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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1258

Vera Murgul
Viktor Pukhkal Editors

International Scientific
Conference Energy
Management of Municipal
Facilities and Sustainable
Energy Technologies
EMMFT 2019
Volume 1
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 1258

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment,
healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern
intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft comput-
ing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion
of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuro-
science, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems,
Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and
adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics
including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning para-
digms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent
agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust
management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are
primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They
cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and
applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short
publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad
dissemination of research results.
** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings,
EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Vera Murgul Viktor Pukhkal
•

Editors

International Scientific
Conference Energy
Management of Municipal
Facilities and Sustainable
Energy Technologies
EMMFT 2019
Volume 1

123
Editors
Vera Murgul Viktor Pukhkal
Peter the Great St.Petersburg Polytechnic Saint Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg, Russia of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Saint Petersburg, Russia

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-57449-9 ISBN 978-3-030-57450-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57450-5
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

This book presents a collection of the latest studies in the field of the sustainable
development of urban energy systems and new strategies for the transportation
sector.
The international scientific conference Energy Management of Municipal
Facilities and Sustainable Energy Technologies EMMFT 2019 took place in
Voronezh State Technical University on November 28–30, 2019 in the city of
Voronezh.
This annual scientific event brought together guests and participants from
throughout Russia and different foreign countries. As traditionally, the main topics
to discuss were sustainable energy technologies, building energy modeling, energy
efficiency in transport sector, electrical energy storage, energy management and life
cycle assessment in urban systems and transportation.
The objective of the conference was the exchange of the latest scientific
achievements, strengthening of academic relations with leading scientists of the
European Union, creating favorable conditions for collaborative researches and
implementing collaborative projects, encourage young scientists, doctoral and post-
graduate students in their scientific and practical work related to the field of new
energy technologies. The newest equipment and devices for HVAC-systems were
demonstrated; the latest technologies of thermal protection of buildings were
shared.
Over than 250 papers were submitted for the conference. All papers passed
scientific and technical review. Finally, 136 papers were accepted.
Within the framework of technical review, all papers were thoroughly checked
for the following attributes: compliance with the subject of the conference;
plagiarism (acceptable minimum of originality was 90%); acceptable English
language. At the same time, papers were checked by a technical proofreader (for the
quality of images, absence of Cyrillic, etc.).
Scientific review of each paper was made by at least three reviewers. If the
opinions of the reviewers were radically different, additional reviewers were
appointed.

v
vi Preface

Live participation in the conference was an indispensable condition for the

publication of a paper.
The book is intended for a broad readership: from policymakers tasked with
evaluating and promoting key enabling technologies, efficiency policies and sus-
tainable energy practices, to researchers and engineers involved in the design and
analysis of complex systems.
All the participants and organizers express their gratitude to Springer publishing
office and to the editing group of journal Advances in Intelligent Systems and
Computing for publishing the proceedings of the conference.

Vera Murgul
Viktor Pukhkal
Organization

Scientific Committee

Samuil G. Konnikov Full Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute of the Russian
Academy of Sciences
Iurii Tabunschikov Corr. Member of RAASN, Honorary Member of the
International Ecoenergetic Academy of Azerbaijan,
ASHRAE fellow member, REHVA Fellow Member,
Corr. Member of VDI, Member of ISIAQ Academy,
Winner of the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize as a Member
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Antony Wood Executive Director (CTBUH), Visiting Prof. of Tall
Buildings, Tongji University, Shanghai, China,
Studio Ass. Prof., Illinois Institute of Technology,
Chicago, the USA
Viktor Pukhkal Head of the Department of Heat and Gas supply
and Ventilation, Saint Petersburg State University
of Architecture and Civil Engineering
Sergey Anisimov Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
Professor, Poland
Marianna M. Brodach Moscow Architectural Institute (State Academy), Vice
President of Russian Association of Engineers for
Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning, Heat Supply
and Building Thermal Physics “ABOK”, ASHRAE
member, REHVA Fellow Member, Member of the
Editorial Board of REHVA Journal
Igor Surovtsev Head of the Department of Innovation and Building
Physics Voronezh State Technical University
Daniel Safarik Director (CTBUH China Office), Editor (CTBUH
Journal), Chicago, the USA

vii
viii Organization

Aleksander Szkarowski Head of the Construction Networks and Systems

Division Department of Civil & Environmental
Engineering and Geodesy, Koszalin University
of Technology, Koszalin, Poland
Alexander Solovyev Head of the Research Laboratory of Renewable Energy
Sources Lomonosov Moscow State University, Full
Member of Russian Academy of Natural Sciences
Dietmar Wiegand Technische Universität Wien TU Wien
Luís Bragança Director of the Building Physics & Technology
Laboratory, Guimaraes, University of Minho,
Portugal
Zdenka Popovic Belgrade University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Serbia
Marco Pasetti Università degli Studi di Brescia UNIBS, Italy
Valerii Volshanik Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Mirjana Vukićević Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade,
Serbia
Sang Dae Kim Chief Editor (International Journal of High-rise
Buildings), Emeritus Professor, Department of Civil,
Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea
University, Seoul, South Korea
Alenka Fikfak University of Ljubljana: Faculty of Civil and Geodetic
Engineering (Department of Town & Regional
Planning) Biotechnical Faculty (Department of
Landscape Architecture), Slovenia
Milorad Jovanovski Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius
University in Skopje, Macedonia
Škoda, Radek Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, Department of Nuclear
Energetics Technická
Paulo Cachim Department of Civil Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Portugal
Aires Camões Director of the Materials of Construction Laboratory,
Guimarães, University of Minho, Portugal
Michael Tendler currently Professor of Fusion Plasma Physics at the
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm (KTH)
and Senior Science Expert and Member of the
External Management Advisory Board of the ITER
Organization, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan,
Sweden
Christoph Pfeifer Professor of Process Engineering of Renewable
Resources, University of Natural Resources and Life
Sciences, Vienna, Austria
Antonio Andreini The University of Florence, UNIFI, Italy
Pietro Zunino DIME Universitá di Genova, Genoa, Italy
Organization ix

Olga Kalinina Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University,

Russia
Tomas Hanak Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brno University
of Technology, Czech Republic
Vera Murgul Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University,
Russia
Darya Nemova Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University
Norbert Harmathy Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
Department of Building Energetics and Building
Services
Igor V. Ilyin Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic
University, Russia
Contents

Transportation Engineering and Traffic Engineering. Intelligent

Transportation Systems
Solving the Multi-criteria Optimization Problem
of Heat Energy Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Viktor Melkumov, Svetlana Tulskaya, Anastasiya Chuykina,
and Vladimir Dubanin
Logistic Aspects of the Distribution of Electric Charging Stations
on the Urban Road Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Evgeny Makarov, Sergey Gusev, Elena Shubina, and Yulia Nikolaeva
Improving the Experimental Technique of Asynchronous Single-Phase
Motors Equivalent Circuits Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Dmitry Tonn, Sergey Goremykin, Nikolay Sitnikov, Alexander Mukonin,
and Alexander Pisarevsky
Reinforcing a Railway Embankment on Degrading
Permafrost Subgrade Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Sergey Kudryavtcev, Tatiana Valtceva, Zhanna Kotenko,
Aleksey Kazharsrki, Vladimir Paramonov, Igor Saharov,
and Natalya Sokolova
Competition Development on the Ground Passenger Transportation
Market in Krasnodar Krai, Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Svetlana Grinenko, Lyudmila Prikhodko, Ekaterina Belyakova,
and Margarita Tatosyan
Numerical Modeling of a Vertical Steel Tank Differential
Settlement Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Aleksandr Tarasenko, Petr Chepur, and Alesya Gruchenkova

xi
xii Contents

New Methods for Determining Poisson’s Ratio of Elastomers . . . . . . . . 71

Viktor Artiukh, Vladlen Mazur, Yurii Sagirov, and Arkadiy Larionov
Regularities of City Passenger Traffic Based on Existing
Inter-district Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Oleksandr Stepanchuk, Andrii Bieliatynskyi, and Oleksandr Pylypenko
Geosynthetic Reinforced Interlayers Application
in Road Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Valerii Pershakov, Andrii Bieliatynskyi, and Oleksandra Akmaldinova
Research of the Properties of Bitumen Modified by Polymer Latex . . . . 104
Artur Onishchenko, Artem Lapchenko, Oleh Fedorenko,
and Andrii Bieliatynskyi
Formation of a Soil Wedge by a Bulldozer with a Controlled Blade . . . 117
Gennadiy Voskresenskiy and Evgeniy Kligunov
On the Impact of Metrological Support on Efficiency
of Special Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rustam Khayrullin
Assessment of the Conditions for Allocating Independent Road Safety
ITS Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Elena Pechatnova and Vasiliy Kuznetsov
Change of Geometric and Dynamic-Strength Characteristics
of Crosspieces in the Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Irina Shishkina
Selecting a Turnout Curve Form in Railroad Switches for High Speeds
of Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Vadim Korolev
Image Blurring Function as an Informative Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Alexey Loktev and Daniil Loktev
Deformations and Life Periods of the Switch Chairs
of the Rail Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Boris Glusberg, Alexey Loktev, Vadim Korolev, Irina Shishkina,
Mikhail Berezovsky, and Pavel Trigubchak
Wear Peculiarities of Point Frogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Irina Shishkina
Change of Geometric Forms of Working Surfaces
of Turnout Crosspieces in Wear Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Vadim Korolev
Contents xiii

Optimization Model of the Transport and Production Cycle

in International Cargo Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Valery Zubkov and Nina Sirina
Dam Failure Model and Its Influence on the Bridge Construction . . . . . 229
Artur Onishchenko, Andrii Koretskyi, Iryna Bashkevych,
Borys Ostroverkh, and Andrii Bieliatynskyi
Simulation of Traffic Flows Optimization in Road Networks Using
Electrical Analogue Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Viktor Danchuk, Olena Bakulich, Serhii Taraban, and Andrii Bieliatynskyi
Automation of the Solution to the Problem of Optimizing Traffic
in a Multimodal Logistics System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Julia Poltavskaya, Olga Lebedeva, and Valeriy Gozbenko
Improving the Energy Efficiency of Technological Equipment
at Mining Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Roman Klyuev, Igor Bosikov, Oksana Gavrina, Maret Madaeva,
and Andrey Sokolov
Energy Indicators of Drilling Machines and Excavators
in Mountain Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Roman Klyuev, Olga Fomenko, Oksana Gavrina, Ramzan Turluev,
and Soslan Marzoev
Analytical Determination of Fuel Economy Characteristics
of Earth-Moving Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Vladimir Zhulai, Vitaly Tyunin, Aleksei Shchienko, Nikolay Volkov,
and Dmitriy Degtev
Type Analysis of a Multiloop Coulisse Mechanism
of a Cotton Harvester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Khabibulla Turanov, Anvar Abdazimov, Mukhaya Shaumarova,
and Shukhrat Siddikov
Mathematical Modeling of a Multiloop Coulisse Mechanism
of a Vertical Spindle Cotton Harvester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Khabibulla Turanov, Anvar Abdazimov, Mukhaya Shaumarova,
and Shukhrat Siddikov
Kinematic Characteristics of the Car Movement from the Top
to the Calculation Point of the Marshalling Hump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Khabibulla Turanov, Andrey Gordienko, Shukhrat Saidivaliev,
Shukhrat Djabborov, and Khasan Djalilov
Analysis of Cross-Distortions in Aircraft Radio Systems with OFDM
Signals at Channel Subcarriers Phase Coincidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Anatoliy Fomin and Andrey Yalin
xiv Contents

