Magnetic Properties of Matter

Permeability
In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the
formation of a magnetic field within itself. Hence, it is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response
onse to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically
represented by the (italicized) Greek letter µ

Magnetomotive Force:

The current flowing in an electric circuit is due to the existence of electromotive force similarly
magnetomotive force (MMF) is required to drive the magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit. The
magnetic pressure, which sets up the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is i called
Magnetomotive Force. The SI unit of MMF is Ampere Ampere-turn
turn (AT), and their CGS unit is G
(gilbert). The MMF for the inductive coil shown in the figure below is expressed as

Where, N – numbers of turns of inductive coil

I – current
The strength of the MMF is equivalent to the product of the current around the turns and the
number of turns of the coil. As per work law, The MMF is defined as the work done in moving
the unit magnetic pole (1weber) once around the magnetic circuit.

The MMF is also known as the magnetic potential. It is the property of material to give rise the
magnetic field. The magnetomotive force is the product of the magnetic flux and the magnetic
reluctance. The reluctance is the opposition offers by the magnetic field to set up the magnetic
flux on it. The MMF regarding reluctance and magnetic flux is given as

Where , R – reluctance
Φ – magnetic flux

The magnetomotive force can measure regarding magnetic field intensity and the length of the
substance. The magnetic field strength is the force act on the unit pole placed on the magnetic
field. MMF regarding field intensity is expressed as

Where, H is the magnetic field strength, and l is the length of the substance.

Magnetization:
In classical electromagnetism, magnetization (magnetisation in British English) or magnetic
polarization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic
dipole moments in a magnetic material. The origin of the magnetic moments responsible for
magnetization can be either microscopic electric currents resulting from the motion of electrons
in atoms, or the spin of the electrons or the nuclei. Net magnetization results from the response
of a material to an external magnetic field, together with any unbalanced magnetic dipole
moments that may be inherent in the material itself; for example, in ferromagnets.

Magnetization is not always uniform within a body, but rather varies between different points.
Magnetization also describes how a material responds to an applied magnetic field as well as the
way the material changes the magnetic field, and can be used to calculate the forces that result
from those interactions. It can be compared to electric polarization, which is the measure of the
corresponding response of a material to an electric field in electrostatics. Physicists and
engineers usually define magnetization as the quantity of magnetic moment per unit volume. [1]
It is represented by a pseudovector M.
Magnetic moment :
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque it will experience in
an external magnetic field. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a molecule, and
a planet all have magnetic moments. The magnetic moment may be considered to be a vector
having a magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south
to north pole of the magnet. The magnetic field produced by the magnet is proportional to its
magnetic moment. More precisely, the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system's
magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general
magnetic field. The dipole component of an object's magnetic field is symmetric about the
direction of its magnetic dipole moment, and decreases as the inverse cube of the distance
dista from
the object. The magnetic moment is defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object
from an externally

Magnetic susceptibility:
In electromagnetism, the magnetic susceptibility (Latin: susceptibilis,, “receptive”; denoted χ) is
one measure of the magnetic
agnetic properties of a material. The susceptibility indicates whether a
material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field, which in turn has implications for
practical applications. Quantitative measures of the magnetic susceptibility also provide
pr insights
into the structure of materials, providing insight into bonding and energy levels.
Classes of Magnetic Materials

The origin of magnetism lies in the orbital and spin motions of electrons and how the electrons
interact with one another. The best way to introduce the different types of magnetism is to
describe how materials respond to magnetic fields. This may be surprising to some, but all matter
is magnetic. It's just that some materials are much more magnetic than others. The main
distinction is that in some materials there is no collective interaction of atomic magnetic
moments, whereas in other materials there is a very strong interaction between atomic moments.
The magnetic behavior of materials can be classified into the following five major groups:

1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism
4. Ferrimagnetism
5. Antiferromagnetism

Magnetic Properties of some common minerals

Materials in the first two groups are those that exhibit no collective magnetic interactions and are
not magnetically ordered. Materials in the last three groups exhibit long-range magnetic order
below a certain critical temperature. Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are usually what
we consider as being magnetic (ie., behaving like iron). The remaining three are so weakly
magnetic that they are usually thought of as "nonmagnetic".

1. Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very weak. It is due
to the non-cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed to an applied magnetic field.
Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic moments (ie., all
the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons). However, when exposed to a
field, a negative magnetization is produced and thus the susceptibility is negative. If we plot M
vs H, we see:

Note that when the field is zero the magnetization is zero. The other characteristic behavior of
diamagnetic materials is that the susceptibility is temperature independent. Some well known
diamagnetic substances, in units of 10-8 m3/kg, include:quartz (SiO2) -0.62, Calcite (CaCO3) -
0.48, water -0.90
2. Paramagnetism
This class of materials, some of the atoms or ions in the material have a net magnetic moment
due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. One of the most important atoms with
unpaired electrons is iron. However, the individual magnetic moments do not interact
magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the magnetization is zero when the field is removed. In the
presence of a field, there is now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments in the
direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and positive susceptibility.

Some examples, in units of 10-8 m3/kg, include:

Montmorillonite (clay) 13
Nontronite (Fe-rich clay) 65
Biotite (silicate) 79
Siderite (carbonate) 100
Pyrite (sulfide) 30
3. Ferromagnetism
When you think of magnetic materials, you probably think of iron, nickel or magnetite. Unlike
paramagnetic materials, the atomic moments in these materials exhibit very strong interactions.
These interactions are produced by electronic excha
exchange
nge forces and result in a parallel or
antiparallel alignment of atomic moments. Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field
on the order of 1000 Tesla, or approximately a 100 million times the strength of the earth's field.

