GOLD 24-25

SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)

Lesson 1: Development of the Atomic Models

1. Democritus

- The Greek philosopher who began to search

for a description of matter
- He stated that all matter consisted of small
“uncuttable” particles called “atomos”.

THE ATOMISM MODEL

- They were small, hard

THE PLUM PUDDING MODEL
particles that were all
made of the same - Atoms were made from positively charged
material but were of substance with negatively charged with
different shapes and negatively
sizes. This piece is charged
electrons
indivisble.
scattered about
like “raisins” in
the pudding.
2. John Dalton

- In the early 1800s, John Dalton (English

Chemist) performed a number of 4. Ernest Rutherford
experiments that eventually led to the
acceptance of the idea of atoms. - In 1908, Rutherford, an English Physicist
- He proposed that everything is made of was hand at work on an experiment
atoms, they are invisible and indestructible.
THE BILLIARD BALL MODEL
The Gold Foil Experiment (The Discovery of Nucleus)
- Atoms of the same element
are exactly alike. Atoms of - When a beam of alpha
different elements are particles was shot at a
different. sheet of gold foil, a
- Compounds are formed by few of the particles
the joining of atoms of two or were deflected. He
more elements. concluded that a tiny,
dense nucleus was
causing the deflection.
3. Joseph John Thomson THE NUCLEAR MODEL
- In 1897, J.J. Thomson, an English Scientist,
- All positively charged particles were
provided the first hint that an atom is made
contained in the nucleus. Negatively
of even smaller particles
charged particles were scattered outside
- He introduced the idea about the negatively
the nucleus around the atoms’ edges.
charged particle called an “electron”

Cathode Ray Tube Experiment (The Discovery of

Electrons)

- To test the properties of the particles,

Thomson placed two oppositely charged
electric plates around the cathode ray. The
cathode ray was deflected away from the 5. Niels Bohr
negatively-charged electric plate and - In 1913, N. Bohr, a Danish Scientist
towards the positively-charged plate. This proposed an improvement
indicated that the cathode ray was - He placed each electron in a specific energy
composed of negatively-charged particles level.
- Electrons move in different orbits around
the nucleus much like planet circles the sun
(Solar System)
- These orbits, or energy levels are located at
certain distances from the nucleus.
 THE PLANETARY MODEL

- Let’s revise Rutherford’s

atom to create a more
stable model of the atom.

6. Erwin Schrodinger

- E. Schrodinger, a physicist and biologist,

was considered the Father of Quantum
Mechanics.
- Today’s atomic model based on the
principles of wave mechanics.
- Electrons do not move aorund an atom in a
definite path like planes around the sun.

THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

- Electrons move freely

within “clouds” (called
orbitals) not just
restricted to orbits.
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 2: Quantum Mechanical Model

MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

1.1 Shells are numbered n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or
Bohr's model was accepted but it needed to be named as K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
1.2 Electrons closer to the nucleus are held
revised, and after a decade of work, it was finally
tightly and are lower in energy.
correct. We now use Erwin Schrodinger's Electron
1.3 Electrons farther from the nucleus are held
Cloud Model also known as Quantum Mechanical less tightly and are higher in energy.
Model. This model took Bohr's one step further and 1.4 It takes an energy to move an electron
developed what we now call the Modern Atomic away from the nucleus to an outer circle.
Theory. 1.5 The farther the shell from the nucleus, the
more electron it can hold.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL

- Views electrons as a cloud of negative

charge.
- Electrons are no longer
viewed as a particle ONLY,
but rather as wave
because of the dual nature
of electrons - as a wave and as a particle

ORBITALS

- The region in space where electrons are

most likely to be found
- Takes different shapes

- electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest

energy levels before occupying higher
levels.

2. Shells are divided into subshells or

sublevels, identified as s, p, d, f,

s sharp
p principal
d diffused
f fundamental

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL states the ff: - region of space within an electron shell that
contains electrons that have the same
1. Electrons that surround the nucleus energy.
are confined to regions called - The number of sublevels/subshells in each
Principal Energy Levels or Shells principal energy level or shell is equal to the
number of that energy level
Principal Energy Level or Shell - region of space
around a nucleus containing electrons having
approximately the same energy
 3. These subshells consists of Orbitals

- region in space where the probability of

finding an electron is high.

4.1 Each subshell contains a specific number of

orbital.
4.2 Each orbital can hold two electrons
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 3: Electron Configuration

When electrons enter a sublevel with

more than one orbital, they will spread out to the
- Chemists use this notation in order to track available orbitals with the same spin before pairing.
where all the electrons are
- The electron configuration of an atom is the
representation of the arrangement of
electrons distributed among the orbital
shells and subshells.

1. Determine the Element’s atomic

number

Pertains
to the number of protons
in an atom.