Spontaneous Combustion of Pilot Fuel in Dual-Fuel Engine . . . . . . . . . 361

Vladimir Gavrilov, Valery Medvedev, and Dmitry Bogachev
Methods and Algorithms for Controlling Cascade Frequency
Converter with High-Quality of Synthesized Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Fedor Gelver, Igor Belousov, and Aleksandr Saushev
Preventive Protection of Ship’s Electric Power System
from Reverse Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Alecsandr Saushev, Nikolai Shirokov, and Sergey Kuznetsov
The Role of Water Transport in the Formation of the Brand
of the Coastal Regions: The Example of St. Petersburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Anton Smirnov and Mikhail Zenkin
Hardening Peculiarities of Metallic Materials During Wear Under
Ultrasonic Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Yuriy Tsvetkov, Evgeniy Gorbachenko, and Yaroslav Fiaktistov
Technology Level and Development Trends of Autonomous
Shipping Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Vladimir Karetnikov, Evgeniy Ol’Khovik, Aleksandra Ivanova,
and Artem Butsanets
Quality Assessment of the System of Filling a Shipping Lock Chamber
from Under the Segmental Guillotine Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Anatolii Gapeev, Konstantin Morgunov, and Mariya Karacheva
Principles of Interaction of Agents During Cooperative Maneuvering
of Unmanned Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Sergey Smolentsev
Methodological Approaches to Setting the Goal of Multimodal
Transportation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Elena Karavaeva and Elena Lavrenteva
Factors Determining Thermohydraulic Efficiency of Liquid Cooling
Systems for Internal Combustion Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Vladimir Zhukov, Valentin Erofeev, and Olesya Melnik
Impact Study of Basalt and Polyacrylonitrile Fibers on Performance
Characteristics of Asphalt Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Sergey Andronov, Yuri Vasiliev, Eduard Kotlyarsky, Natalia Kokodeeva,
and Andrey Kochetkov
Using the Response Surface to Assess the Reliability of the Russian
Cryolithozone Road Network in a Warming Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Anatolii Yakubovich and Irina Yakubovich
Contents xv

Needed Additions to the Diagnostic System of High-Speed Lines . . . . . . 496

Viktor Pevzner, Kirill Shapetko, and Alexander Slastenin
Planning and Modeling of Urban Transport Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . 506
Angela Mottaeva and Asiiat Mottaeva

Energy Management and Economics

Management of Innovations in the Field of Energy-Efficient
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Evgeniya Sizova, Evgeniya Zhutaeva, Olga Volokitina,
and Vladimir Eremin
Barriers and Limitations of Innovative Road Projects Aimed
at Improving Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Ivan Provotorov, Valentin Gasilov, Alshammari Haidar Fazel Mohammed,
and Alexander Fedotov
Organization of Combined Heat Energy Generation
for Municipal Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Andrey Ovsiannikov, Vladimir Bolgov, Anna Vorotyntseva,
and Alexey Efimiev
Cost Management for Fuel and Energy Resources in the Creation
and Operation of Urban Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Olga Kutsygina, Margarita Agafonova, Andrei Chugunov,
and Irina Serebryakova
Model for the Development of an Energy Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
Yulia Bondarenko, Tatiana Azarnova, Irina Kashirina,
and Ekaterina Vasilchikova
Integrated Assessment System Based on Dichotomous Tree . . . . . . . . . . 578
Vladimir Burkov, Irina Burkova, Alla Polovinkina,
and Lyudmila Shevchenko
Integrated Technology for Creating a Development Management
Systems in the Field of Energy Saving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
Vladimir Burkov, Irina Burkova, Tatiana Averina, and Olga Perevalova
Development of Engineering Services in the Implementation
of Investment-and-Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Irina Vladimirova, Kseniia Bareshenkova, Galina Kallaur,
and Anna Tsygankova
Economic Effect of the Renovation of Street Engineering Networks . . . 616
Pavel Shatalov, Anton Akopian, Vladimir Volokitin, and Andrey Eremin
xvi Contents

Web-Based Power Management and Use Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

Vyacheslav Burlov, Oleg Uzun, Mikhail Grachev, Sergey Faustov,
and Dmitry Sipovich
Analysis of Tools for Determining Professional Suitability to Perform
Hazardous Construction Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
Liliia Kireeva, Tatiana Kaverzneva, Regina Shaydullina,
and Adel Farkhutdinova
Offenses Prevention at Municipal Energy Facilities Under
Geoinformation System Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Vyacheslav Burlov, Aleksey Mironov, Anna Mironova, Jamila Idrisova,
and Irina Russkova
Mathematical Model for Managing Energy Sector in the Region . . . . . . 659
Vyacheslav Burlov, Oleg Lepeshkin, and Michael Lepeshkin
Improvement of the Tool of Strategic Management Accounting . . . . . . . 669
Guzaliya Klychova, Alsou Zakirova, Shakhizin Alibekov, Aigul Klychova,
Vitaly Morunov, and Ullah Raheem
Information and Analytical System of Strategic Management
of Activities of Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Alsou Zakirova, Guzaliya Klychova, Kamil Mukhamedzyanov,
Zufar Zakirov, Almaz Nigmetzyanov, and Alfiya Yusupova
Technological Prospect of Innovative Development
of the Processing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
Andrey Alekseev, Kirill Khlebnikov, Alexander Arkhipov,
and Alexander Schraer
Pandeconomic Crisis and Its Impact on Small Open Economies:
A Case Study of COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
George Abuselidze and Anna Slobodianyk
Functional and Spatial Development of Agricultural
Subregional Localities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Oksana Kolomyts, Inna Ivanova, and Emil Velinov
Internal Management Reporting on Efficiency of Budget Funds Use . . . 738
Guzaliya Klychova, Alsou Zakirova, Regina Nurieva,
Rashida Sungatullina, Elena Klinova, and Evgenia Petrova
The Concept of Anthropotechnical Safety of Functioning
and Quality of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Ruben Kazaryan
Aspects in Managing the Life Cycle of Construction Projects . . . . . . . . 768
Ruben Kazaryan
Contents xvii

Method for Determining the Reliability Indicators of Elements

in the Distribution Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Madina Plieva, Maret Madaeva, Aslanbek Khadzhiev, Soslan Marzoev,
and Oleg Kadzhaev
E-trading: Current Status and Development Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Olga Sushko and Alexander Plastinin
Model of Sustainable Economic Development in the Context
of Inland Water Transport Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
Svetlana Borodulina and Tatjana Pantina
The Impact of Transport Costs on Sales in Supply Chains . . . . . . . . . . 820
Valery Mamonov and Vladimir Poluektov

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

Transportation Engineering and Traffic
Engineering. Intelligent Transportation
Systems
 Solving the Multi-criteria Optimization
Problem of Heat Energy Transport

Viktor Melkumov , Svetlana Tulskaya ,

Anastasiya Chuykina(&) , and Vladimir Dubanin

Voronezh State Technical University, 20-Letiya Oktyabrya Street, 84,

Voronezh 394006, Russia
[email protected]

Abstract. The work is dedicated to the improvement of technique of designing

of the pipe network of heat supply systems based on the solution of a multi-
criterial optimization problem. One of the most important stages of design,
influencing future costs for construction and operation of heating systems is the
choice of the pipeline route. The lack of baseline data at the initial design stage
(in the absence of structural calculation) may lead to erroneous solution of the
problem under consideration. This can be avoided by applying calculation
methods based on aggregated parameters of a thermal network. However,
individually they cannot describe all or even most significant characteristics of
the system. In this regard, the improved method is proposed to solve the opti-
mization problem of the trace pipeline network, which is based on the methods
of system analysis using a number of aggregated parameters describing quali-
tative and quantitative characteristics of the heating system, which allows to
increase the accuracy of selecting the best option (or group of options) of the
pipe network. As a criterion of optimality, we suggest a generalized vector
criterion which is a function of the material characteristics of the heat network,
the moment the heat load, heat loss, reliability, and building-technological
indicators. To determine the parameters of preferences (criteria weights), we
selected ranking method, which allows us to reduce the time of the expert survey
and increase the accuracy of the result. The obtained results can be used in the
design and reconstruction of heating systems.

Keywords: Heat supply
Optimal route
Multi-criteria optimization

Aggregated parameters of the heating main
Transport problem
Heating
networks

1 Introduction

The choice of the best option for tracing the pipeline network when transporting heat
from a source to a consumer is a complex multifactor task. The solution of such
problems can be solved using system analysis methods. The search for a solution to a
multi-criteria problem can be carried out using a number of methods, for example, such
as: the “ideal” point method, lexicographic ordering of criteria; highlighting the main
criterion; folding a vector criterion, etc. The latter got the greatest spread for the type of
optimization problem under consideration. This method takes into account the
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
V. Murgul and V. Pukhkal (Eds.): EMMFT 2019, AISC 1258, pp. 3–10, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57450-5_1
4 V. Melkumov et al.

importance of particular parameters by constructing a scalar function, which is a

generalized parameter of the vector criterion. The generalized parameter, in turn, can be
converted into a function of various kinds, for example, into function (1) [1]
Xn
S¼ xp;
k¼1 k k
ð1Þ

where xk – particular optimality criterion; pk – weight of the particular criterion.

Thus, the further solution of the optimization problem is reduced to several stages,
the selection of criteria by which the multi-criteria optimization will be carried out, the
determination of their weight values and the solution of function (1).

