ICS 2100: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

COURSE OUTLINE
Objectives
 Enable the student understand the general overview and fundamental components of a
computer system.
 Equip the student with the necessary skills to operate the computer.

No Topic Sub-topic
.
1. Introduction to Computers  Computer Fundamentals
 Classification of Computers
 Generation of computers
2. Software  Application software; customized, general purpose
 System software; operating systems, utilities
3. Hardware  Input devices; Output devices; Storage devices
4. Computer Processing  Central Processing Unit
 Components of the CPU
 Assignment / Continuous Assessment Test
5. Operating Systems  Functions of Operating Systems
 Categories of Operating Systems
 Windows Operating Systems
6. Data Representation  Data Representation; Bits, Bytes, Character codes
 Number systems, binary, octal, decimal, etc.,
7. Troubleshooting  What is Troubleshooting
 How Does Troubleshooting Work
8. Computer Security  Security Concepts, CIA
 Protection Against Viruses
 Assignment / Continuous Assessment Test
9. Introduction to Networking  Networking Basics, Topologies
& the Internet  Internet Overview, Browsers, Searching the Web
10 Windows Based  Word Processing: - Ms Word
Applications  Spreadsheets: -Ms Excel
 Assignment / Continuous Assessment Test

Assessment:
 Continuous Assessment Tests 20%
 Assignments 10%
 End of Semester Exam 70%
Total 100%

References:
1 Norton P (2006) Introduction to Computers (5thEdition); New York, USA McGraw Technology
Education
2. Caplon H (2004) Computers: Tools for an Information Age (8th Edition); Addisson Wesley
3. Shelly Cashman Series, Discovering Computers 2010, Living in a Digital World
4. Shelly G. B., Cashman T. J. & Vermaat M. E. (2002). Microsoft Office . Shelly Cashman Series.
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
 Preview
Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to a set of instructions, or
programs. The first fully electronic computers, introduced in the 1940s, were huge machines that
required teams of people to operate. Compared to those early machines, today's computers are
amazing. Not only are they thousands of times faster, they can fit on your desk, in your lap, or even in
your pocket.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the parts
of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case and everything inside it. The most
important piece of hardware is a tiny rectangular chip inside your computer called the central
processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's the "brain" of the computer—the part that translates
instructions and performs calculations. Hardware items such as your monitor, keyboard, mouse,
printer, and other items are often called hardware devices.
Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to do. A word
processing program that you can use to write letters on your computer is a type of software. The
operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer and the devices connected to it. Two
well-known operating systems are Windows and Macintosh operating system. Your computer most
likely uses the Windows operating system.

Computer System

Hardware Software

Input Output Storage Application System

Processor
Devices Devices Devices Software Software

Special
General Operating
Purpose Utilities
Purpose System

What is a computer?

 “High speed electronic device capable of performing calculations and making logical decisions
at speeds millions or billions of times faster than human beings”
 A machine, which accepts data, processes it and returns new information as output.
 A device that works under the control of stored programs, automatically accepting, storing and
processing data to produce information that is the result of that processing.

Therefore
Computer can basically be defined as an electronic device that receives (raw) data,
transforms (processes) that data and produces (meaningful) output as information with the
capability of storing the data/information for future retrieval.
Data can be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age,
sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc.
Thus, a computer of any type irrespective of their size and make perform basically four major
operations or functions. These are
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input,
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 2) it stores data,
3) it processes data as required by the user, and
4) it gives results in form of output.

This can be illustrated by the figure below

Control

Input Process Output

Main Memory Storage

Secondary Memory

1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should
know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data
and performs some processing giving out processed data (information). Therefore, the input unit takes
data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing.

2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to
be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central
Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed.
Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit
or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides
space for storing data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
 All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
 Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.

3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.

4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside
the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside
the computer for further processing.

5. Control: This is the procedure on how instructions are executed and the above operations are
performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations inside the computer.

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GENERAL OVERVIEW OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Basically, a computer system is a combination of five elements:
 The hardware i.e. the CPU, memory, and the input/output devices
 The software i.e. the operating system and the application programs
 Data / information
 Procedures
 The users i.e. people, machines or other computers.

When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity
becomes a sixth element.
The purpose of a computer system is to convert data into information.
Data is raw, unevaluated facts and figures, concepts or instructions.
Information is the product of data processing – the facts are processed into a form that will be of
value to the receiver of the processed material.

The information processing cycle involves:

 Data input phase (data is captured and converted into a form that can be processed by a
computer),
 The processing phase, where all the number and character manipulation activities are done that
are necessary to convert the data into an appropriate form of information.
 The output phase is the result of data processing.
 The storage phase is where the information is backed up for future use.

2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to a number of parameters. Generally, a computer with high
processing speed and large internal storage is called a big computer even if its physical size is small.
Due to rapidly improving technology, there is always confusion among the categories of computers.
Computers can be classified in terms of:
 The age of technology
 Purpose and use
 Their configuration
 Portability,
 etc
2.1 Classification of computers by age of technology (generation)

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product
development process. This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer
technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory
has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we
live, work and play.
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 Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

First Generation – 1950’s: Vacuum Tubes (1946 – 1956)

The first generation computers relied on vacuum tubes to store and process information.
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the world’s first general purpose
electronic digital computer. Was developed by Eckert and Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania. ENIAC was massive, weighing some 30 tons, occupying 1500 square feet of
floor space, and containing more than 18000 vacuum tubes, and required a staff of persons to
maintain and operate it. The vacuum tubes consumed a great deal of power, were short lived
and generated a great deal of heat.

ENIAC was a decimal rather than a binary machine. Numbers were represented in decimal
form and arithmetic performed in decimal system. a ring of 10 vacuum tubes represented each
digit. At any time, only one vacuum tube was in the ON state, representing one of the 10 digits
The major draw back of the ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually, by setting
switches and plugging and unplugging cables.
Compared with today’s standards the computing power of this gigantic machine was trivial,
giving a mere 100,000 operations per second, with a maximum memory size of approximately
2000 bytes (2 kilobytes). Modern desktops can deliver in excess of half a billion operations per
second.

 In 1945, Von Neumann developed a computer architecture that is the prototype of all
subsequent general-purpose computers, with the stored program concept, (whereby the
programming process could be facilitated if the program could be represented in a form suitable
for storing in memory alongside the data, then a computer could get its instructions by reading
them from memory) and built the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer). This
architecture consists of the following:
o A main memory, which stores both data and instructions
o An arithmetic and logic unit, capable of operating on binary data
o A control unit which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be
executed
o Input and output equipment operated by the control unit

The figure below shows the general structure of the von Neumann model

Arithmetic
Logic unit
I/O
Main Equipment
Memory

Program
Control unit 4
With rare exceptions, all of today’s computers have this same general structure and are thus referred to
as von Neumann machines.

First generation computers had a number of disadvantages: were expensive, slow, unreliable and
required extensive air conditioning to dissipate the heat generated by the vacuum tubes.

Programmers operate the ENIAC's main

The ENIAC as installed in Building
control panel

Second Generation – 1960’s: Transistors (1959 - 1965)

The second generation of computers relied on transistor technology. The transistor is a solid – state
device, made from silicon, and is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube. The
transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947, but it was not until the late 1950s that fully
transistorized computers were commercially available, the first being (TRADIC), which contained
800 transistors and was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954.
Memory size expanded to 32 kilobytes (of RAM memory), and speeds reached 200,000 to 300,000
instructions per second
Programming was done in symbolic language e.g. A for Add. Magnetic tape replaced punched
cards for input and output. The second generation computers included the IBM 7094 and PDP-1 by
DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation).