2. Apply the rules in deriving the

electron configuration

Electrons occupy orbitals in

order of increasing energy

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
4s 3d 4p 5s 4d
5p 6s 4f 5d 6p
7s 5f 6d 7p

Electrons occupying the

same orbital must have
opposite spin.
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 4: Lewis Electron Dot Structure

1. Compound
- Substance composed of two
or more elements held
together by chemical bond

2. Lewis Electron Dot Formula

- Symbols are surrounded by dots
representing the valence electrons or the
outermost electrons,
which are responsible for
the combining capacity of
the elements.

3. Octet Rule
- The atoms combine with each
other in such a way that each
atom is surrounded by eight
electrons in its valence shell.

4. Chemical Bond
- Forces that hold the atom
together.

5. Ionic and Covalent Bonding

- Ionic Bonding: Transfer of
electrons. Occurs between
metal and non-metal.
- Covalent Bonding: Sharing of
electrons.
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 5: Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Properties Ionic Covalent

Hardness Hard and Soft and
Brittle Flexible An atom that loses electrons becomes a positively
Melting and High Low charged ion known as cation. An atom that gains
Boiling Point electrons become negatively charged ion known
Solubility Dissolve Insoluble in anion.
in water Water
Electrical Good Poor - Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS) Lewis
Conductivity Electron Dot Structure is introduced by
Polarity High Low Gilbert N. Lewis, an American Physical
Chemist. LEDS is composed of the symbol of
the element and dots which represent the
number of valence electrons of an atom
Ionic that can easily be determined through the
group/family number in the Periodic Table
- It is formed through losing and gaining of Elements
electrons.
- Consist of positive and negative charged
particles.
- Bond between a metal and a nonmetal.

Covalent

- Bond between two nonmetals

- Formed through sharing of electrons

Chemical bond is a term use to describe the

attraction of atoms that are combined together
through sharing and transferring their valence
electrons.

- An Atom is made up of a nucleus where

protons and neutrons are located.
- It also has Electrons that are found in
certain energy levels that are rotating
around the nucleus. Electrons are the
particles that are involved in Chemical
bonding.
- These electrons are known as the valence
electrons that are located in the outermost
shell.

- Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that has

positive or negative charge. Ions are formed
when an atom lose or gain its electrons. If
metals were chemically combined to
nonmetals, metals would tend to lose
electron while nonmetals gain electrons
during chemical bonding to attain stability.
For an atom to attain stability, they must
have 8 valence electrons in their outermost
shell. This is known as OCTET RULE.
 Writing Chemical Formula of Ionic Compounds

In writing the chemical formula of an ionic

compound, we write first the symbol of cation, then
followed by the symbol of anion

- Writing Chemical Formula of Ionic

Compounds Based on the Charges of Ions
Chemical compound can be described using
chemical formula which represents the
elements that are found in a compound. In
writing the chemical formula of ionic
compound, first identify the cation and
write its symbol and charge. Then, identify
the anion and write down its symbol and
charge. After doing so, write the symbol of
the ions to form the compound. Another
way of writing the chemical formula of ionic
compound is using the Crisscross method.
In this method, cross the value of charge of
each ion to become subscript, the positive
and the negative sign will be omitted.
Reduce the number of the charges to lowest
term and leave out all subscripts that are 1.
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 6: Carbon Atom: A Unique One

- Valence Electron - Contains carbon and hydrogen

- Bond Length - Carbon is the key component since it has 4
- Strength electrons in an external electron shell that
- Multiple Formation can hold 8 electrons.

- Carbon atoms’ four valence 1. Carbohydrates

electron can be shared by different 2. Lipids
particles that have electrons to 3. Proteins
share, consequently framing 4. Nucleic Acid
covalent (shared-electron) bonds.
1. Carbohydrates
- Biochemical that is made of one or
more simple sugar molecules. Living
things use carbohydrates as an
- The carbon-carbon single bond is a sigma energy source.
bond is formed between one hybridized
orbital from each of the carbon atoms.
2. Lipids
- Biochemical that does not
dissolve in water. Fat, oils,
and waxes are examples of
lipids. One of the functions
of lipids in living things is
to store energy.

3. Proteins
- It can impart not - Proteins are huge
just one electron to molecules with
another atom to form a complex structures
single bond, it can likewise that permit them to
share or three electrons, take on significant
framing a double or triple functions in organic
bond. chemical reactions.

4. Nucleic Acids
- The chief information-
carrying molecules of the
cell. The term nucleic acid
is the overall name for
DNA and RNA.