2 Materials and Methods

Since the design of a transport pipeline system is a complex engineering task that
requires significant labor and time costs, it is possible to reduce the volume of cal-
culations of optimality criteria by using aggregated parameters that describe the main
properties and characteristics of the designed heating network. The main aggregated
indicators that exist at the moment are such as:
– the material characteristic of the heat network [2]
Xn
M= i¼1
Dini li ; ð2Þ

where Dini – the inner diameter of the pipeline at a section of the heating network; li
– the length of the heating network; n – the number of sections of the heating
network.
At the initial design stage, when the diameters of the pipelines are unknown,
formula (2) can be transformed according to [3] into the following form

M ¼ E: G0:38
l; ð3Þ

Aad
E¼ ; ð4Þ
R0:19
l

where G – the heat carrier flow rate in the line, kg/s; Aad – the coefficient related to
the diameter of the pipeline, depending on the roughness; Rl – the specific linear
pressure drop, kg/(m2m);
– the annual heat loss [4]

Qt:l: ¼ q
Mc ; ð5Þ

where Mc – the conventional material characteristic of the heating system calculated

on the outer surface of the insulation, m2; q – the specific annual heat losses
 Solving the Multi-criteria Optimization Problem 5

attributed to 1 m2 of the conventional material characteristic of the heating network,

Gcal/(year
m2).
X
Mc ¼ M þ 0:15 l; ð6Þ
P
where l – the total length of the pipeline, m.

q ¼ 3:6
p
k
ðTav  t0 Þð1 þ bÞ
n
106 ; ð7Þ

where k – the heat transfer coefficient of the heat conduit taking into account the
thickness and material of the insulation, channel and type of soil, conventionally
assigned to the outer surface of the insulation, W/(m2 °C); Tav – the average annual
heat carrier temperature, °C; t0 – the average annual soil or ambient temperature, °
C; b – the local heat loss coefficient; n – the number of hours of operation of the
heating network per year;
– the thermal load moment [4]
X X p
Zac ¼ Zi ¼ ðQi
laci Þ; ð8Þ

where Zi – the actual moment of heat load in the considered section, MW
m; Qpi –
the estimated heat load in the considered section, MW; laci – the actual length of the
considered section, m;
– the reliability of the heating network (it is customary to evaluate it by the reliability
indicator, which should not be lower than the established level, the higher it is, the
more reliable the system), the optimization criterion will take the form [4]

QðtÞ Xj¼l DQj xi  

P Rxi t
Rsyst ðtÞ ¼ ¼1 1  e ; ð9Þ
Q0 j¼1 Q
0 xi

where Q0 – the estimated heat consumption; DQj – the lack of heat; QðtÞ – the
mathematical expectation of the performance characteristics of the system; t – the
time; xi – the failure flow parameter determined by the formula
PN
i¼1 mi mav ðtÞ
x¼ ¼ ; ð10Þ
NDt Dt
where mi – the failure rate; N – the number of identical sections of the heating
network; Dt – the observation time; mav – the average failure rate;
– the time spent on construction or reconstruction [5]
Xm Xn hkj vkj
Tcon ¼ j¼1 k¼1
; ð11Þ
Nkj

where Nkj – the workers; hkj – the labor costs per unit of construction work; mkj – the
volume of work; k – the sizes (i = 1, 2, …, n); j – the types of designs (j = 1, 2, …, m);
6 V. Melkumov et al.

– the construction and technological indicators [5]

Xm Xn
hcon ¼ j¼1 k¼1
hkj vkj ; ð12Þ
Xm Xn
Mcon ¼ j¼1 k¼1
Mkj vkj ; ð13Þ

where Mkj – the machine capacity per unit of construction work.

The search for weight values of optimality criteria can be carried out on the basis of
various methods, for example, such as: the method of point estimates, the method of
direct numerical estimates, the method of ranking criteria; frequency preference
method; Churchman-Akof’s method; Thurstone’s method; method of linear folding of
criteria. According to [6], the most appropriate method from the point of view of
accuracy of the final result and the time spent on its processing is the ranking method.
In this method, the relative frequencies of the converted ranks [6] are written in form
(14) are taken as weight values of coefficients:
X X X 
bi ¼ jm
Bij = in jm
Bij ; ð14Þ

where Bij – the rank of the converted criterion.

3 Results

Table 1 gives the ranks of the seven aggregated criteria for optimizing heating net-
works discussed above when interviewing ten experts.

Table 1. Ranks of heat network optimization criteria.

Experts Converted criteria rank, Bij
M Qt:l: Zac Rsyst Tcon hcon Mcon
1 0 2 1 2 4 6 5
2 0 1 2 3 4 6 5
3 0 1 2 3 4 6 5
4 0 2 1 3 4 6 5
5 0 1 2 3 4 6 5
6 1 0 3 2 4 5 6
7 2 1 0 3 5 6 4
8 1 0 3 2 4 5 6
9 0 2 1 3 4 6 5
10 2 0 1 3 4 6 5
 Solving the Multi-criteria Optimization Problem 7

Table 2 shows the relative frequencies of the ranks of the considered aggregated
criteria for optimizing heating networks determined by dependence (14).

Table 2. The relative frequency of the ranks of the aggregated criteria for the optimization of
heating networks.
Relative frequency of the Aggregated optimality criteria
converted ranks M Qt:l: Zac Rsyst Tcon hcon Mcon
Expert 1 0.000 0.100 0.048 0.100 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 2 0.000 0.048 0.100 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 3 0.000 0.048 0.100 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 4 0.000 0.100 0.048 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 5 0.000 0.048 0.100 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 6 0.048 0.000 0.143 0.100 0.191 0.238 0.286
Expert 7 0.100 0.048 0.000 0.143 0.238 0.286 0.191
Expert 8 0.048 0.000 0.143 0.100 0.191 0.238 0.286
Expert 9 0.000 0.100 0.048 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
Expert 10 0.100 0.000 0.048 0.143 0.191 0.286 0.238
bi 0.030 0.049 0.078 0.130 0.196 0.276 0.243

According to this method, the criterion with the lowest relative frequency value bi
is the most important criterion.
The last step in determining the most optimal piping tracing during the transport of
heat energy in heat supply systems, namely, solving Eq. (1), is possible if the values of
the aggregated parameters are brought to a common view, since their dimension is the
same. The simplest is the conversion option, in which the largest value of the aggre-
gated parameter is taken equal to one, and smaller values are determined by compiling
the proportion, thereby reduction of the parameters to a dimensionless form. The
solution of function (1) for finding the best option for tracing the heating network
shown in Fig. 1 is quite simple to implement using modern computing tools [7].
Graphically, the choice of the most optimal parameter can be seen in Fig. 2, which
gives an example of the location of the five options for tracing the heating network
relative to the weight vector, depending on the three most important, aggregated
parameters, which are the coordinate axes.
Obviously, when considering a larger number of optimality criteria, the space from
three-dimensional is transformed into n-dimensional. In our case, 7-dimensional.
The main disadvantage of using the method under consideration, as well as others,
in which expert assessments are applied, is some subjectivity of the obtained research
results. In addition, the accuracy of the solution to the optimization problem will be
significantly affected by the qualification of the expert.
8 V. Melkumov et al.

Fig. 1. Considered options for tracing pipelines of a heat supply system.

Fig. 2. The location of the five options for tracing the heating network relative to the weight
vector according to three optimization parameters.
 Solving the Multi-criteria Optimization Problem 9

4 Discussion

In practice, when designing the route of the pipeline network of heat supply systems,
the number of laying options can be estimated at hundreds or thousands, depending on
the initial data and the required degree of development of the project. From this set, it is
desirable to choose a small number of optimal or close to optimal options. In addition,
according to studies [8], often, the optimal tracing option for one parameter may not
coincide with the option for another parameter, which can lead to a contradiction when
choosing the most suitable construction or reconstruction option.
In connection with the foregoing, the practical implementation of the considered
methodology of the multi-criteria optimization problem of heat energy transport will
allow us to find the most optimal option or a limited number of network trace options
that take into account a number of basic parameters that reflect various properties of the
system. In addition, the chosen method of searching for weight values of optimality
criteria allows obtaining the most acceptable result with the least labor and time costs of
experts. To increase the objectivity of the result, it seems possible to use the considered
method together with the automated search methods for the most profitable options
based on an analysis of the available data, in this case, the available design solutions for
the heat supply systems.

5 Conclusions

The considered solution of the multi-criteria optimization problem of choosing the

optimal route of the pipeline transporting thermal energy involves the search for the
minimum of the function according to the vector criterion, which consists of a number
of particular parameters and their weight values. The determination of their numerical
values is conveniently carried out using the ranking method, which requires minimal
time costs and is as close as possible to the most accurate solution. Using the con-
sidered aggregated parameters of the heating network as optimality criteria allows us to
obtain a more accurate solution to the multifactor problem, taking into account both
quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the heat supply system at the design,
construction and operation stages.

References
1. Muravyeva, L., Vatin, N.: Application of the risk theory to management reliability of the
pipeline. Appl. Mech. Mater. 635–637, 434–438 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.
scientific.net/AMM.635-637.434
2. Duda, M., Dobrianski, J., Chludzinski, D.: Analysis of the possibility of applications for a
two-phase reverse thermosyphon in passive heat transport systems. In: E3S Web of
Conferences, vol. 49, p. 00020 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184900020
3. Gorshkov, A.S., Vatin, N.I., Rymkevich, P.P., Kydrevich, O.O.: Payback period of investments
in energy saving. Mag. Civ. Eng. 78(2), 65–75 (2018). https://doi.org/10.18720/MCE.78.5
10 V. Melkumov et al.