Second-generation computers moved from binary machine

language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which
allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being developed at
this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
Transistor 5
drum to magnetic core technology.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output units were developed. `

Third Generation – 1970’s: Integrated Circuits (1965 - 1970)

The third-generation computers used integrated circuits, (ICs), which were made by combining
several transistors together. An entire circuit is fabricated in a tiny piece of silicon, rather than
assembling discrete components made from separate pieces of silicon into the same circuit. The early
integrated circuits were referred to as small-scale-integration (SSI). As time went on, it became more
possible to pack more and more components on the same chip.
Magnetic disk was developed during this period for storage purposes. Cathode Ray Tube was
developed for input and output. They were more compact, more powerful and faster than the earlier
generations. The operating system was introduced.
Computer memories expanded to 2 megabytes of RAM and speeds accelerated to 5 million
instructions per second. This period also saw the production of the first microcomputer (in 1974).
The third generation computers consisted of fast mainframe computers such as IBM 360, 370; PDP-11,

A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material (silicon) on which

an integrated circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inch
and can contain millions of electronic components (transistors).
Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called
printed circuit boards. There are different types of chips. For example, CPU
chips (microprocessors) contain an entire processing unit, whereas memory
chips contain blank memory.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of A Chip
semiconductor materials. Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize

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electronic components, such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization mean that the components
take up less space, it also means that they are faster and require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation – 1980’s: Microprocessors / VLSI

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as more millions of integrated
circuits were rebuilt onto a single silicon chip, (VLSI). In the world of personal computers, the terms
microprocessor, microchip, chip and CPU are used interchangeably.
Computers in the fourth generation used Large Scale Integration,(LSI- which combined
hundreds of transistors) and Very Large Scale Integration, (VLSI – which combines 200,000 to
400,000 transistors) circuits.
Memory sizes expanded to several hundred megabytes and speeds to 50 million instructions per
second. Memories used included magnetic disks and optical disks.
These computers had various advantages depending on size – they were less expensive due to low cost
memory, more powerful in processing, and more user friendly as a result of the software they were
using.
At the heart of all personal computers sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the
logic of almost all digital devices, today, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of
life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also
saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices

Fifth Generation Computers 1990’s - Present

Assignment (Carry out research to come up with a clear description of the 5th G computers)

The major thrust of the fifth generation of computers is distributed computing systems and the merging
of telecommunications and computing technology. The technologies currently used have led to the
development of extremely fast fifth generation computers with speeds in the range of 1 giga to 1 tera
instructions per second. The development of computer networking has reached a level that is today
turning the whole world into one single village.
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NB
Between 1946 and 1971 advances in hardware (physical components of computer) allowed computers
to shrink on the one hand yet become increasingly more powerful on the other – the price and size of
computers have decreased dramatically and this has been matched by a great increase in the storage
capacity and speed

2.2 Classification of computers by Function / Purpose

Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service. For example, a
computer dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers" manage a large
collection of computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller
servers are actually personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services for other
computers.

Workstations
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special
hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.

Special purpose / Embedded computers

Special purpose computers: – are computers designed to perform only one specific task e.g.
weapons guidance systems. The set of instructions (programs) which drive the machine is fixed /
embedded / (hard wired) at the time it is built e.g. a modern washing machine may contain a computer
device which is programmed to accept the washing options which the user uses and direct the machine
through the required cycles, an automatic pilot is a computer dedicated to the task of operating an
aircraft.
Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded
computers generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to
operate a specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers
are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in
their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded
computers; however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one. The central
processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational
requirements of the specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal
computer.

2.3 Classification of computers by Configuration!

Super Computers
 Are the biggest and fastest machines.
 Can handle gigantic amounts of scientific calculations
 Perform intensive work like weather forecasting and scientific research
 Have a high processing speed
 Have high-energy requirements
 Have very many processors (controlled by a single central processor) and peripherals
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Mainframe Computers
 Are big in size
 Can support the processing requirements of thousands of users and computer professionals e.g.
used in airlines, banks etc
 Have a large memory and backup storage
 Have vast peripherals
 Have a high processing speed, therefore used by large companies, banks and government
departments. They are usually kept in an air conditioned environment in a special room.
 They can be linked into a network with smaller departmental computers, microcomputers or
with each other.

Mini Computers
 Are smaller than the mainframe computers
 Have low storage capacity as compared to mainframe computers
 Are less powerful than the mainframe computers
 Are used in stock control
 Can support 2 to around 50 users

Micro Computers
 Have only one microprocessor
 Are smaller and cheaper in cost as compared to mini computers
 Are slow as compared to mini computers
 They can allow graphical inputs
 Require one person to operate

NB In some cases there can be an overlap in terms of cost and performance of the above classification
i.e there is a possibility of having a microcomputer that is far much costly and better performance
compared to a given mini computer.

2.4 Classification of computers by Portability!

Portable computers include Laptops, Hand-held computers e.g. PDAs, Mobile phones, etc
a. Laptop computer
Laptop computer is also known as notebook computer. It is small size can fit inside a briefcase. The
laptop computer is operated on a special battery and it does not have to be plugged in like desktop
computer. The laptop computer is portable and fully functional microcomputer. It can be used on your
lap in an airplane, thus it is referred to as laptop computer.
The memory and storage capacity of laptop computer is almost equivalent to the PC or desktop
computer or even more. It also has the hard disc, CD-ROM drive, CD-writer etc. it has built-in
keyboard and built-in trackball as pointing device. Laptop computer is also available with the same
processing speed as the most powerful personal computer. It means that laptop computer has same
features as personal computer. Laptop computers are more expensive than desktop computers.
Normally these computers are frequently used by business travelers.

b. Handheld computer
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In the mid 1990s, many new types of small personal computing devices have been introduced and
these are referred to as handheld computers. These computers are also referred to as Palmtop
Computers. This type of computer is named as handheld computer because it can fit in one hand while
you can operate it with the other hand. Because of its reduced size, the screen of handheld computer is
quite small. Similarly it also has small keyboard. Some handheld computers have a specialized
keyboard. These computers are used by mobile employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery
people, whose jobs require them to move from place to place. E.g. Personal Digital Assistance, cellular
telephones (Mobile phones), Etc

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers

Advantages of computers
Speed: can work thousands of times faster than a clerk, and many times faster than many other office
machines –can cope with large volumes of work.
Accuracy: a computer is a very accurate machine in data processing. It performs repetitive tasks
without getting tired or bored.
Storage capacity: large files of data can be stored in very little space, and processed at a very high
speed
Stored programs: the computer works under the control of an internally stored program. Once this
program has been developed, human intervention and processing is minimised.
Decision-making: the program can take alternative courses of action according to conditions
discovered in the data. Highly complex decisions and computations can be structured.
Versatility: the same computer can be used to solve almost any problem.
Security: computers can have controlled access to sensitive high-risk information.
Reliability: once programs are running well, they never fail

Disadvantages of computers
High initial costs – costs of hardware and system development are usually high.
Initial disruption – the installation of a computer often causes a major upheaval in an organization.
Methods of processing may have to be altered to suit new system.
Lack of expertise – it may be difficult to obtain staff with necessary expertise in adequate numbers,
and management may be unfamiliar with new techniques and so may fail to exercise control over
development work or to adapt itself to new systems.
Inflexibility – computerized systems tend to be inflexible and seemingly minor changes have to be
specified, programmed and then tested before they can become operational.
Computers are stupid (GIGO) – if you enter wrong information, you get incorrect results.
Failure; a breakdown in network computer may leave the company unable to function.
3.0 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Take note that computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to do any
specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of instructions is
called a computer program. Software therefore refers to the set of computer programs (set of
instructions), procedures that describe the programs and how they are to be used so that a task can be
accomplished in the computer. We can say that it is the collection of programs, which increase the
capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during
a particular job. The process of software development is called programming.
Note that software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both have to work together
to produce meaningful result. Also producing software is difficult and expensive.