- Based molecules have three fundamental

structures
- An inorganic compound is a compound that
does not contain both carbon and
hydrogen. A great many inorganic
compound do contain hydrogen atoms, such
as water (H2O) and the hydrochloric acid
(HCl) produced by your stomach.
 - Contain some kind of metal (alkali, alkaline, OC USES
transition, etc.) Methane Black in color, in making motor tire and
- They will in general have the capacity to printing ink, in the production of light
conduct electricity. and energy, in making methyl alcohol,
formaldehyde and chloroform etc.
- Because of ionic bonding commonly found
Butane In liquid state it is used as LPG fuel.
in inorganic compounds, they are held
Ethylene In fruit ripening and fruits preservation,
together tightly and have extremely high in making mustard gas, in the form of
melting and boiling points. anesthesia, in oxy-ethylene flame
- One more uncovering quality of inorganic Acetylene In producing light, oxy-ethylene flame, in
compound is their capacity to form crystals. the form of narselin anesthesia, in
making neoprene (artificial rubber), in
artificial ripening etc.
Methyl In making methylated spirit, artificial
alcohol color, banish and polish, mixing with
petrol and utilized as fuel of engines etc.
Organic Inorganic Ethyl It is used for making wine and other
Contains carbon and Usually don’t contain alcohol alcoholic drinks, tincture, banish and
Hydrogen carbon polish, in the form of solvents, in
Ex: DNA, sugar, Ex: table, salt, HCl acid, methylated spirit, in artificial colors in
Methane, Ethanol Quartz, CO2 perfumes and scent of fruits, in
transparent soaps, in spirit lamps and
stoves, in the form of fuel of motor
vehicle in cleaning the wound, in the
form of insecticide etc.
- Every kind of natural compound includes a Acetone In making banish, cordite, Clodion
particular property or characteristics. cellulose, artificial silk, synthetic rubber,
- Although these compounds may appear sulphonyl, chlorodyne, chloroform,
likeness in a few properties each of these iodoform etc. as medicines etc.
compounds does not have precisely the Acetic acid As laboratory’s reagent, in the form of
vinegar, in making sauces and jelly etc.
same properties.
Glucose In making different types of wine, in
- Gasoline, lamp fuel, diesel oil, lubricating
sweets and preservations of fruits juices,
oil, vanillin, acidic and ethyl alcohol are medicines like gluconate etc.
natural compounds with diverse properties. Benzene In the form of solvent, in dry cleaning, by
You’ll discover out around the properties to mixing it with petrol and used as fuel of
be specific odor thickness, viscosity and engines etc.
combustibility of a few other compound Phenol In the production of carbolic soap, in the
- Odor is the smell of compound. Each form of insecticide, in Bakelite, in
predestine, aspirin, cellar etc.
compound has it possess particular odor.
Benzaldeh In color industry, in the manufacturing of
- Consistency could be a degree of fluid to yde perfumes etc.
flow. Instability is the degree of the Benzoic In the making drugs, as preservation of
inclination of a compound to vanish or turn acid fruits juices etc.
into vaporous state. Combustibility is the Ether As anesthesia, solvent, coolant, in the
degree of how fabric effectively burns. production of alcohol etc.
Flammability is the ability of a chemical to
burn or ignite.
- Melting point is the temperature at which a
given solid materials changes from solid
state to a fluid, or melts. The boiling point
of a fluid is the temperature at which its
vapor pressure is rise to the weight of the
gas above it
 GOLD 24-25
SECOND QUARTER (CHEMISTRY)
Lesson 7: Mole

- A specific molecule, made up of atoms that

share electrons. The mass of a molecule is
called its molecular mass.
- Molecular mass of a molecule is its average
mass as calculated by adding the atomic
weights of the atoms in the molecular
formula. 1. 1st step: Determine the number of atoms of
the elements present in the molecule.
2. Find the atomic mass of each atom using the
periodic table of elements. Multiply the
atomic mass to the number of atoms of the
- lowest whole number ratio (like an elements present in the molecule.
empirical formula) of a compound with an 3. Get the sum of all the product.
ionic bond
- smallest unit of a non-molecular substance Sample 2: Compute the formula mass of limewater,
- The smallest unit of a non-molecular Ca(OH)2
substance, such as an ionic compound,
covalent network solid, or metal. The mass
of a formula unit is called its formula mass.
• The formula unit is used to represent
the chemical formula for a non-
molecular substance. For example,
WHAT IS MOLE?
the formula unit for sodium chloride
(NaCl) is NaCl. - Mole (mol) is simply defined as the quantity
• The formula mass and molecular mass of a substance that contains the same
are calculated in the same way: by number of particles.
adding the masses of all the atoms in - In counting the number of atoms, we use a
the chemical formula. The units for constant number called Avogadro’s
these masses are atomic mass units number which is equivalent to a Mole
(amu). - This chemical calculation used in chemistry
- The Formula Mass of a molecule is the sum is known as stoichiometry
average of the atomic weights of the atoms - The actual number of atoms in 12g of
in its empirical formula. Carbon-12 isotope is equal to 6.02x10
particles called Avogadro’s number, in
honor of the Italian Scientist Amedeo
Avogadro.

- By recognizing the relationship between the

molecular mass, moles, and particles,
scientists can use dimensional analyses to
easily convert mass, number of moles or
vice versa.
1. Determine the number of atoms of the
elements present in the molecule. Case 1: No. of moles is sgiven; mass is unkown
2. Determine the number of atoms of the
elements present in the molecule.
3. Get the sum of all the product.

Sample 1: Mefenamic acid consist of C13H18O2, a

common compound that is mostly used in pain
medication. What is the molecular mass for this
compound?
Case 2: Mass is given; number of moles is unknown