4. Muravyeva, L., Vatin, N.: Pipelines stability under extreme hydrodynamic conditions. Appl.
Mech. Mater. 635–637, 451–456 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.
635-637.451
5. Muravyeva, L., Vatin, N.: Elaboration of the method for safety assessment of subsea pipeline
with longitudinal buckling. Adv. Civ. Eng. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7581360
6. Muravyeva, L., Vatin, N.: Risk assessment for a main pipeline under severe soil conditions on
exposure to seismic forces. Appl. Mech. Mater. 635–637, 468–471 (2014). https://doi.org/10.
4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.635-637.468
7. Muravyeva, L., Vatin, N.: The safety estimation of the marine pipeline. Appl. Mech. Mater.
633–634, 958–964 (2014). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.633-634.958
8. Kolbin, V.V.: Generalized mathematical programming as a decision model. Appl. Math. Sci.
8(70), 3469–3476 (2014). https://doi.org/10.12988/ams.2014.44231
 Logistic Aspects of the Distribution of Electric
Charging Stations on the Urban Road Network

Evgeny Makarov1(&) , Sergey Gusev2 , Elena Shubina1 ,

and Yulia Nikolaeva1
1
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics Voronezh branch of PRUE. G. V.
Plekhanov, Karl Marks Street, 67a, Voronezh 394030, Russia
[email protected]
2
Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov, Politehnicheskaja Street,
77, Saratov 410054, Russia

Abstract. Modern approaches to organization and management of an urban

energy system deal with the optimal placement of charging stations for electric
cars and other vehicles, that have dynamic charging while driving. The electric
power flows are allocated between the consumers and must be taken into
account in logistics network model under study in order to ensure sustainable
and stable generation of energy for the urban transportation. Integration of
different functional areas into the process of power supply of electric vehicles
allows to optimize the total expenses for the city transportation service. The
energy aspects of functioning of logistics systems are directly related to the
problems of environmental protection in cities and locations of energy sources
concentration. The distribution and redistribution of the energy power flows are
an urgent applied research task, which is emerging as a promising work in the
field of design of deployment models of electric charging stations on the city
road network. The elaboration of the suggested approaches involves traditional
and modern management models, including the models for estimating the
entropy of the logistics system. The entropic model consists of the calculation of
parameters of adaptation of the type, structure and properties of the available
charging stations on the city road network. Planning of placement and layouts of
charging stations is carried out after the final stage in calculating the parameter
of organization of functioning of the analyzed resource-supplying logistics
network. The total result and planned economic parameters of the charging
stations should be measured and controlled.

Keywords: Urban energy system
Entropic model
Logistics network

Charging station

1 Introduction

The contemporary practice of tackling applied research tasks in the theory of logistics
covers key states, problems and approaches to their solution, including the study of
material flows and the ones that accompany in logistic systems and processes. In some
cases, there are isolated states of the road and logistics network as well as systems that
supply energy to keep the logistics systems functioning.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
V. Murgul and V. Pukhkal (Eds.): EMMFT 2019, AISC 1258, pp. 11–23, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57450-5_2
12 E. Makarov et al.

The management practice of logistics systems involves a comprehensive analysis of

industry components and detection of factors which affect the development of the
logistics systems under study. The terminology is enriched with the definitions of the
“first and last miles” and other categories, as well as the characteristics of the events
taking place within the framework of goods distribution and accompanying processes.
Consistency and process approach of logistics have many aspects and require taking
into account not only well studied issues, but also the crossroads of the operational
problems of information and energy power flows, their compatibility and practical
experience, which is demonstrated by the above terms. The energy aspects of the
functioning of logistics systems are directly related to the problems of environmental
protection in cities and places of energy sources concentration. The distribution and
redistribution of resource flows today are an urgent applied research task, to which this
article is dedicated.
A logistics system of electric power supply for urban electric transport was chosen
as the object of the study.
The efficient operation of the drive of any vehicle is due to a number of factors, both
objective and subjective, the main of which are:
• state of the track infrastructure;
• technical condition of drive elements and rolling stock as a whole;
• weather conditions;
• qualifications of a driver, etc.
At the same time, one of the fundamental points that subsequently determines the
efficiency of its work is the use of a traction motor with the optimal power parameters.
Indeed, with insufficient engine power, acceptable dynamic index is usually achieved
by forcing its operation modes, which is followed by increased energy consumption
due to a decrease in drive efficiency.
The use of a high-power engine also leads to excess power demands, but in this
case it is caused by the small performance values of a power unit which operates in a
mode of under-utilization of capacity. This situation is typical for drives with both
electric machines and thermal ones.
It is well known that there are three phases of a classic movement scheme for a
passenger vehicle equipped with an electric drive: start, coasting, braking. At the same
time, the energy necessary for movement on the entire haul is consumed at the start-up
phase and is spent to overcome the resistance force. And it is also accumulated in the
form of kinetic energy of the rolling stock.
An important factor affecting the energy consumption for movement is the haul
length, the optimal value of which, according to the criterion of the minimum energy
consumption for movement for ground-based electric transport is Lhaul = 550 m. This
value became the corner stone for calculating the energy consumption for movement of
a vehicle with an electric drive and with a heat engine [1, 2].
In accordance with the above, the maximum required value of power P to execute
movement at point a of the curve is defined as (1):
 Logistic Aspects of the Distribution of Electric Charging Stations 13

P ¼ ðFt  W Þva ¼ ½ð1 þ cÞmrs as  W va ; ð1Þ

where Ft – traction on the wheel rim;

W – motion resistance force;
c = 1.12…1.14 – inertia coefficient of the rotating masses of the vehicle;
mrs – mass of the rolling stock;
as – starting acceleration;
va – speed at point a.
The mechanical energy accumulated by the rolling stock is determined by the
following expression (2):

At ¼ ð1 þ cÞmrs v2a =2: ð2Þ

The power that is utilized by the engine to accelerate the rolling stock with the value
as, taking into account the transmission efficiency, is determined by the expression (3):

Pdv ¼ ðP þ Wva Þgd gm ; ð3Þ

where ηd – engine efficiency;

ηm – manual transmission efficiency.
Recuperation of energy by rolling stock in the modes of partial braking and
emergency braking is possible subject to the following requirements:
• sufficient value of kinetic energy (a decrease in speed below a certain level leads to
inefficiency of electrical braking and the need to replace it with mechanical one);
• availability of a consumer of electric energy;
• circuit support for the transition from the start mode to the regenerative braking
mode.
The stored kinetic energy by the rolling stock when accelerating is sufficient to
provide regenerative braking from the design speed to the minimum defined by the
expression (4):
,


vmin ¼ k Up þ It r ce F; ð4Þ

where It – brake current providing a deceleration of 1.5 m/s2;

r – recuperation of loop resistance;
k = Rk/ir – proportionality coefficient that depends on the radius of the wheel (Rk)
and the gear reduction ratio (ir).
Effective regenerative braking is possible up to velocity of 5–7 km/h when using
pulse control for the rolling stock, and without - up to 15–20 km/h [3].
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Christophero Sly when he railed at the woman of the house and
threatened her with presentation at the leet,

“Because she brought stone jugs and no sealed quarts.”