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 Thus software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions,
often broken into two major categories: application software which is used by users to accomplish
specific tasks and system software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer.

Software

System
Application Software
Software

General purpose
Special purpose Operating
Software Utilities
software (Custom) Systems
(Packages)

Types of Software

There are two categories of computer software: application software and system software.

(a) System software

System software tells the computer how to interpret data and instructions, how to run peripheral
equipment like printers and disk drives, and how to use the hardware in general. It also allows you, the
user, to interact with the computer. As you boot the computer, the system software is stored in the
computer’s memory, which instructs the computer to load, store, and execute an application.
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system see it as
a one functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as transferring
data from main memory to disk, or displaying text onto a monitor. Generally, system software consists
of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, etc
Thus, system software consists of the programs that control the operations of a computer and its
devices of which two types of system software are the operating system and utility programs. An
operating system (OS) coordinates all activities among hardware devices and contains instructions
that allow you to run application software. A utility program performs specific tasks, usually related
to managing a computer, its devices, or its programs.
You interact with software through its user interface. System software serves as the interface
between a user, the application software, and the computer’s hardware. One type of system software is
the operating system. Before application software can be run, the operating system, which contains
instructions that coordinate the activities among computer hardware devices, must be loaded from the
hard disk into the computer’s main memory.
The user interface controls how you enter data or instructions and how information displays
on the computer screen. Many of today’s software programs have a graphical user interface. A

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graphical user interface (GUI) combines text, graphics, and other visual images to make software
easier to use.

Operating System
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs, which
coordinate the activities of a computer. It is responsible for
setting guidelines under which common computer tasks are
carried out, and acts as an interface between the computer user
and the computer hardware. That is, OS is the program that
acts as the interface between the user (and/or application) and
the hardware. It’s basically the program that controls the
computer.
The operating system helps simplify the task of writing
applications, since the programmer does not have to be
concerned with the complexities of interfacing with the
hardware. The interface to the Operating System (O/S) is made
simpler by providing Application Programming Interfaces
(APIs) that programmers use when accessing various devices. Once a program is written using an
API, it is a simple matter to move the program to a new hardware platform.
Without this system software (OS), it is impossible to operate your computer as shown above.
Thus the purpose of operating system is to insulate the applications programmer/ user, as much as
possible from the details of the particular computer complexity being used, especially memory and
other hardware features such as communications and devices such as printers, keyboards, etc.

Utility Software
Utility programs supplement the operating system. Most operating systems include several
utility programs for performing specific tasks relating to computer management. Utilities generally
reside in secondary storage until summoned by the user or operating system kernel. A good example
of utility is antivirus programs which prevent, detect, and remove computer viruses.
A file viewer is a utility that allows you to display and copy the contents of a file. A file
compression utility shrinks the size of a file. A diagnostic utility compiles technical information
about a computer’s hardware and certain system software programs and then prepares a report
outlining any identified problems. An uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as well as
any associated entries in the system files. A disk scanner is a utility that (1) detects and corrects both
physical and logical problems on a hard disk, and (2) searches for and removes unnecessary files.
A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes files and unused space on a computer’s hard
disk so data can be accessed more quickly and programs can run faster. A backup utility copies, or
backs up, selected files or an entire hard drive onto another disk or tape. A screen saver is a utility that
causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving image on a blank screen if no keyboard activity occurs
for a specified period.

The Startup Process for a Personal Computer (Booting-up process)

Booting is the process of starting or restarting a computer. When you turn on the computer, the power
supply sends an electrical signal to devices located in the system unit. The processor chip resets itself

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and looks for the ROM chip that contains the BIOS (basic input/output system), which is firmware
that holds the startup instructions. The BIOS executes the power-on self test (POST) to make sure
hardware is connected properly and operating correctly.
The POST results are compared with data in a CMOS chip on the motherboard. If the POST
completes successfully, the BIOS searches for specific operating system files called system files. Once
located, the boot drive (the drive from which your personal computer starts), loads the system files
from storage (the hard disk – usually drive C) into memory (RAM) and executes them. Next, the
kernel of the operating system loads into memory and takes control of the computer. The operating
system loads configuration information. When complete, the operating systems (Windows) desktop
and icons display, and programs in the Startup folder are executed.

POST (Power On Self Test)

All electronic devices that are processor based, must go through an initialization when they’re
first powered up. The processor when it first receives power might still have some of the data in it from
the last time it was used so it must be initialized to clear out its internal buffers.
When you first power-on a PC the power supply runs a self test, if good it sends a “Power
Good” signal to the processor. Once the processor receives this signal it flushes out its buffers of any
instructions or data and only knows one address to go to get instructions. This address points to a
memory location inside the System BIOS chip. (Think of an address like a phone number the
processor calls to get the first instruction) The System BIOS responds by sending instructions to the
processor telling it what to do. The instructions sent to the processor make up what is referred to as the
POST (Power On Self Test). POST verifies that the components needed to start the system are
functioning properly. It does not test every component, only the ones absolutely necessary to
successfully “Boot” the system.

(b) Application software

Application software consists of programs that perform specific tasks for users. Popular
application software includes word processing software, spreadsheet software, database software, and
presentation graphics software. Application software can be packaged software (general purpose
software that meets the needs of a variety of users), custom software (tailor-made software developed
at a user’s request).
Application software can be used as a productivity/business tool; to assist with graphics and
multimedia projects; to support home, personal, and educational activities; and to facilitate
communications. Specific application software products, called software packages, are available from
software vendors.

Examples Of General-Purpose Applications Software (Packages)

These are application software that are packaged software or general-purpose software that meets the
needs of a variety of users. People use application software to become more effective, efficient and
productive while performing daily activities.

Word processing software allows users to create and manipulate documents that contain text and
graphics. With word processing software, you can insert clip art into a document; change margins;
find and replace text; use a spelling checker to check spelling; place a header and footer at the top
and the bottom of a page; and vary font (character design), font size (character scale), and font style
(character appearance).

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With spreadsheet software, data is organized in rows and columns, which collectively are called a
worksheet. The intersection of a row and column, called a cell, can contain a label (text), a value
(number), or a formula or function that performs calculations on the data and displays the result.

Database software allows you to create and manage a database. A database is a collection of data
organized to allow access, retrieval, and use of that data. A query is used to retrieve data according to
specified criteria, which are restrictions the data must meet.

Presentation graphics software is used to create presentations that communicate ideas, messages, and
other information to a group through a slide show. You can use a clip gallery to enhance your
presentation with clip art images, pictures, video clips, and audio clips.

Computer-aided design (CAD) software assists in creating engineering, architectural, and scientific
designs.

Desktop publishing (DTP) software is used to design and produce sophisticated documents. DTP is
developed specifically to support page layout, which is the process of arranging text and graphics in a
document. Paint software is used to draw graphical images with various on-screen tools. Image
editing software provides the capability to modify existing images. Video editing software and audio
editing software can be used to modify video and audio segments.

Multimedia authoring software is used to create electronic interactive presentations that can include
text, images, video, audio, and animation. Web page authoring software is designed to create Web
pages and to organize, manage, and maintain Web sites.

One of the main reasons people use computers is to communicate and share information. E-mail
software is used to create, send, receive, forward, store, print, and delete e-mail (electronic mail). A
Web browser is a software application used to access and view Web pages. A videoconference is a
meeting between two or more geographically separated people who use a network or the Internet to
transmit audio and video data.

