decrease.
➢ Two main parameters are changes
➢ The change in gauge resistances
➢ The change in length
➢ A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire.
The grid is cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper Bakelite
or Teflon.
➢ The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent
it from any mechanical damage.
➢ Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Ω, 350 Ω and 1000 Ω

2. Unbonded strain gauge

This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an

insulating
medium such as air.

➢ The wires are of copper nickel, chrome nickel or nickel iron alloys.
➢ The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience a
compressive force

➢ The diameter of the wire used is about 0.003mm, having gauge factor
of 2 to 4

➢ The length of wire is 25µm or less

➢ The bridge is balanced with no load applied

➢ At initial preload, the strain & resistances of four arm are normally
equal,
Therefore, the o/p voltage of bridge is zero

➢ When an external force is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge

changes causing an unbalance of the bridge

➢ The unbalances of the bridge producing an o/p voltage

➢ This voltage is proportional to the strain (applied pressure or force)

➢ A displacement of 50µm can be detected with this strain gauge

3. Foil type strain gauge

• It consists of following parts:

1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to
support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp.
applications.
2. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which have low and
stable
resistivity and also a low resistance temperature coefficient
3. This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length and
cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external force act on it.
4. This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the bonded metal
wire strain gauges.
5. The bonded metal wire strain gauge has been completely superseded
by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
6. Metal foil strain gauge use identical material of wire strain gauge
7. These metal foils are used for most general-purpose stress analysis
application and for many transducers
4. Semiconductor gauge

1. Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge

factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change in
resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
2. The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is
applied to it. The semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon
the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to change
in resistivity.
3. Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for
semiconductor gauges.
Q) A capacitive type level sensor is to be used for measuring the level
of water in the tank. With a neat labelled diagram. Explain the
construction of this transducer. Also state the reason for change in
capacitance with change in level of water.

Capacitance level transducer:-

• The principle of operation of capacitance level indicator is based upon
the
familiar capacitance
• equation of parallel plate capacitor given by
C = K *(A/D)
Where, C= capacitance, in farad
K= dielectric constant
A=area of plate, in meters square
D= distance between two plates, in meter.

• Therefore, it is seen from the above equation that if A & D are constant,
then
the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the dielectric
constant, and this principle utilized in the capacitance level indicator.
Construction & working :-

• Fig. shows a capacitance type liquid level indicator. It consists of an

insulated
capacitance probe (which is a metal electrode) firmly fixed near and
parallel to
the metal wall of the tank.
• If the liquid in the tank is non-conductive, the capacitance probe and
the tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and liquid in
between them acts as the dielectric.
• If the liquid is conductive the capacitance probe and liquid form the
plates of
the capacitor and the insulation of the probe acts as the dielectric.
• A capacitance measuring device is connected with the probe and the
tank wall, which is calibrated in terms of the level of the liquid in the
tank.
• When the level of liquid in the tank rises, the capacitance increases.
• When liquid level of the tank decreases, the capacitance also
decreases.
• Change in the capacitance is measured and is displayed on the
indicator
calibrated in terms of liquid level

Q) Suggest a suitable level transducer for following application:

(i) Level control of liquid, powders and fine grained solids within mining

(ii) Chemical processing and food industries

(iii) Tank level monitoring in chemical, water treatment

(iv) Oil level in transformer.

i. Level control of liquid, powders and fine grained solids within mining:-
Capacitive Transducer, Radar level (microwave) Transducer, laser beam
type
ii. Chemical processing and food industries:-
Capacitive Transducer, Radar level meter
iii. Tank level monitoring in chemical, water treatment:-
Ultrasonic level transducer, load cell type
iv. Oil level in transformer: -
sight Glass , optical sensor (LDR), Float type level transducer

Q) Draw constructional diagram of LVDT. State its working principle.

What is residual voltage, explain with neat diagram.

Working:-
• An LVDT transducer comprises a coil former on to which three coils are
wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an AC current, the secondary coils are
wound
such that when a ferrite core is in the central linear position, an equal
voltage is induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected in opposite so that in the central position
the
outputs of the secondary cancels each other out.
• The excitation is applied to the primary winding and the armature
assists the
induction of current in to secondary coils.
• When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then the flux linked to
both the secondary winding will be equal. Due to equal flux linkage the
secondary
induced voltages (Vo1 & Vo2) are equal but they have opposite
polarities.
Output voltage Vo is therefore zero. This position is called “null position”
• Now if the core is displaced from its null position toward sec1 then flux
linked
to sec1 increases and flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore Vo1 >
Vo2 and
the output voltage of LVDT Vo will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2 then the Vo2 > Vo1 and
the
output voltage of LVDT Vo will be negative.
Residual voltage: -
The output voltage is ideally zero, when core is at center or null position.
harmonics in excitation voltage and capacitance coupling between
primary and secondary coils usually results in small but non zero null
voltage called residual voltage.
Residual voltage Diagram:
 OR

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

● LVDT consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings

S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature
and contains the core).

● Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and are
placed on either side of primary winding.
● The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a
flux in the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
● A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and
displacement to be measured is connected to the iron core.
● The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in
reducing harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.
● This core is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses.
● The LVDT is placed inside stainless steel housing because it will
provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
● The both secondary windings are connected in such a way that
resulted output is the difference between the voltages of two
windings.
Q) List the two materials each for core of LVDT, strain gauge,
diaphragm and thermistor.

Q) Draw and explain working of photoelectric transducer.

• Working principle:

• The light passes through the holes available on the rotating disc with a
specific interval, depends on the angular speed of disc having
equidistant holes. The frequency of this light pulses is measure of
angular speed of the disc.
• It consists of an opaque disc on the rotating shaft. The disc has a
number of
equidistant holes on its periphery. At one side of the disc a light source
is fixed like LED and on other side of the disc, and on the line of the light
source, alight sensor like phototube or some photosensitive
semiconducting device is placed.
• When a hole appears between two, the light following upon the sensor
produces an output pulse.
• The frequency at which the pulses are produced depends on the
number of holes in the disc and its speed of rotation. Hence the speed is
given by

𝑁 =𝑓/ 𝐻𝑠

Where N=speed, f=frequency, Hs=holes on the disc

Q) What is piezo electric effect? Name two piezo electric materials.

Piezoelectric Effect:

When pressure or force is applied on piezoelectric crystals such as

quartz crystal then an electric charge is generated across that crystal.
OR
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an
electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress.
Piezoelectric Materials: -

1. Barium Titanate.
2. Rochelle salts.
3. Quartz crystal.
4. Topaz
5. Tourmaline
6. lead titanate
7. lead zirconate titanate
8. lithium sulphate