Without the “sealed quart” of the Unity—of the Rule generally—these

critics will not slake, nor let others slake, their thirst. But the affirmation of
the Unity of Interest, in La Motte’s way, does inevitably bring with it
licence to use the stone jug or anything else, so only that the good wine
of poetry be made to do its good office.
The Quarrel left its traces for a long time on criticism, and seems to
have partly determined the composition, as late as 1730, of two books of
some note, the Traité des Études of the excellent Rollin, and the
Rollin. elaborate Théâtre des Grecs of the Père Brumoy. Of
neither need we say very much. The first-named[661] had
considerable influence at home and abroad, especially in Germany; but
Rollin’s successor, Batteux, was justified in the good-humoured malice of
his observation,[662] “Je trouve à l’article de la Poésie un discours fort
sensé sur son origine et sa destination, qui doit être toute au profit de la
vertu. On y cite les beaux endroits d’Homère; on y donne la plus juste
idée de la sublime Poésie des Livres Saints; mais c'était une définition
que je demandais.” Alas! we have experienced the same disappointment
many times; nor is it Batteux himself who will cure us of it.
Brumoy’s imposing quartos[663] have at least the advantage (how great
a one the same experience has shown us) of tackling a definite subject in
Brumoy. a business-like way. His book consists of actual
translations of a certain number of Greek pieces, of
analyses of all the rest that we have, and of divers discourses. He leads
off with a forcible and well-founded complaint of the extreme ignorance of
Greek tragedy and drama generally which the Quarrel had shown; his
observations on individual writers and pieces are often very sensible; and
his “Discourse on the Parallel between the Theatres” has a bearing which
he probably did not suspect, and might not have relished. He dwells with
vigour and knowledge on the differences between them in order to show
that not merely preference, as in the Quarrel, but even strict comparison,
is impossible between things so different. It could not be but that sooner
or later it would dawn, on some readers at least, that it was even more
ridiculous to try to make the two obey the same laws.
As has been already shown in the last book, literary criticism had, even
by the middle of the seventeenth century, established so firm a hold on
French taste that the representative system becomes more and more
imperative upon the historian thereof. To represent the later days of
Fontenelle and those when Voltaire, though attaining, had not entirely
attained his almost European dictatorship of letters, three names will
serve very well; one perhaps new to many (if there be many) readers of
these pages, another one of the conscript names of literary history,
respected if not read, and the third a classic of the world—in plainer
words, Rémond de Saint-Mard, the Abbé Du Bos, and Montesquieu.
Saint-Mard has been rather badly treated by the books,—for instance,
Vapereau’s Dictionnaire des Littératures, often no despicable compilation,
not only dismisses him as médiocre, but misspells his name Saint-Marc.
Rémond de He had, however, some influence in his own day,
Saint-Mard. especially on the Germans;[664] and there is an extremely
pretty little edition[665] of his works, most of which had been issued
separately earlier. To some extent he is a follower of Fontenelle, writes
Dialogues of Gods, &c., Lettres Galantes et Philosophiques, and the like,
to please the town and the ladies, but with a constant turning to criticism.
In the “Discourse,” which precedes his Dialogues in the collected edition,
there is a very odd and, as it seems to me, a very noteworthy passage, in
which, though there may be some would-be fine-gentleman nonchalance,
there is also a dawning of that sense of the unnaturalness and
inconvenience of “the rules” which is constantly showing itself in the early
eighteenth century. He admits[666] that he has not followed his own rules;
for the orthodox dialogue ought to have one subject, led up to for some
time, announced at last. But somehow or other most of his dialogues
have more. So few ideas are fertile enough for a whole Dialogue!—a
sentence which obviously cuts away the theory of the rule, and not
merely its practice.
Nor are his other works by any means destitute of original ideas
worthily put. In one of his definition-descriptions of poetry,[667] if there is
something of eighteenth-century sensualism, there is much also of the
L. acute and practical psychology of the period. The words do
Racine. account—whether in “low” or “high” fashion—for the poetic
delight, as “Philosophy teaching by example” and other arid abstractions
do not. His theory elsewhere, that Custom communicates the charm of
versification (he does not quote usus concinnat, but inevitably suggests
it), has probably a great deal of truth in it, if it is not the whole truth; and
though we know that his explanation of the origin of Poetry—that it came
because Prose was too common—is historically inaccurate, it is evidently
only a false deduction, uncorrected by actual historic knowledge, from the
real fact that the “discommoning of the common” is a main source of the
poetic pleasure. In points such as these Rémond de Saint-Mard rises
commendably above the estimable dulness of his contemporary Louis
Racine,[668] with his admiration oddly distributed between Milton and his
own papa, and in the former case more oddly conditioned by respect for
Addison and Voltaire; his laborious rearrangement of most of the old
commonplaces about poetry and poets; and his obliging explanation that
“Ces images de magiciennes et de sorcières de Laponie ne paraissaient
pas extravagantes aux Anglais dans le temps que Milton écrivit.”
By this time “Æsthetics” were breaking the shell everywhere; but in
many cases, as we have seen, they did not consciously affect the critical
Du Bos. principles of writers. Du Bos, a solid inquirer, and a man
of considerable ability in that striking out of wide
generalisations which delighted his time, could hardly have avoided them.
His Réflexions Critiques sur la Poésie et sur la Peinture[669] have
sometimes been credited with considerable precursorship on the literary
side. It is certain that he lays some stress (Part II., § 14 sq.) on the effect
of Climate upon Art, and if this “seem such dear delight, Beyond all
other,” he must have the credit due therefor from those to whom it so
seems. To those who reflect on the climatic authorship, say of Romeo
and Juliet and the sonnets of La Casa, doubts may occur. Du Bos is
certainly an interesting and stimulating writer; but his very excursions into
generality seem to have precluded him from studying any particular
author carefully; and the crotchet and paradox which appear in his more
famous and later Histoire de la Monarchie Française are not absent from
the Réflexions. These take, moreover, a distinctly “classic” bent. Dr
Johnson would have loved, and very possibly did love, him for arguing in
a masterly manner that French poetry simply cannot equal Latin, either in
style or in cadence and harmony of verse; nor perhaps would Mr Matthew
Arnold on this occasion have disdained to say ditto to Dr Johnson. Latin
words are more beautiful than French. Harmony is easier to attain in Latin
than in French. The rules are less troublesome in Latin than in French,
and their observance results in more beauties in the mother than in the
daughter. This is “Thorough” with a vengeance.[670]
On the great question of katharsis Du Bos holds the view that art
operates by imitating the things which would have excited strong
passions in us if real, but which, as not being real, only excite weak ones;
Stimulating and makes fair fight for it (Part I., § 3). He thinks that
but desultory while execution is everything in painting it is not
character of everything in poetry, but still much. He quotes English
his critics, especially Addison, pretty freely, and is not far
Réflexions. from holding with them that French drama deals too
much with love. He has some really acute remarks on what he calls
poetry of style, distinguishing this style from mere diction and
versification, and connecting this directly with his Latin-French paradox.
He even ventures close to the sin unpardonable, in the eyes of
Classicism, by arguing that the beauty of the parts of a poem contributes
more to its effect than the justness and regularity of the plan, and that a
poem may be “regular” to the nth and yet quite a bad poem. He has
respect for the popular judgment—a respect suggesting a not impossible
acquaintance with Gravina (v. infra, p. 538), who had written a good many
years before him: and he distinctly postulates, after the manner of the
century, an Æsthetic Sense existing in almost all, and capable of deciding
on points of taste (Part II., § 22). He has some direct and more indirect
observations in reference to the Quarrel, speaking with trenchant, but not
too trenchant, disapproval (Part II., § 36) of those who endeavour to
judge works of art by translations and criticisms. On the main question he
is pretty sound. He is good on genius, and on what he calls the artisan,
the craftsman without genius. Taking him altogether, Du Bos may be
allowed the praise of a really fertile and original writer,[671] who says many
things which are well worth attention and which seldom received it before
him, in regard to what may be called the previous questions of criticism.
His connection of poetry with painting sometimes helps him, and seldom
leads him absolutely wrong; but it to some extent distracts him, and
constantly gives an air of desultoriness and haphazard to his observation.
It is, moreover, quite remarkable how persistently he abides in
generalibus, scarcely ever descending below the mediate examination of
Kinds. When he touches on individual works of art he confines himself in
the most gingerly fashion to illustration merely; there is never an
appreciation in whole or in considerable part.
When Voltaire denounced Montesquieu for lèse-poésie, the accused, if
he had chosen, might have brought formidable counter accusations; but
Montesquieu. there was certainly some ground for the actual charge.
When a man says[672] that “the four great poets are Plato,
Malebranche, Shaftesbury, and Montaigne,” he is evidently either a
heretic or a paradoxer; and the hundred and thirty-seventh of the Lettres
Persanes gives a sad colour to the worse supposition. There is perhaps
less actual high treason to poetry here than in the remarks of Signor
Pococurante, that noble Venetian, but there is more intended; the whole
treatment is ostentatiously contemptuous. Dramatists are allowed some
merit, but poets in general “put good sense in irons, and smother reason
in ornament.” As for epic poems, connoisseurs themselves say that there
never have been but two good ones, and never will be a third.[673] Lyric
poets are contemptible creatures who deal in nothing but harmonious
extravagance and so forth. As for romances in prose, they have the faults
of poems and others to boot. Elsewhere, in Letter xlviii., a “poet is the
grotesque of the human race.” It is scarcely surprising that, when we turn
to the Essai sur le Goût, there is hardly any definite reference to literature
at all, and that Montesquieu is entirely occupied in tracing or imagining
abstract reasons for the attractiveness of abstract things like “surprise,”
“symmetry,” “variety,” and even of the je ne sais quoi. The je ne sais quoi
in an attractive, but not technically beautiful, girl is, it seems, due to
surprise at finding her so attractive, which, with all respect to the
President, seems to be somewhat “circular.” In fact, Montesquieu is
chiefly interesting to us, first, because he made no literary use of his own
theories as to climate and the rest—which later writers have used and
abused in this way; and secondly, because he shows, in excelsis, that
radically unliterary as well as unpoetical vein which, for all its remarkable
literary performance, is characteristic of his time.
It will surprise no one who has any acquaintance with the subject that
but a few lines should have been given to Montesquieu; it may shock
Voltaire: some to find but a very few pages given to Voltaire.[674]
Disappointme But while I have never been able to rank the Patriarch’s
nts of his criticism high, a reperusal of it in sequence, for the
criticism.
purpose of this book, has even reduced the level of my
estimate. The fact is that, consummate literary craftsman as he was, and
wanting only the je ne sais quoi itself (or rather something that we know
too well) to rank with the very greatest men of letters, Voltaire was not a
man with whom literary interest by any means predominated. It is not
merely that his anti-crusade against l’infâme constantly colours his
literary, as it does all his other, judgments; and that once at least it made
him certainly indorse, and possibly enounce, the astounding statement
that the Parables in the Gospels are “coarse and low.”[675] But when this
perpetually disturbing influence is at its least active point, we can see
perfectly that neither Voltaire’s treasure nor his heart is anywhere, with
the doubtful exception of the drama division, in literature. In mathematics
and in physical science there is no doubt that he was genuinely
interested; and he was perhaps still more interested (as indeed men of
his century generally were) in what may be vaguely called anthropology,
the moral, social, and (to some, though only to some, extent) political
history of mankind. But for literature he had very little genuine love;
though the vanity in which he certainly was not lacking could not fail to be
conscious of his own excellence as a practitioner in it; and though he
could not but recognise its power—its almost omnipotence—as a
weapon. It was probably the more human character of the drama that
attracted him there.
However this may be, it is impossible, for me at least, to rank him high
as a critic: and this refusal is hardly in the least due to his famous
Examples of blasphemies against Shakespeare and Milton. As we
it. have seen—as we shall see—it is possible to disagree
profoundly with some, nay, with many, of a critic’s estimates, and yet to
think highly of his critical gifts. But Voltaire scarcely anywhere shows the
true ethos of the critic: and that “smattering erudition” of his is nowhere so
much of a smattering, and so little of an erudition, as here. His two
famous surveys of English and French literature, in the Lettres sur les
Anglais and the Siècle de Louis Quatorze, show, on the French side at
least, a more complete ignorance of literary history than Boileau’s own:
and the individual judgments, though admirably expressed, are banal and
without freshness of grasp. The extensive Commentary on Corneille
contains, of course, interesting things, but is of no high critical value. The
Essai sur la Poésie Épique opens with some excellent ridicule of “the
rules”—a subject which indeed might seem to invite the Voltairian method
irresistibly; but after this and some serious good sense of the same kind,
he practically deserts to the rules themselves. He admits fautes
grossières in Homer, finds “monstrosity and absurdity up to the limits of
imagination” in Shakespeare, thinks that Virgil is “Homer’s best work,”
discovers in the supernatural of Tasso and Camoens only “insipid stories
fit to amuse children,” dismisses, as everybody knows, the great Miltonic
episode of Satan, Death, and Sin as “disgusting and abominable,” and
keeps up throughout his survey that wearisome castanet-clatter of “fault
and beauty—beauty and fault” which, whensoever and wheresoever we
find it, simply means that the critic is not able to see his subject as a
whole, and tell us whether it is foul or fair.
Perhaps no better instance of the feebleness of Voltaire’s criticism can
be found than in his dealings with Rabelais.[676] Here there are practically
no disturbing elements. Yet no one is more responsible than Voltaire is for
the common notion, equally facile and false, of Rabelais as a freethinker
with a sharp eye to the main chance, who disguised his freethinking in a
cloak of popular obscenity, who is often amusing, sometimes admirable,
but as a whole coarse, tedious, and illegible, or at best appealing to the
most vulgar taste. Take the famous sentence that Swift is a “Rabelais de
bonne compagnie,”[677] work it out either side, and it will be difficult to find
anywhere words more radically uncritical. Or turn to the Dictionnaire
Philosophique. Not only are the literary articles very few, and in some of
these few cases mere rechauffés of the Lettres sur Les Anglais, &c., but
the head “Literature” itself contains the singular statement that criticism is
not literature—because nobody speaks of “une belle critique.” The
articles “Esprit” and “Goût” are attractive—especially the latter, because it
is on the critical watchword of the century: but we are sent away, worse
than empty, with some abuse of Shakespeare, and with the statement,
“No man of letters can possibly fail to recognise the perfected taste of
Boileau in the Art Poétique.” Only, perhaps, the article on Art Dramatique
is worthy of its title, and the reason of this has been indicated.
The numerous Mélanges Littéraires are again interesting reading—
indeed, when is Voltaire not interesting, save when he is scientific, or
when he shows that “the zeal of the devil’s house” can inspire a man of