Advantages of general-purpose software:

 Relatively low price since they are sold in large numbers
 Tried and tested – the user gets a well-tried and tested program, which he/she is able to use
with confidence.
 New versions – new improved versions of a successful package are brought out from time to
time, thus customers are assured that their software follows what the market is offering
currently.
 They are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
 Portability – packages may be portable from one type of a computer to another.
 They are easy to use and suitable for people with little computer knowledge.

Limitations:
 The purchaser does not have direct control over the package the same way as would be if the
software were purchased in-house.
 Compatibility with existing software – it is unlikely that general-purpose packages will be
compatible with existing special purpose software. If interfacing is required, it is usually
necessary for further special purpose software to be commissioned.
 It is quite easy to forget the commands to use the packages, especially if not used frequently.

14
Examples of Special-Purpose Applications Software (Custom)
This is software that is developed specifically for some specific organization or other specific user/s.
These are programs with associated documentation, designed to carry out particular tasks / meet
specific needs of a particular organisation e.g., controlling a company’s stock of goods, billing,
taxations etc.

4.0 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical
parts of a computer and related devices. Internal Hardware
hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives,
and RAM etc. External hardware devices include
monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, scanners, etc.
The internal hardware parts may be referred
to as components, while external hardware devices
may be called peripherals. Hardware may be Input Output Storage
Processor
grouped into four major categories as shown here. Devices Devices Devices

Computer Storage (Memory)

Computer storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and
recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data
storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is
one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing
unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer operation
There are two kinds of computer storage/memory: primary and secondary storage/memory.
Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of primary memory.
As soon as the computer is switched off the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and
retrieve data much faster with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory
such as floppy disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is more
expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary memory is less than that of
secondary memory.
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to execute a program and ii) data.
When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored in the primary
memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device
like a floppy disk.
As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the computer is able to follow
instantly the set of instructions. For example, when you book ticket from airline reservation counter,
the computer has to follow the same steps: take the request, check the availability of seats, calculate
fare, wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the ticket printed out. The program
containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer and is followed for each request.

15
The Primary Memory
This Memory Unit provides rapid access storage capability to the computer. This unit temporarily
retains data/information while it is going from one area of the computer to the other. Primary memory,
although very fast, is expensive and limited in size. The computer memory is further subdivided into:

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM can be both read, to retrieve information, or written into, to store information.
The term ‘random access’ means that the contents of RAM can be read at any point in the RAM and at
any time and this also applies to writing in the RAM.
RAM acts as a buffer between the CPU and the rest of the computer system components – holds data,
information and instructions and allows access to any of its contents in formats that fit the user. The
contents of RAM are volatile – are not permanent and are usually lost when the power goes off, or
when the computer is switched off. Since RAM is not permanent, it calls for backup storage or the
secondary storage.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a non-volatile memory (i.e. its contents cannot be lost when the power is switched off).
Instructions to perform operations such as getting the computer running properly after you turn it on,
checking the hardware components to see that they have been connected properly are stored
permanently on Read Only Memory (ROM) chips. ROM chips, also called firmware extend the
instruction set of the computer by storing special purpose subroutine called microprograms. They
contain instructions that tell the CPU what to do first when the computer is turned on, and also contain
instructions that help the CPU transfer information from the keyboard to the screen and printer.
While it is possible to read a ROM, it is not possible to write new data into it.

NB
The computer can act directly only on data or instructions which are in main memory. Before any
records can be processed, they must first be moved from the disk into main memory

Other Hardware Components

Ports
A port is a point at which an external device (peripheral) attaches to the computer system. Ports allow
data to be sent/retrieved from the external device. Normally some type of cable will connect the
external device to the computer through the port.
Modern computers carry many types of ports
For example, mouse , keyboard , serial, game, parallel (printer), microphone, telephone, network etc.
The most common type of ports are -:
Serial port – 1bit is transmitted at a time; COM port is a type of serial port

Parallel port – Allows multiple bits (E.g. 8 or 16) bits to be transmitted simultaneously. Printers
normally connected to this type of port.

USB port – (Universal Serial Bus) port allows up to 127 different peripherals to be connected to the
computer; either by chaining devices together or by use of a hub.

Special Purpose Ports

16
MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) – allows musical instruments (e.g. electronic keyboards,
synthesizers etc) to be attached to the computer
SCSI (pronounced skuzzy) – special high speed parallel port; used to handle printers and disk drives.

Expansion Slots/Adapter Cards

Expansion Slot – This is a socket on the motherboard (central circuit board).

Adapter Card – This is a circuit board which is plugged into the expansion slot. Adapter Cards enhance
particular capabilities. For example, a sound card enhances the ability of the computer to generate
sounds; the video card allows enhanced graphics and video capability; a network card allows a PC to
become part of a computer network.
Adapter cards can also support additional peripherals such as printer, scanner or disk drives.

Connectors
A connector joins a port to its peripheral via a cable. The port & connector make a pair. The connector
normally plugs into the port. Peripherals are normally sold with their cables having the respective
connectors at the end. In the event that the connector does not match the port (e.g. both port and
connector are two females slots) an intermediate connector may have to be used.

5.0 COMPUTER PROCESSING

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer--it is the 'compute' in the computer
system. Its function is to execute programs stored in the main memory by fetching their instructions,
examining them and then executing them one after the other. It is responsible for directing most of the
computer system activities based on the instructions provided. Without the CPU, you have no
computer.
CPU is made up of
 Control Unit (CU),
 Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
 Registers

The control unit is nerve center of the computer. Among other things, its configuration determines
whether a computer is fast or slow in relation to other computers. It’s a maze of complex electronic
circuitry, and is responsible for directing and coordinating most of the computer system activities. It
controls the movement of electronic signals, including the signals between main memory and the
input/output devices, and the signals between main memory and the ALU.

17
 The Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs all the arithmetic (e.g., add, subtract, multiply, divide)
and logical (comparison) functions (e.g., testing whether two data items match – using ‘less than’,
‘greater than’, or ‘equal to’.
Many complex calculations/decisions can be handled by dividing them up into many smaller sized
calculations/decisions. These smaller segments may then be solved individually

A register is a special temporary storage location / fast memory within the CPU. Registers very
quickly accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately. To process an
instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it from main memory and places it into a register.
Registers can be read and written at high speed since they are internal to the CPU. The most important
register is the program counter (PC), which points to the next instruction to be fetched for execution.
Also important is the Instruction Register, (IR), which holds the instruction currently being executed.

Instruction Execution Cycle (Machine Cycle)

During normal operation, the microprocessor sequentially fetches and executes instructions. Each
instruction is executed as a sequence of four phases, fetch, decode, execute and store.

1. Fetch phase: This is the process of obtaining a program instruction or a piece of data from
memory or I/O device. The instruction is fetched from memory via the data bus into the
instruction register.
2. Decode phase: once the instruction is in the instruction register, it is decoded (This is the
process of translating an instruction into electronic signals that can be executed by the
computer) by the decoder of the control unit, to enable the microprocessor determine the kind
of operation it is required to perform. Decoding is only performed on instructions and not data.
The instruction and data in a typical command such as “ADD 129 to 231” is as follows:
ADD = instruction
129 and 231 = data
3. Execute phase: This is the process of carrying out commands. The control unit issues
appropriate sequence of signals depending on the decoded information. These signals effect the
required execution.
4. Store phase: the results of the operation may be stored into memory

Note: These four sets of operations are performed repeatedly as long as there a set of data and the
associated instruction in memory as indicated in the figure below.