genius with forty-curate-power dulness? They include almost every kind
of writing, from actual reviews (Lettres aux Auteurs de La Gazette
Littéraire) on books French and foreign, upwards or downwards. But all
those that are probably genuine exhibit just the same characteristics as
the more elaborate works. The reviews of Sterne and of Churchill will
show how really superficial Voltaire’s literary grip was; though both of
them (as being Voltaire’s they could not well help doing) contain acute
remarks. The too famous argument-abstract of Hamlet[678] is perhaps the
most remarkable example of irony exploding through the touch-hole that
literature affords. The “Parallel of Horace, Boileau, and Pope” from such a
hand might seem as if it could not be without value: but it has very little.
And perhaps nowhere does Voltaire appear to much less critical
advantage than in the Lettre de M. de La Visclède on La Fontaine, where,
as in the case of Rabelais, it might be thought that no prejudice could
possibly affect him. The superfine condemnation of the bonhomme’s
style, as filled with expressions plus faites pour le peuple que pour les
honnêtes gens (not, let it be observed, in the Fables, but in the Contes),
could hardly tell a more disastrous tale. Philistia by its Goliath in Paris
echoes Philistia by its common folk in London, at this special time. La
Fontaine and Goldsmith are “low.”
The fact would appear to be that, independently of that lack of purely
literary interest which has been noted above, other causes kept Voltaire
Causes of his back from really original and valuable criticism. The
failure. sense of the necessity of clinging to and conserving
something, which has often been shown by iconoclasts, seems to have
directed itself in him towards literary orthodoxy: while, on the other hand,
as we have already seen, his natural acuteness refused to blink entirely
some of the absurdities of the “Rule” system. His craftsmanship made it
possible for him to succeed in certain kinds of artificial poetry—the
regular tragedy, the formal heroic poem, the light piece, epigram, or
epistle, or what not—which were specially favoured by Classical criticism.
He was not well equipped by nature for success in any Romantic kind—
not to mention that Romance was almost indissolubly connected with
those Ages of Faith which he scorned. Moreover, though no man has
committed more faults of taste, in the wider and nobler sense, than did
Voltaire, yet within a narrower and more arbitrary circle of “taste” of the
conventional kind, no one could walk with more unerring precision. Yet
again, the Great Assumption by which the neo-classics made a
changeling of their Taste with Good Sense, and mothered it on Nature,
appealed strongly to such philosophical theories as he had. Accordingly,
both in public and private,[679] the great heretic, with very few exceptions,
plays the part of a very Doctor of the Literary Sorbonne, and leaves the
attempt at a new criticism to the more audacious innovation, and the
more thorough-going naturalism, of Diderot.[680]
Of the other Di majores of the philosophe school, Rousseau would
always have been prevented by his temperament from expressing
critically the appreciations which the same temperament might have
suggested: and, if he had been a critic at all, he would have been on the
Others: revolting and Romantic side. Diderot actually was so.
Buffon. The critical utterances of D’Alembert,[681] chiefly if not
wholly given in his Éloges, express the clear understanding and by no
means trivial good sense of their writer. But, like Voltaire’s, D’Alembert’s
heart was elsewhere. Buffon remains; and by a curious accident he,
though totus in the things of mere science, has left us one of the most
noteworthy phrases of literary criticism in the history of literature.
Moreover, this phrase is contained in a discourse[682] which is all literary
and almost all critical, which is very admirable within its own range and on
its own side, and which practically provides us with one of the first, and to
this day one of the best, discussions of Style as such. That we have in
these latter days “heard too much of Style” is often said, and may be true:
“where” we have seen too much of it “you shall tell me” as Seithenin said
to the Prince. But we, in the restricted sense of students of criticism, have
not “seen too much” of discussions of style hitherto. On the contrary, we
have seen that the ancients were constantly shy of it in its quiddity; that
even Longinus seems to prefer to abstract and embody one of its
qualities and discuss that; and that after the revival of criticism the old
avoidances, or the old apologies for the phortikon ti, were too often
renewed. Buffon has none of this prudery: though he lays the greatest
possible stress on the necessity of there being something behind style, of
style being “the burin that graves the thought.”
Perhaps he does not quite keep at the height of his famous and often
misquoted[683] dictum—“Le style est l’homme même”—in itself the best
thing ever said on the subject, and, as is the case with most good things,
“Style and the made better by the context. He has been showing why
man.” only well-written books go down to posterity. Information
can be transferred; fact becomes public property; novelty ceases to be
novel. Ces choses sont hors de l’homme; le style est [de?] l’homme
même. In other words, the style—the form—is that which the author adds
to the matter; it is that inseparable, but separably intelligible, element
which cannot be transferred, taken away, or lost. It is clear that Buffon
would not have lent himself to that discountenancing of the distinction of
Matter and Form which some have attempted. Perhaps his other remarks
are less uniformly, though they are often, admirable. He should not, as a
man of natural science, have congratulated the Academicians on
contemning “le vain son des mots,” which, he should have known, always
has something, and may have much, to do with style; and it is certainly
inadequate to say that style is “the order and movement given to our
thoughts.” There is much that is true, but also something of mere neo-
classic orthodoxy, in his painful repetitions of the necessity of unity and
greatness of subject; and to say that “l’esprit humain ne peut rien créer” is
sheer lèse-littérature. Rather is it true that, except God, the human mind
is the only thing that can create, and that it shows its divine origin thereby.
But Buffon was only a man of science, and we must excuse him. The
special curse of the time[684] is curiously visible in his enumeration, among
the causes of nobility in style, of “L’attention à ne nommer les choses que
par les termes les plus généraux.” The “streak of the tulip” barred again!
But he is certainly right when he says that “jamais l’imitation n’a rien
créé”: though here it may be retorted, “Yes; but imitation teaches how to
discard itself, and to begin to create,” while, as he has just extended the
disability to the human faculties generally, his point seems a blunt one.
Still, his directions for ordonnance as a preliminary to style, his cautions
against pointes, traits saillants, pomposity [he might have recked this
rede a little more himself], and other things, are excellent. The piece is
extraordinary in its combination of originality, brilliancy, and sense, and in
it Science has certainly lent Literature one of the best critical essays of
the eighteenth century.
Not an unimportant document of the time for the history of criticism is
the critical attitude of that remarkable Marcellus of philosophism,
Vauvenargues.[685] The few Réflexions Critiques which he has left are
very curious. Vauvenargues was a man of an absolute independence of
spirit so far as he knew; but conditioned by the limits of his knowledge.
He had neither time nor opportunity for much reading; he probably knew
little of any literature but his own. It must be remembered also that his
main bent was ethical, not literary. Such a man should give us the form
and pressure of the time in an unusual and interesting way.
Vauvenargues does so. We find him, after a glowing and almost
adequate eulogy of La Fontaine, gibbeting him for showing plus de style
que d’invention, et plus de négligence que d’exactitude—not the happiest
Vauvenargues pair of antitheses. The subjects of his Tales are “low”—
. unfortunate word which “speaks” almost every one who
uses it—and they are not interesting, which is more surprising. Boileau,
on the contrary, is extolled to the skies. He has really too much genius
(like the 'Badian who was really too brave), and this excess, with a
smaller excess of fire, truth, solidity, agrément, may have perhaps injured
his range, depth, height, finesse, and grace. Molière again is trop bas (at
least his subjects are), while La Bruyère escapes this defect—you might
as well set together Addison and Shakespeare, and no doubt
Vauvenargues would have done so. How different is Racine, who is
always “great”—“gallantly great,” let us add, like Mr Pepys in his new suit.
Voltaire, who had certainly prompted some of these sins, made a little
atonement by inducing Vauvenargues to admire Corneille to some extent.
But Corneille, he says, from his date, could not have le goût juste, and
the parallel with Racine is one of the most interesting of its numerous
kind. J. B. Rousseau might have been nearly as good a poet as Boileau,
if Boileau had not taught him all he knew in poetry, but his vieux langage
is most regrettable. Such were the opinions of a young man of unusual
ability, but with little taste in literature except that which he found
prevalent in the middle of the eighteenth century.
This middle, and the later part of it, saw in the Abbé Batteux the last of
that really remarkable, though not wholly estimable, line of législateurs du
Parnasse which had begun with Boileau, and whose edicts had been
accepted, for the best part of a century, with almost universal deference.
Batteux. Still later, and surviving into the confines of the
nineteenth century, La Harpe gives us almost the last
distinguished defender, and certainly a defender as uncompromising as
he was able, of neo-classic orthodoxy. Some attention must be given to
each of these, and to Marmontel between them, but we need not say very
much of others—except in the representative way.
Batteux began as an extoller of the Henriade, after many years spent in
schoolmastering and the occasional publication of Latin verses, but
before the century had reached the middle of its road. He essayed, a little
later, divers treatises[686] on Poetic and Rhetoric, all of which were
adjusted and collected in his Principes de la Littérature,[687] while he also
executed various minor works, the most useful of which was Les Quatre
Poétiques,[688] a translation, with critical notes, of Aristotle, Horace, and
Vida, with Boileau added. In so far as I am able to judge, Batteux is about
the best of the seventeenth-eighteenth century “Preceptists.”[689] The
Introduction to his introductory tractate, Les Beaux Arts réduits à un
même Principe, indulges in some mild but by no means unbecoming
irony on his predecessors,[690] and expresses the candid opinion that few
of them had really consulted Aristotle at all. He admits the multiplicity and
the galling character of “rules”; but he thinks that these can be reduced to
a tolerable and innoxious, nay, in the highest degree useful, minimum, by
keeping the eye fixed on the Imitation of Nature, and of the best nature.
But how is this to guide us? Here Batteux shows real ingenuity by seizing
on the other great fetich of the eighteenth-century creed—Taste—as a
regulator to be in its turn regulated.
Indeed a careful perusal of Batteux cannot but force on us the
consideration that the mechanical age, the age of Arkwright and Watt,
His was approaching, or had approached. His Rules and his
adjustment of Taste “clutch” each other by turns, like the elaborate
Rules and plant of the modern machinist. If the Rules are too
Taste.
narrow and precise, Taste holds them open; if Taste
shows any sign of getting lawless, the Rules bring it to its bearings. It is
extremely ingenious; but the questions remain—Whether it is natural?
and Whether any good came from the exercise of the principles which it
attempts to reconcile and defend? The manner of Batteux, it must be
allowed, is as much less freezing and unsatisfactory than Le Bossu’s, as
it is less arbitrary and less aggressive than Boileau’s. These two would, in
the face of fact and history, have identified Taste and a certain
construction of Rule. Batteux rather regards the two as reciprocal
escapements, easing and regulating each other. It is part of his merit that
he recognises, to some extent, the importance of observation. In fact,
great part of this introductory treatise is a naïf and interesting complaint of
the difficulty which the results of this observation are introducing into
Rule-criticism. “Rules are getting so many,” he admits in his opening
sentence; and, no doubt, so long as you find it necessary to make a new
rule whenever you find a new poet, the state of things must be more and
more parlous. But, like all his century-fellows without exception on the
Classical, and like too many on the other side, he does not think of simply
marching through the open door, and leaving the prison of Rule and Kind
behind him.
From these idols Batteux will not yet be separated: he hardens his
heart in a different manner from Pharaoh, and will not let himself go. The
utile is never to be parted from the dulce; “the poems of Homer and Virgil
are not vain Romances, where the mind wanders at the will of a mad
imagination; they are great bodies of doctrine,” &c. Anacreon [Heaven
help us!] was himself determined to be a moral teacher.[691] Again, there
must be Action, and it must be single, united, simple, yet of variety; the
style must not be too low, or too high, &c., &c.
When Batteux has got into the old rut, he remains in it. We slip into the
well-known treatises by Kinds—Dialogue, Eclogue, Heroic Poem, and the
rest—with the equally well-known examination afterwards of celebrated
examples in a shamefaced kind of way—to the extent of two whole
volumes for poetry, and a third (actually the fourth) for prose. Finally, we
have what is really a separate tractate, De la Construction Oratoire. The
details in these later volumes are often excellent; but obviously, and per
se, they fall into quite a lower rank as compared with the first. If we were
to look at nothing but the fact, frankly acknowledged by Batteux, that he is
now considering French classical literature only, we should be able to
detect the error. In his first volume he had at least referred to Milton.
In other words Batteux, like the rest of them, is not so much a halter
between two opinions as a man who has deliberately made up his mind
to abide by one, but who will let in as much of the other as he thinks it
His safe to do, or cannot help doing. Let him once extend his
incompletenes principle of observation in time, country, and kind, and,
s. being a reasonably ingenious and ingenuous person, he
must discover, first, that his elaborate double-check system of Rule and
Taste will not work, and, secondly, that there is not the least need of it.
You must charge epicycle on cycle before you can get, even with the
freest play of Taste, the Iliad and the Æneid and the Orlando to work
together under any Rule. Epicycle must be added to epicycle before you
can get in the Chanson de Roland and the Morte d’Arthur as well. Drop
your “rule,” ask simply, “Are the things put before me said poeticamente?”
“Do they give me the poetic pleasure?” and there is no further difficulty.
Batteux, though, as we have seen, by no means a bigot, would probably
have stopped his ears and rent his clothes if such a suggestion had been
made to him.
Batteux is a remarkable, and probably the latest, example of neo-
classicism sitting at ease in Zion and promulgating laws for submissive
nations; in La Harpe, with an even stronger dogmatism, we shall find, if
not the full consciousness that the enemy is at the gates of the capital, at
any rate distinct evidence of knowledge that there is sedition in the
Marmontel. provinces.[692] Between the two, Marmontel[693] is a
distinguished, and a not disagreeable, example of that
middle state which we find everywhere in the late eighteenth century but
which in France is distinguished at once by greater professed orthodoxy,
and by concessions and compromises of a specially tell-tale kind. The
critical work of the author of Bélisaire and Les Incas is very considerable
in bulk. He has written an Essay on Romance in connection with the two
very “anodyne” examples of the kind just referred to; an Essay (indeed
two essays) on Taste; many book reviews for the Observateur Littéraire,
&c.; prefaces and comments for some specimens of French early
seventeenth-century drama—Mairet’s Sophonisbe, Du Ryer’s Scévole,
&c.; and, besides other things, a mass of articles on literary and critical
subjects for the Encyclopédie, which are generally known in their
collected form as Éléments de Littérature. He has been rather variously
judged as a critic. There is no doubt that he is a special sinner in that
perpetual gabble about la vertu, la morale, and the rest, which is so
sickening in the whole group; and which more than justified Mr Carlyle’s
vigorous apostrophe, “Be virtuous, in the Devil’s name and his