Typical Operational Procedure

Suppose a microprocessor is to add 129 (10000001) to 231 (11100111). First, for these two numbers to
be added, they must be stored in main memory. The ADD instruction must also be stored in main
memory as shown below:

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The addition procedure will go through the following sequence:
 The add instruction is fetched and placed in the Instruction Register where it is decoded
 The data element 10000001 is then fetched and placed in one of the microprocessors internal
registers (say register B).
 Next, the data 11100111 is fetched and also placed in one of the internal registers (say register
C), and then the ALU is used to perform the addition operation.

The machine cycle is repeated millions of times per second, as long as there are instructions
(operations) and data (operands) in memory.
This intricate dance performed is known as the machine cycle, which follows the four major operations

Machine Cycle 1. Fetch: data and associated

instruction

2. Decode: decodes the

operation (instruction) and
operands (data)

3. Execute: instruction

4. Store: result

System Clock
The processor relies heavily on a special quartz crystal circuit called the system clock to control all the
timing/synchronization issues in the computer. The electronic circuits in the computer require pulses at
regular intervals which are provided by this clock circuitry.
Modern computers can execute more than one instruction during each tick of the system clock.
The pace of the system clock is called the clock speed and is measured in the number of ticks (pulses)
per second.
When we say a computer has a clock speed of 2GHz (Giga Hertz) we mean that there are two
billion ticks of the clock in one second. The clock speed represents an upper limit on the number of
instructions that can be executed on the computer in a second.
Given two otherwise equal processors, the one with the higher clock speed will execute more
instructions in a second than the other. Hence clock speed is a raw measure of system performance.
Observe that this system clock is distinct to and different from the real time clock. The real time
clock handles the date & time information on the computer. The real time clock resides in a special
circuit called CMOS. In the event that the user wants to change the date/time on a PC the real time
clock is updated.

Factors affecting the processing speed are:

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 a) Register size indicates the amount of data that can be processed at a given time. The more the
registers and the larger they are, the more the processing power.
b) Memory : the more the RAM the faster the processing power of the computer as it can hold
bigger, more powerful programs and enables access to bigger data files.
c) Addressing scheme – determines the amount of RAM that can be controlled by the CPU at any
given time. The more the addressing capability, the more the RAM the computer can control.
d) Clock speed : determines the speed of the operations in the machine cycle.
e) Data bus capacity: size of the bus determines the amount of data that can travel along the bus
at any one time, thus affecting the system’s performance. For example, to fetch a 16 – bit
instruction from memory using a data bus width of 16- bits would require a single fetch
operation, whereas an 8 – bit data bus would require two fetch cycles to fetch the same
instruction, thereby slowing the execution of the instruction.
f) Instruction set – how a microprocessor chip is designed affects how fast it can process. The
more powerful the instruction set, the fewer instructions and processing cycles it takes to
perform certain tasks. A new approach to chip design, called Reduced Instruction Set
Computing (RISC) allows microcomputers to offer very high speed performance by
simplifying the internal design and reducing the number of instruction sets, as compared to the
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) approach.

6.0 OPERATING SYSTEMS (Continued)

Operating Systems Software

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs, which Application
coordinate the activities of a computer. It is responsible for
setting guidelines under which common computer tasks are Operating system
carried out, and acts as an interface between the computer user
and the computer hardware. Hardware
A platform on which application software can run usually
consists of hardware and operating system as shown below.

Functions of an Operating System

The primary function of an OS is to allocate resources of the computer system such as the processor,
primary and secondary memory, and the input and output devices, and files

Memory management– the OS must keep track of what parts of memory are in use and by whom and
what parts are free. The memory control program writes parts of an application program being run as
well as parts of the operating system that are not needed for the moment onto a secondary storage
device. When a program is required in the main memory, it is read in and something else is kicked out
onto secondary storage to make room.
Also, during information storage, it is the responsibility of this program to determine whether the space
within the storage media is enough to accommodate the incoming information or not. If the space is
not enough, then it warns the user, reducing the possibilities of data loss
20
Processor management: several users or applications can access a multiuser or multi-tasking
computer system simultaneously. The CPU can only execute one program at a time, and therefore,
access to the CPU must be carefully controlled and monitored. The OS determines job priorities, and
sets limits to how long a program should be run.

Input/output device management: programs will request the use of I/O devices during the course of
their execution, and in a multi-user system, conflicts are bound to arise. The O/S will control allocation
of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts, which may arise. It will also monitor the state of
each I/O device and signal any faults detected.

File management: the operating system keeps track of the information, its location, use, status etc.
These collective facilities are called the file system. A file system is concerned with logical
organization of the information and provides a means of sorting, retrieving and sharing the files.

Examples of operating systems are Windows Operating systems, Mac OS, Android, Unix, etc

Categories of Operating Systems

Every operating system is different, and each is designed to meet a set of goals. However, operating
systems can generally be classified into the following categories.

(a) Personal Computer Operating System

A personal computer operating system is designed to provide a good environment to a single user at a
time. User interface elements (desktops, GUIs etc.) are important here. Response time and the user
experience is often more important than efficient computer utilisation. E.g. Windows XP, MacOS X.

(b) Mainframe Operating System

A mainframe operating system runs on mainframes, which provide immense I/O and
availability. They may provide a batch environment: jobs are segregated into batches with similar
requirements. Each batch is given to the computer to run. When jobs with similar system requirements
are batched together, this helps to streamline their processing.
Alternatively, the system may provide transaction processing, where hundreds or thousands
of small requests must be performed every second.
User interaction is generally lacking in these systems, as the emphasis is on the computer's
utilization. An example mainframe system is IBM's OS/390.

(c) Server Operating System

A server operating system runs on servers. The aim here is to provide services to many users
simultaneously.
Services may include applications, file storage, print and other networking operations. The emphasis
here is on user response time as well as computer utilisation. Server systems are usually more general-
purpose than the other types of operating systems. Examples of multiprogramming systems are Linux,
UNIX and Windows 2000.

(d) Embedded Operating System

21
An embedded operating system usually has the operating system built into the computer (component),
and is used to control external hardware. There is little or no application software in an embedded
system. Examples here are the PDAs that everybody seems to have, and of course the computers built
into DVDs, microwaves, and into most cars. Windows CE is an example of an embedded operating
system.

Other Categorization of Operating Systems

Within the broad family of operating systems, there are several types of operating systems, categorized
based on types of computers they control and the sort of applications they support. The categories are:

(a) Single-user, single task - As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the
computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm handheld
computers (PDA) is a good example of a modern single-user, single-task operating system.

(b) Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating system most people use on their
desktop and laptop computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both
examples of operating systems that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the
same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word
processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.

(c) Multi-user, multi-tasking - A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take
advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the
requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has
sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of
users. Unix, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user
operating systems.

(d) Real-time operating system (RTOS) - are used in environments where a large number of
events, mostly external to the computer system, must be accepted and processed in a short time or
within certain deadlines. such applications are industrial control, telephone switching equipment,
flight control, and real-time simulations.
With an RTOS, the processing time is measured in tenths of seconds. This system is time-bound and
has a fixed deadline. The processing in this type of system must occur within the specified
constraints. Otherwise, this will lead to system failure.
Examples of real-time operating systems are airline traffic control systems, Command Control
Systems, airline reservation systems, Heart pacemakers, Network Multimedia Systems, robots, etc.
Introduction to Windows
Windows is a popular family of operating systems developed by Microsoft Corporation.
Windows is designed to run on personal computers and other devices, such as smartphones, tablets,
and gaming consoles. The first version of Windows was released in 1985, and since then, Microsoft
has released many different versions of the operating system, including Windows 95, Windows XP,
Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 and Window 11.
Windows 10 (and now 11) comes preloaded on most new personal computers (PCs), which
helps make it the most popular operating system in the world
Windows is known for its user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI), which allows users to
interact with the system through icons, menus, and other visual elements. Windows also supports
multitasking, which means that users can run multiple programs simultaneously without interfering
with one another.
Additionally, Windows has a wide range of built-in tools and applications, such as a web
browser, a media player, and a word processor.
22
 Windows is used by individuals, businesses, and organizations in a wide range of industries and
sectors. It continues to evolve and improve with each new release, and remains a key player in the
world of computing.
For example, you can use Windows to browse the Internet, check your email, edit digital
photos, listen to music, play games, and do much more.

NB: An operating system is the main software that supports and controls all the hardware and other
software on a computer. A computer without an operating system cannot function. The operating
system is loaded into memory when the computer is booted. It stays in memory until the computer
shuts down.

7.0 DATA VERSUS INFORMATION

 Data refers to the lowest abstract or a raw input which when processed or arranged makes
meaningful output. Data consists of facts and figures that are relatively meaningless to the user.
It is not enough to have data (such as statistics on the economy). Data in themselves are fairly
useless. In computer parlance, a spreadsheet generally starts out by holding data.
 When data are processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make
them useful, they are called Information.
 Data is the computer's language. Information is our translation of this language.
 The transformation of data into information is performed by an information processor.
 The information processor is one of the key elements in the conceptual system.

Understanding the Difference between Data and Information

Data are raw numbers or other findings which, by themselves, are of limited
value to decision makers. Information, on the other hand, is the result of
organizing, processing, and interpreting data, thus transforming the findings into
facts that are useful to decision makers. For example, the number of new users
your clinic serves in a month means little until you compare it with the number of
new users from previous months and years to see whether there has been an
increase or decrease in the trend over time.
Data are transformed into information by:
 Selection—choosing the data that are useful and adequate for answering
the questions that have been posed, and ignoring the data that are useless
or inadequate for that purpose.
 Interpretation — analyzing the data to put them into context, uncover
patterns or problem areas, and reflect on the meaning of these patterns in
relation to the questions being asked.
 The overall objective of converting data to information is to describe,
explain, predict, and/or evaluate a program and its results.

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DATA REPRESENTATION
Computer data is made up of long sequences of ones and zeros, called bits, grouped by eight to
form bytes.
Actual information is represented by the bit values stored in these bytes, such as signed and
unsigned integers, real numbers (fractional numbers), characters, etc. (We’ll talk about integer values
here. We won’t talk about fractional (floating point numbers) representation.)

Inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor or
screen. In computer’s memory both programs and data are stored in the binary form. The binary
system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand decimal
system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is because a large number of integrated
circuits inside the computer can be considered as switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch
is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. A number of switches in different states will give you a
pattern like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in
the form 0 and 1 only.

Bits
The smallest "unit" of data on a binary computer is a single bit. Since a single bit is capable of
representing only two different values (typically zero or one) you may get the impression that there are
a very small number of items you can represent with a single bit. Not true! There are an infinite
number of items you can represent with a single bit.
With a single bit, you can represent any two distinct items. Examples include zero or one, true
or false, on or off, male or female, and right or wrong. However, you are not limited to representing
binary data types (that is, those objects which have only two distinct values).

0 1 bit
1 1 bit
0110 4 bits
01101011 8 bits

Bytes
Without question, the most important data
structure used by the modern microprocessor is
the byte. A byte consists of eight bits and is the
smallest addressable (data item) on the
microprocessor. Main memory and I/O addresses
on the processor are all byte addresses. This
means that the smallest item that can be
individually accessed by a program is an eight-bit
value.

Character
24
In computer software, any symbol that requires one byte of storage. This includes all the ASCII and
extended ASCII characters, including the space character. In character-based software, everything that
appears on the screen, including graphics symbols, is considered to be a character. In graphics-based
applications, the term character is generally reserved for letters, numbers, and punctuation

How Is Information Stored in Computers?

Computers deal with machine language, data converted in a form that can be processed magnetically,
or electronically i.e. binary form. Information is stored in computers in form of bits. A binary digit is
either the character 1 (on) or 0 (off). It represents one of two distinct states expressed magnetically,
electrically, or optically.
To store and process data in binary form, a way of representing characters, numbers and other symbols
had to be developed, that is, coding schemes had to be devised as standardized methods of encoding
data using a series of binary digits. Two commonly used binary codes are:

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) - used widely in mini and
microcomputers. ASCII is a code for representing English characters as numbers, with each letter
assigned a number from 0 to 127. For example, the ASCII code for uppercase M is 77. Most computers
use ASCII codes to represent text, which makes it possible to transfer data from one computer to
another.

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) – used in mainframes

Because of the difference in these two coding schemes, transferring data between computers of
different coding schemes requires special hardware and software.

UNICODE (Universal Code) is a universal character encoding standard designed to represent text
and symbols from all writing systems around the world. Unicode is the most fundamental and
universal character encoding standard.
Unicode facilitates consistent text representation and data interchange across different systems. This
global standard supports the seamless integration and communication of diverse languages and
scripts, making it essential in our increasingly interconnected digital world

Number System

Integers

The number system that we are used to is a decimal number system because it is base 10. For
example:
54318 = 5x104 + 4x103 + 3x102 + 1x101 + 8x100
= 5x10000 + 4x1000 + 3x100 + 1x10 + 8x1
= 50000 + 4000 + 300 + 10 + 8
= 54318

The binary number system works like the decimal number system, but it is a base 2 system. To
convert binary to decimal, use the same method used above but use base 2!

25
Number Conversion
You need to know how to convert from a number represented in one system to another.

 Converting from base b to decimal. To convert from an integer represented in base b to

decimal, multiply the ith digit by the ith power of b, and sum up the results. For example, the
binary number 101101110 is 366 in decimal.

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 (binary)
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (powers of 2)
-------------------------------------------
256 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 (multiplied by corresponding
digit)

366

The hexadecimal number 16E is 366 in decimal.

1 6 E (hex)
256 16 1 (powers of 16)
-------------
256 + 96 + 14 (multiplied by corresponding digit)

366

 Converting from decimal to base b. It is slightly more difficult to convert an integer represented
in decimal to one in base b because we are accustomed to performing arithmetic in base 10.
The easiest way to convert from decimal to base b by hand is to repeatedly divide by the base b,
and read the remainder upwards. For example, the calculations below convert from the decimal
integer 366 to binary (101101110) and to hexadecimal (16E).

 Converting between base b1 and b2. One way is to convert the base b1 integer to decimal
(using the first algorithm described above) and then to convert the resulting decimal integer to
base b2 (using the second algorithm described above).
 Converting between binary and hexadecimal. We describe a fast and elegant way to convert
directly from the binary to hexadecimal representation of an integer: First, group the digits 4 at
a time starting from the right; then convert each group to a single hexadecimal digit, padding 0s
to the very last group if necessary. For example, the hexadecimal representation of
111010111001110001 is 3AE71.

0011 1010 1110 0111 0001

3 A E 7 1

26
 To convert from hexadecimal to binary: convert each hexadecimal digit individually into its
corresponding 4 digit binary number, removing any leading 0's.

9 F 0 3
1001 1111 0000 0011

This works because one base (16) is a power of the other (2). Likewise, it would be easy to
convert between the base 125 and base 5 representations.