grandmother’s, and have done with it!” He has also that apparent
inconsistency, something of which (as we have seen once for all in
Dryden’s case) often shows itself in men of alert literary interests who do
not very early work out for themselves a personal literary creed, and who
are averse to swallowing a ready-made one. But at the same time he
never openly quarrels with neo-classicism, and is sometimes one of its
most egregious spokesmen; while he is “philosophastrous,” in the special
eighteenth-century kind, to a point which closely approaches caricature. I
Oddities and have quoted elsewhere, but must necessarily quote
qualities of his again here, his three egregious and pyramidal
criticism. reasons[694] for the puzzling excellence of English poetry.
Either, it seems, the Englishman, being a glory-loving animal, sees that
poetry adds to the lustre of nations, and so he goes and does it; or being
naturally given to meditation and sadness, he needs to be moved and
distracted by the illusions of this beautiful art; or [Shade of Molière!] it is
because his genius in certain respects is proper for Poesy.
To comment on this would only spoil it; but let it be observed that
Marmontel does admit the excellence of English poetry. So also, though
he never swerves, in consciousness or conscience, from neo-classic
orthodoxy, he insinuates certain doubts about Boileau, and quotes,[695] at
full length, two pieces of the despised Ronsard as showing lyrical
qualities in which the legislator of Parnassus is wanting. His article
Poétique is, considering his standpoint, a quite extraordinarily just
summary and criticism of the most celebrated authorities on the subject—
Aristotle, Horace, Vida, Scaliger, Castelvetro, Vauquelin, Boileau, Le
Bossu, Gravina, &c.—and the attitude to Boileau,[696] visible, as has been
said, elsewhere, is extremely noteworthy. Marmontel speaks of
Despréaux with compliments: but some, even of his praises, are not a
little equivocal, and he contrives to put his subject’s faults with perfect
politeness indeed, but without a vestige of compromise. Boileau, he says,
gives a precise and luminous notion of all the kinds, but he is not deep on
a single one: his Art may contribute to form the taste if it be well
understood, but to understand it well one must have the taste already
formed.
It would be possible, of course,—indeed, very easy,—to select from
Marmontel’s abundant critical writings, which covered great part of a long
lifetime in their composition, a bundle of “classical” absurdities which
would leave nothing to desire. But the critic is almost always better than
his form of creed. He takes an obviously genuine, if of necessity not at
first a thoroughly well instructed, interest in the Histoire du Théâtre of the
Frères Parfait, the first systematic[697] dealing with old French literature
since Fauchet and Pasquier: his Essai sur les Romans, though of course
considered du côté moral, is, for his date, a noteworthy attempt in that
comparative and historical study of literature which was to lead to the new
birth of criticism. It is most remarkable to find him, in the early reviews of
his Observateur,[698] dating from the midst of the fifth decade of the
eighteenth century, observing, as to Hamlet in La Place’s translation, that
the ghost-scene and the duel with Laertes inspire terror and pathetic
interest at the very reading, asking why “our poets” should deny
themselves the use of these great springs of the two tragic passions,
admiring the taste and justice of the observations to the players, and
actually finding Titus Andronicus, though “frightful and sanguinary,” a
thing worth serious study. That it is possible to extract from these very
places, as from others, the usual stuff about Shakespeare’s “want of
order and decency,” &c., is of no moment. This is matter of course: it is
not matter of course that, in the dead waist and middle of the eighteenth
century, a French critic should write of the description of Cleopatra on the
Cydnus: “Ce morceau présente Shakespeare sous un nouveau point de
vue. On n’a connu jusqu'à présent que la force du génie de cet auteur: on
ne s’attendait pas à tant de délicatesse et de légèreté.”[699]
I should like to dwell longer on Marmontel if it were only for two or three
phrases which appear in one short article,[700] “Depuis que Pascal et
Corneille, Racine et Boileau ont épuré et appauvri la langue de Marot et
de Montaigne.... Boileau n’avait pas reçu de la nature l’organe avec
lequel on sent les beautés simples et touchantes de notre divin fabuliste
[La Fontaine of course].... Il est à souhaiter qu’on n’abandonne pas ce
langage du bon vieux temps ... on ferait un joli dictionnaire des mots
qu’on a tort d’abandonner et de laisser vieillir.” It must be clear to any one
who reads these phrases that there is the germ of mil-huit-cent-trente in
them—the first and hardly certain sound of the knell of narrow, colourless
vocabulary and literature in France. But enough has probably been said.
It would be difficult to make out a case for Marmontel as in any way a
great critic. He has not cleared his mind of cant enough for that. But he is
an instance, and an important instance, of the way in which the clearing
agents were being gradually thrown into the minds of men of letters at
this time, and of the reaction which they were—at first partially and
accidentally—producing. Even his Essai sur le Goût, fantastically arbitrary
as it is, wears at times almost an air of irony, as if the writer were really
exposing the arbitrariness and the convention of the thing he is ostensibly
praising. He is comparing and tasting, not simply deducing: and however
much he may still be inclined to think with his master that the Satan, Sin,
and Death piece is an unimaginable horror, and the citizen scenes in
Shakespeare’s Roman plays a vulgar excrescence, he is far from the
obstinate sublimity-in-absurdity of La Harpe. He at least does not hold
that a beauty, not according to rule, has no business to be a beauty; that
the tree is not to be judged by the fruit, but the fruit by the ticket on the
tree.
In the mare magnum of critical writing at this period, constantly fed by
books, literary periodicals, academic competitions, and what not, it would
be idle to attempt to chronicle drops—individuals who are not in some
Others. special way interesting or representative. It would be
especially idle because—for reasons indicated more than
once in passing already—the bulk of the criticism of this time in France is
really of little value, being as doctrine make-believe, and destitute of
thoroughness, and as appreciation injured by narrowness of reading and
want of true literary interest. It cannot have been quite accidental,
although the great collaborative Histoire de la Littérature Française of the
late M. Petit de Julleville is not a model of methodic adequacy, that there
is no strictly critical chapter in the volume on the eighteenth century. Take,
Thomas, for instance, two such representative men as Suard and
Suard, &c. Thomas, both of them born near the beginning of the
second generation of the century, and therefore characteristic of its very
central class and crû. Both enjoyed almost the highest reputation in the
second rank. Marmontel somewhere speaks of Thomas’s Essai sur les
Éloges as the best piece of critical inquiry which had appeared since
Cicero on the Orator; but it is fair to remember that Thomas had refused
to stand against Marmontel for the Academy. Suard, for many years
Secretary of the Academy itself, seriously endeavoured, and was by his
contemporaries thought not to have endeavoured in vain, to make that
office a sort of Criticship Laureate or King’s Remembrancership of
Literature. He has left volumes on volumes of critical work; and even now
prefaces, introductions, &c., from his pen may be found in the older class
of standard editions of French classics. Yet the work of neither of these
would justify us in doing more than refer to them in this fashion. It is
excellently written in the current style, inclining to declamation and
solemnity in Thomas,[701] to persiflage and smartness in Suard. It says
what an academic critic of the time was supposed to say, and knows what
he was supposed to know. But it really is, in Miss Mills’ excellent figure,
“the desert of Sahara,” and a desert without many, if any, oases.
La Harpe is a different person. He is not very kind to Batteux. He
La Harpe. patronises his principles, and allows his scholarship to be
sound; but finds fault with his style, calls his criticism
commune—“lacking in distinction” is perhaps the best equivalent—his
ideas narrow, and his prejudices pedantic. It would not be quite just to say
De te fabula, but this is almost as much as we could say if we were
judging La Harpe, after his own fashion of judgment, from a different
standpoint. But the historian cannot judge thus. La Harpe is really an
important person in the History of Criticism. He “makes an end,” as Mr
Carlyle used to say; in other words, whether he is or is not the last
eminent neo-classical critic of France, he puts this particular phase of
criticism as sharply and as effectively as it can be put. Nay, he does even
more than this for us; he shows us neo-classicism at bay. Already, by the
time of his later lectures, when by the oddest coincidence he was
defending Voltaire and abusing Diderot, making head at once against the
Jacobins and against that party of revived mediævalism which was the
surest antidote to Jacobinism, there were persons—Népomucène
Lemercier, and others—who held that Boileau and Racine had killed
French poetry. Against these La Harpe takes up his testimony; and the
necessity of opposition makes it all the more decided.
His Cours de Littérature is a formidable—I had almost called it an
impossible—book to tackle, composed of, or redacted from, the lectures
of many years, and unfortunately, though not unnaturally, dwelling most
fully on the parts of the subject that are of least real importance. Its first
His Cours de edition[702] was a shelf-full in itself. It now fills, with some
Littérature. fragments, nearly the whole of three great volumes of the
Panthéon Littéraire, and nearly two-thirds, certainly three-fifths, of this are
devoted to the French literature of the eighteenth century, a subject for
which, to speak frankly, it may be doubted whether any posterity will have
time corresponding to spare. Even in the earlier and more general parts
there are defects, quite unconnected with the soundness or unsoundness
of La Harpe’s general critical position. There is nothing which one should
be slower to impute, save on the very clearest evidence, than ignorance
of a subject of which a writer professes knowledge; and one should be
slow, not merely on general principles of good manners, but because
there is nothing which the baser kind of critic is so ready to impute. But I
own that, after careful reading and reluctantly, I have come to the
conclusion that La Harpe’s knowledge of the classics left a very great
deal to desire. That, in his survey of Epic, he omits Apollonius Rhodius in
his proper place altogether and puts him in a postscript, might be a mere
oversight, negligible by all but the illiberal: unfortunately the postscript
itself shows no signs of critical appreciation. It is more unfortunate still
that he should say that all the writers of ancient Rome loaded Catullus
with eulogy, when we know that Horace only spares him a passing sneer,
that Quintilian has no notice for anything but his “bitterness,” and that
hardly anybody but Martial does him real justice. However, we need not
dwell on this. If La Harpe was not very widely or deeply read in old-world
or in old-French literature, he certainly knew the French literature of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries very well indeed.
On the other hand, it is significant, and awkward, that, in dealing with
English, German, and other modern literatures, he always seems to refer
to translations, and hardly ever ventures a criticism except on the mere
His critical matter of the poem. Moreover, which is of even more
position as importance for us, he was not in the slightest doubt about
ultimus his point of view either of these or of any other literature.
suorum. His censures and his praises are adjusted with almost
unerring accuracy to the neo-classic creed, as we have defined and
illustrated it in this volume. His Introduction pours all the scorn he could
muster on those who contemn the art of writing. Even Shakespeare,
coarse as he is, was not without learning. That poet, Dante, and Milton
executed “monstrous” works; but in these monsters there were some
beautiful parts done according to “the principles.” And, to do him justice,
he never swerves or flinches from this. English has “an inconceivable
pronunciation.”[703] The Odyssey is an Arabian Nights’ tale, puerile,
languid, seriously extravagant, even ignoble in parts. The sojourns with
Calypso and Circe offer nothing interesting to La Harpe. The wonderful
descent to Hades is as bad as that of Æneas is admirable. La Harpe tells
us that these and other similar judgments are proofs of his severe
frankness. They certainly are; he has told us what he is.
That after this he should pronounce the Georgics “the most perfect
poem transmitted to us by the Ancients”; fix on the Prometheus his
favourite epithet of “monstrous,” and say that it “cannot even be called a
tragedy”; think Plutarch thoroughly justified in his censure of
Aristophanes; read Thucydides with less pleasure than Xenophon; and
decide that Apuleius wrote vers le moyen age, which was un désert,—
these things do not surprise us, nor that he should tolerate Ossian after
not tolerating Milton. It is in his fragment on the last-named poet that he
gives us his whole secret, with one of those intentional, yet really
unconscious, bursts of frankness which have been already noticed. “La
poésie,” he says, “ne doit me peindre que ce que je peux comprendre,
admettre, ou supposer.” That “suspension of disbelief” in which, at no
distant date, Coleridge was to discover the real poetic effect would, it is
clear, have been vehemently resisted and refused by La Harpe, or rather
it could never have entered his head as possible.
He remains therefore hopelessly self-shut out of the gates of Poetry—
only admitting and comprehending those beauties which stray into the
precinct of Rhetoric; discerning with horror “monsters” within the gates
themselves; and in his milder moments conjecturing charitably that, if
Dante, Shakespeare, and Milton had only always observed the rules,
which they sometimes slipped into, they might have been nearly as good
poets—he will not say quite—as Racine and Voltaire. Never have we met,
nor shall we ever meet again, a critical Ephraim so utterly joined to idols.
It is unnecessary—it would even be useless—to argue about him; he
must be observed, registered, and passed. Yet I do not pretend to regret
the time which I have myself spent over him. He writes well; he sees
clearly through his “monstrous” spectacles and subject to their laws;
above all, he has, what is, for some readers at any rate, the intense and
unfailing charm of “Thorough.” He is no cowardly Braggadochio or
inconstant Paridell: he is Sansfoy and Sansloy in one—defending his
Duessa, and perfectly ready to draw sword and spend blood for her at
any moment. Nor does he wield the said sword by any means
uncraftsmanly. Give him his premisses and his postulates, his Rules, his
false Reason and sham Nature, his criterion of the admissible and
comprehensible, and he very seldom makes a false conclusion. Would
that all Gloriana’s own knights were as uncompromising, as hardy, and as
deft!
Of the immense mass of Academic Éloges, and prize Essays generally,
composed during the eighteenth century, no extended or minute account
The Academic will be expected here. I have myself, speaking without
Essay. the slightest exaggeration, read hundreds of them:
indeed it is difficult to find a French man of letters, of any name during the
whole time, in whose works some specimens of the kind do not figure.
But—and it is at once a reason for dealing with them generally and a
reason for not dealing with them as individuals—there is hardly any kind
of publication which more fatally indicates the defects of the Academic
system, and of that phase of criticism and literary taste of which it was the
exponent. They were written in some cases—it is but repeating in other
words what has been just said—by men of the greatest talent; they
constituted with a play of one kind or another, the almost invariable début
of every Frenchman who had literary talent, great or small. They exhibit a
relatively high level of a certain kind of literary, or at least rhetorical,
attainment. But the last adjective has let slip the dogs on them, for they
are almost always rhetorical in the worst senses of the word. Extensive
reading in literature was not wanted by the forty guards of the Capitol;
original thinking was quite certain to alarm them. The elegant nullity of the
Greek Declamation, and the ampullæ of the Roman, were the best things
that were likely to be found. Yet sometimes in literature, as in philosophy,
the Academic Essay produced remarkable things. And we may give some
space to perhaps its most remarkable writer towards the close of the
time, a writer symptomatic in the very highest degree, as showing the
hold which neo-classic ideas still had in France—that is to say, Rivarol.
[704]