The following power of 2 table maybe helpful

Power Result Power Result

0 1 9 512
1 2 10 1024
2 4 11 2048
3 8 12 4096
4 16 13 8192
5 32 14 16384
6 64 15 32768
7 128 16 65536
8 256

8.0 TROUBLESHOOTING

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach used to find and correct problems with complex machines,
electronics, computers and software systems. The first step in troubleshooting methods is gathering
information on the problem, such as an undesired behavior or a lack of expected functionality.
Once the problem is understood, the next step is to eliminate unnecessary components to
determine if the problem persists. This can help identify hardware incompatibility problems and
problems caused by third-party products.
Troubleshooting methodologies try to isolate a problem so that it can be examined. The initial
goal is to diagnose the problem and try obvious solutions, such as performing a system reboot,
powering down and up, and checking that the power cord is connected.
Troubleshooters initially look for common, known causes. E.g, when a laptop won't boot up, an
obvious first step is to check whether the power cable is working. Once common issues are ruled out,
troubleshooters must run through a checklist of components to identify where the failure is happening.
The primary objectives of troubleshooting are to figure out why something doesn't work as
intended and provide a solution to resolve the issue.

How does troubleshooting work?

Computer problems that troubleshooters address can show up in any number of places, such as in;

 operating systems
 application software
 central processing units or CPUs
 operating systems
 firewalls
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  hard drives
 servers

One basic troubleshooting method is to press Control-Alt-Delete on a PC, which opens the Microsoft
Windows Task Manager where users can determine which applications have become unresponsive,
close them and restart the computer.
IT and help desk professionals use more extensive ways to troubleshoot problems.
Troubleshooting methodologies vary, but the following seven steps are often used.

Step 1. Gather information

Gather information about the problem in order to understand it.

Step 2. Describe the problem

Comprehensively describe the problem, so as to know where to look for the root cause.

Step 3. Determine the most probable cause

Sometimes a problem can have many possible causes. A trial-and-error method is used to eliminate
various options.

Step 4. Create a plan of action and test a solution

Once the problem is understood, troubleshooters develop a plan to tackle the issue.

Step 5. Implement the solution

Once troubleshooters have identified and understood the problem, they must adjust, repair or replace
whatever is causing the issue. The goal is to return the system to the way it was before the problem
occurred.

Step 6. Analyze the results

Sometimes the solution to a problem creates another issue. Troubleshooters must monitor the system to
ensure the changes made don't adversely affect other parts of it or other systems connected to it.

Step 7. Document the process

The final step is to document all steps taken. This ensures other troubleshooters will know what to do
if the problem happens again.

9.0 COMPUTER SECURITY

Computer security is the protection of information system from theft/ damage to hardware, the
software and information on them, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they
provide. It includes controlling physical access to the hardware as well as protecting against harm that
may come via network access, data and code injection due to malpractice by operators, whether
intentional or unintentional.
Computer security is the activity of preventing unwanted access, theft, damage, and
interruption to computer systems, networks, and data. The aim is to safeguard the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of digital information
Most people today know they need to protect their computers from viruses, but they are
unaware of other potential threats to their data that can be costly in terms of time and money.

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Why is computer security so important in today’s world?
With so much of our professional and personal life being conducted through the computer, personal
computer security is essential, just like locking the door to your house or car.
The field of computer security is significant due to the expanded reliance on computer systems,
the Internet, and wireless network standards. It is also significant due to the growth of smart devices,
including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT).
Cybersecurity is one of the most significant new challenges facing the contemporary world, due to
both the complexity of information systems. Security is of especially high importance for systems that
govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution, traffic
control (air), research, finance, etc.

Basic Security Concepts

Three basic security concepts important to information on the internet are Confidentiality, Integrity,
and Availability (CIA). Three concepts relating to the people who use that information are
Authentication, Authorization, and Nonrepudiation (AAN).

Confidentiality
When information is read or copied by someone not authorized to do so, the result is known as loss of
confidentiality. For some types of information, confidentiality is a very important attribute. Examples
include research data, medical and insurance records, new product specifications, and corporate
investment strategies. In some locations, there may be a legal obligation to protect the privacy of
individuals. This is particularly true for banks and loan companies; debt collectors; businesses that
extend credit to their customers or issue credit cards; hospitals, doctors’ offices, and medical testing
laboratories; individuals or agencies that offer services such as psychological counseling or drug
treatment; and agencies that collect taxes.

Integrity
When information is modified in unexpected ways, the result is known as loss of integrity. This means
that unauthorized changes are made to information, whether by human error or intentional tampering.
Integrity is particularly important for critical safety and financial data used for activities such as
electronic funds transfers, air traffic control, and financial accounting.

Availability
Information can be erased or become inaccessible, resulting in loss of availability. This means that
people who are authorized to get information cannot get what they need. Availability is often the most
important attribute in service-oriented businesses that depend on information (for example, airline
schedules and online inventory systems).
Availability of the network itself is important to anyone whose business or education relies on
a network connection. When users cannot access the network or specific services provided on the
network, they experience a denial of service.

To make information available to those who need it and who can be trusted with it,
organizations use authentication and authorization. Authentication is proving that a user is the person
he or she claims to be. That proof may involve something the user knows (such as a password),
something the user has (such as a “smartcard”), or something about the user that proves the person’s
identity (such as a fingerprint). Authorization is the act of determining whether a particular user (or
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computer system) has the right to carry out a certain activity, such as reading a file or running a
program. Authentication and authorization go hand in hand. Users must be authenticated before
carrying out the activity they are authorized to perform. Security is strong when the means of
authentication cannot later be refuted—the user cannot later deny that he or she performed the activity.
This is known as nonrepudiation.

What is a computer virus?

The term computer virus is often used interchangeably with malware, though the two don't
actually have the same meaning. In the strictest sense, a virus is a program that copies itself and infects
a PC, spreading from one file to another, and then from one PC to another when the files are copied or
shared. Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer
to another and to interfere with computer operation. Malware is a general term of which virus is a type
of malware.
Most viruses attach themselves to executable files or any arbitrary files. A virus might corrupt
or delete data on your computer, use your email program to spread itself to other computers, or even
erase everything on your hard disk.
Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in email messages or instant messaging
messages. That is why it is essential that you never open email attachments unless you know who it's
from and you are expecting it. Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting
cards, audio, video files etc.
To help avoid computer viruses, it's essential that you keep your computer current with the
latest updates and antivirus tools, stay informed about recent threats, run your computer as a standard
user (not as administrator), and that you follow a few basic rules when you surf the Internet, download
files, and open attachments.
Once a virus is on your computer, its type or the method it used to get there is not as important
as removing it and preventing further infection.

Computer Virus Protection

Nowadays, nearly every individual who uses a computer is interconnected with everyone who
also is, through the biggest network of them all: the Internet. The mere thought of being able to infect
millions of workstations is enough motivation for wicked individuals to write viruses. But why is the
Internet the perfect place for viruses to spread?
Viruses are the only malware that replicate themselves (Malware is short for malicious
software, and is a general term used to describe all of the viruses, worms, spyware, and anything that is
specifically designed to cause harm to your PC or steal your information. It is a term used to refer to
any malicious or unwanted program that gets inadvertently downloaded by a computer). Once they get
inadvertently copied to a computer, they can execute, spread and attach themselves to folders and files
located in that computer. Then when files from the infected computer are copied to other computers –
for instance, through USB flash drives, memory cards, wired/wireless networks, emails, file sharing
over the Internet, etc. –, those computers then get infected as well.
The best computer virus protection strategy should allow you to carry out your usual tasks. The
best Computer Virus Protection programs will allow you to determine whether your computer is
infected when you run a scan through them. Some programs that provide virus protection for computer
systems have a special feature that will allow them to run in the background while you perform your
usual tasks. That way, when you encounter a virus, the antivirus program can instantly act on the threat
and prevent it from entering.