That “the St George of the epigram” might have been really great as a
critic there can be little doubt; besides lesser exercises in this vocation,
which are always acute if not always quite just, he has left us two fairly
solid Essays, and a brilliant literary “skit,” to enable us to judge. The last
Rivarol. of the three, the Almanach des Grands Hommes de nos
jours, does, with more wit, better temper, and better
manners, what Gifford was to do a little later in England; it is a sort of
sprinkling of an anodyne but potent Keating’s powder on the small poets
and men of letters of the time just before the Revolution. But the treatise
De l’Universalité de la Langue Française, laid before the Academy of
Berlin in 1783, and the Preface to the writer’s Translation of the Inferno,
are really solid documents. Both are prodigies of ingenuity, acuteness,
and command of phrase, conditioned by want of knowledge and by parti
pris. How praise Dante better than by saying that Italian took in his hands
“une fierté qu’elle n’eut plus après lui”?[705] how better describe what we
miss even in Ariosto, even in Petrarch? Yet how go further astray than in
finding fault with the Inferno because “on ne rencontre pas assez
d’épisodes”?[706] What a critical piercing to the joints and marrow of the
fault of eighteenth-century poetry is the remark that Dante’s verses “se
tiennent debout par la seule force du substantif et du verbe sans le
concours d’une seule épithète!” And what a falling off is there when one
passes from this to the old beauty-and-fault jangles and jars!
The Universality of French[707] has many points of curiosity; but we must
abide by those which are strictly literary. The temptation of the style to
rhetoric, and, at the same time, “the solace of this sin,” could hardly be
better shown than in Rivarol’s phrasing of the radical and inseparable
clearness of French, as “une probité attachée à son génie.”[708] How
happy is the admission that poets of other countries “give their metaphors
at a higher strength,” “embrace the figurative style closer,” and are deeper
and fuller in colour! Yet the history, both of French and English literature,
given in each case at some length, is inadequate and incorrect, the
comparisons are childish, and the vaticinations absurd. In fact, Rivarol
was writing up to certain fixed ideas, the chief of which was that the
French literature of 1660-1780 was the greatest that had ever existed—
perhaps that ever could exist—in the world.
This notion—to which it is but just to admit that other nations had given
only too much countenance and support, though England and Germany
at least were fast emancipating themselves—and the numbing effect of
the general neo-classic creed from which it was no very extravagant
deduction, mar a very large proportion[709] of French criticism during the
century, and, almost without exception, the whole of what we here call its
orthodox criticism. So long as it, or anything like it, prevails in any country,
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