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 Since crooks developing viruses always try to be one step ahead of antivirus developers,
programs for computer protection from viruses have to be enabled with daily update features that will
provide the latest protection against the latest threats.

10.0 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKS & INTERNET

 A network is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels that

allows users to share data, information, hardware, and software with other users. Individuals and
organizations connect computers in a network for a variety of reasons, including the ability to share
hardware, data and information, and software; and to facilitate communications amongst others.
 A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers, files), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network
may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

The key is that 2 or more computers are connected together by a medium and they are sharing
resources. The resources can be files, printers, hard drives or CPU number crunching power.

Types of Networks
The two basic types of networks include:
 Local Area Network (LANs)
 Wide Area networks (WANs)

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers
more than 3 km apart.
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers attached
to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The workstations can
be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On
most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.
Wide Area Network
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as districts, countries,
continents and the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect
this type of network.
Using a WAN, universities in Kenya can communicate with other places in the world like
Tokyo in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses
multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the
Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

Other Network Categories

Network type in this context describes the manner in which attached resources can be shared.
Resources can be clients, servers, or any devices, files, and so on that reside on client or server. These

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resources can be accessed in either of the following ways: via peer-to-peer networks or server based
networks.

Peer-to-Peer networks
Peer-to-peer network allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a centralized
management source In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the
same abilities to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed
primarily for small to medium local area networks.

Client/Server
Client/server network allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated file servers(see the figure below). The file servers become the heart of the system, providing
access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations (clients) have access to the
resources available on the file servers. The network operating system provides the mechanism to
integrate all the components of the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same
resources irrespective of physical location.

Advantages of Installing a Network

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks
from one computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is
very time-consuming.
 Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable
savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings,
sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have
to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
 Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do
not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
 Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a
school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This
eliminates the need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.
 Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone
computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines modems, scanners,
and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to
a network, they can be shared by many users.
Disadvantages of Installing a Network
 Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs
of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the
installation may require the services of a technician.
 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for
the necessary administrative support.
 File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other
computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this
happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.
 Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the

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 inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. A topology, which is a pattern
of interconnections among nodes, influences a network's cost and performance. There are three
primary types of network topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network
cabling. They are:

Star Topology
All devices connected with a Star setup communicate
through a central Hub by cable segments. Signals are
transmitted and received through the Hub. It is the simplest
and the oldest and all the telephone switches are based on
this. In a star topology, each network device has a home
run of cabling back to a network hub, giving each device a
separate connection to the network. So, there can be
multiple connections in parallel.

Bus Topology
The simplest and one of the most common of all topologies.
Bus topology consists of a single cable, called a Backbone,
that connects all workstations on the network using a single
line. All transmissions must pass through each of the
connected devices to complete the desired request. Each
workstation has its own individual signal that identifies it
and allows for the requested data to be returned to the
correct originator. In the Bus Network, messages are sent in
both directions from a single point and are read by the node
(computer or peripheral on the network) identified by the
code with the message. Most Local Area Networks (LANs)
are Bus Networks because the network will continue to
function even if one computer is down. This topology
works equally well for either peer to peer or client server.
The purpose of the terminators at either end of the network
is to stop the signal being reflected back.
Ring Topology
All the nodes in a Ring Network are connected in a closed
circle of cable. Messages that are transmitted travel around
the ring until they reach the computer that they are addressed
to, the signal being refreshed by each node. In a ring
topology, the network signal is passed through each network
card of each device and passed on to the next device. Each
device processes and retransmits the signal, so it is capable
of supporting many devices in a somewhat slow but very
orderly fashion. There is a very nice feature that everybody
gets a chance to send a packet and it is guaranteed that every
node gets to send a packet in a finite amount of time.
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11.0 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET

History
The Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks - a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer (and
sometimes talk directly to users at other computers). The U.S. Department of Defense laid the
foundation of the Internet in 1969 with a network called ARPANET. But the general public didn't use
the Internet much until after the development of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.
The U.S. government formed the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a segment of
the Department of Defense charged with ensuring U.S. leadership in science and technology with
military applications. In 1969, ARPA established ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet.
ARPANET was a network that connected computers at four main universities in the US.
Within a couple of years, several other educational and research institutions joined the network.
In response to the threat of nuclear attack, ARPANET was designed to allow continued
communication if one or more sites were destroyed in the cold war. Unlike today, when millions of
people have access to the Internet from home, work, or their public library, in the early days,
ARPANET served only computer professionals, engineers, and scientists who knew their way around
its complex workings.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web came into being in 1991, thanks to developer Tim Berners-Lee and
others at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics. , -( Conseil European pour la Recherche
Nucleure (CERN). The CERN team created the protocol based on hypertext that makes it possible to
connect content on the Web with hyperlinks. Berners-Lee now directs the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), a group of industry and university representatives that oversees the standards of
Web technology.
Early on, the Internet was limited to noncommercial uses because its backbone was provided
largely by the National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and
the U.S. Department of Energy, and funding came from the government. But as independent networks
began to spring up, users could access commercial Web sites without using the government-funded
network. By the end of 1992, the first commercial online service provider, Delphi, offered full Internet
access to its subscribers, and several other providers followed.
In June 1993, the Web boasted just 130 sites. By a year later, the number had risen to nearly
3,000. By April 1998, there were more than 2.2 million sites on the Web.
Today, the Internet is a public, cooperative, and self-sustaining facility accessible to hundreds
of millions of people worldwide. Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the
currently existing public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is
its use of a set of protocols called TCP/IP (for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). Two
recent adaptations of Internet technology, the intranet and the extranet, also make use of the TCP/IP
protocol.
For many Internet users, electronic mail (e-mail) has practically replaced the Postal Service for
short written transactions. Electronic mail is the most widely used application on the Net. You can also
carry on live "conversations" with other computer users, using Internet Relay Chat (IRC). More
recently, Internet telephony hardware and software allows real-time voice conversations.
The most widely used part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (often abbreviated "WWW"
or called "the Web"). Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a method of instant cross-referencing. In
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most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in text of a different color than the rest; often this text
is also underlined. When you select one of these words or phrases, you will be transferred to the site or
page that is relevant to this word or phrase. Sometimes there are buttons, images, or portions of images
that are "clickable." If you move the pointer over a spot on a Web site and the pointer changes into a
hand, this indicates that you can click and be transferred to another site.

Browsers
To view files on the Web, you need Web browsing software. A browser is the software application run
on an internet client that provides a GUI interface for accessing files on the WWW.
You use this software to view different locations on the Web, which are known as Web pages. A group
of Web pages is a Web site. The first page of a Web site is often called the home page.
A Web browser contains the basic software you need in order to find, retrieve, view, and send
information over the Internet. This includes software that lets you:
▪ Send and receive electronic-mail (or e-mail) messages worldwide nearly instantaneously.
▪ Read messages from newsgroups (or forums) where users share information and opinions.
▪ Browse the World Wide Web (or Web) where you can find a rich variety of text, graphics, and
interactive information.

Searching the World Wide Web

When you do what is called "searching the Web," you are NOT searching it directly. It is not
possible to search the WWW directly. The Web is the totality of the many web pages which reside on
computers (called "servers") all over the world. Your computer cannot find or go to them all directly.
What you are able to do through your computer is access one or more of many intermediate search
tools available now. You search a search tool's database or collection of sites -- a relatively small
subset of the entire World Wide Web. The search tool provides you with hypertext links with URLs
to other pages. You click on these links, and retrieve documents, images, sound, and more from
individual servers around the world.
There is no way for anyone to search the entire Web, and any search tool that claims that it
offers it all to you is distorting the truth.

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