The exchange force is a quantum mechanical phenomenon due to the relative orientation of the
spins of two electrons.. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel alignment of moments resulting
in large net magnetization even in the absence of a magnetic field.

The elements Fe, Ni, and Co and many of their alloys are typical ferromagnetic materials.
4. Ferrimagnetism
In ionic compounds, such as oxides, more complex forms of magnetic ordering can occur as a
result of the crystal structure. One type of magnetic ordering is call ferrimagnetism. A simple
representation of the magnetic spins in a ferrimagnetic oxide is shown here. representation of the
magnetic spins in a ferrimagnetic oxide is shown here.

The magnetic structure is composed of two magnetic sublattices (called A and B) separated by
oxygens. The exchange interactions are mediated by the oxygen anions. When this happens, the
interactions are called indirect or superexchange interactions. The strongest superexchange
interactions result in an antiparallel
iparallel alignment of spins between the A and B sublattice.

In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B sublattices are not equal and result in a
net magnetic moment. Ferrimagnetism is therefore similar to ferromagnetism. It exhibits all the
hallmarks of ferromagnetic behavior
behavior- spontaneous magnetization, Curie
urie temperatures, hysteresis,
and remanence. However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have very different magnetic ordering.

Magnetite is a well known ferrimagnetic material. Indeed, magnetite was considered a

ferromagnet until Néel in the 1940's, provided the theoretical framework for understanding
ferrimagnetism.

5. Antiferromagnetism
If the A and B sublattice moments are exactly equal but opposite, the net moment is zero. This
type of magnetic ordering is called antiferromagnetism.

Generally, antiferromagnetic order may exist at sufficiently low temperatures, vanishing at and
above a certain temperature, the Néel temperature (named after Louis Néel, Néel who had first
[1]
identified this type of magnetic ordering). Above the Néel temperature, the material is typically
paramagnetic.

Hysteresis loop is a four quadrant B – H graph from where the hysteresis loss, coercive force
and retentively of s magnetic material are obtained. To understand hysteresis loop, we suppose to
take a magnetic material to use as a core around which insulated wire is wound. The coils is
connected to the supply (DC) through variable resistor to vary the current I. We know that
current I is directly proportional to the value of magnetizing force (H) as

Where, N = no. of turn of coil and l is the effective length of the coil. The magnetic flux density
of this core is B which is directly proportional to magnetizing force H.
Now, we should be familiar with some important terms related to hysteresis Loop.

Definition of Hysteresis
Hysteresis of a magnetic material is a property by virtue of which the flux density (B) of this
material lags behind the magnetizing force (H).

Definition of Coercive Force

Coercive force is defined as the negative value of magnetizing force (-H) that reduces residual
flux density of a material to zero.

Residual Flux Density

Residual flux density is the certain value of magnetic flux per unit area that remains in the
magnetic material without presence of magnetizing force (i.e. H = 0).

Definition of Retentivity
It is defined as the degree to which a magnetic material gains its magnetism after
magnetizingforce (H) is reduced to zero. Now, let us proceed step by step to make a clear idea
about hysteresis loop.

 Step 1: When supply current I = 0, so no existence of flux density (B) and magnetizing
force (H). The corresponding point is ‘O’ in the graph above.

 Step 2: When current is increased from zero value to a certain value, magnetizing force
(H) and flux density (B) both are set up and increased following the path o – a.

 Step 3: For a certain value of current, flux density (B) becomes maximum (Bmax). The
point indicates the magnetic saturation or maximum flux density of this core material. All
element of core material get aligned perfectly. Hence Hmax is marked on H axis. So no
change of value of B with further increment of H occurs beyond point ‘a’.
  Step 4: When the value of current is decreased from its value of magnetic flux saturation,
H is decreased along with decrement of B not following the previous path rather
following the curve a – b.

 Step 5: The point ‘b’ indicates H = 0 for I = 0 with a certain value of B. This lagging of
B behind H is called hysteresis. The point ‘b’ explains that after removing of magnetizing
force (H), magnetism property with little value remains in this magnetic material and it is
known as residual magnetism (Br). Here o – b is the value of residual flux density due to
retentivity of the material.

 Step 6: If the direction of the current I is reversed, the direction of H also gets reversed.
The increment of H in reverse direction following path b – c decreases the value of
residual magnetism (Br) that gets zero at point ‘c’ with certain negative value of H. This
negative value of H is called coercive force (Hc)

 Step 7: H is increased more in negative direction further; B gets reverses following path
c – d. At point‘d’, again magnetic saturation takes place but in opposite direction with
respect to previous case. At point‘d’, B and H get maximum values in reverse direction,
i.e. (-Bm and -Hm).

 Step 8: If we decrease the value of H in this direction, again B decreases following the
path de. At point ‘e’, H gets zero valued but B is with finite value. The point ‘e’ stands
for residual magnetism (-Br) of the magnetic core material in opposite direction with
respect to previous case.

 Step 9: If the direction of H again reversed by reversing the current I, then residual
magnetism or residual flux density (-Br) again decreases and gets zero at point ‘f’
following the path e – f. Again further increment of H, the value of B increases from zero
to its maximum value or saturation level at point a following path f – a.
The path a – b – c – d – e – f – a forms hysteresis loop. [NB: The shape and the size of
the hysteresis loop depend on the nature of the material chosen]

Importance of Hysteresis Loop

The main advantages of hysteresis loop are given below.

1. Smaller hysteresis loop area symbolizes less hysteresis loss.

2. Hysteresis loop provides the value of retentivity and coercivity of a material. Thus the
way to choose perfect material to make permanent magnet, core of machines becomes
easier.
3. From B – H graph, residual magnetism can be determined and thus choosing of material
for electromagnets is easy.
Magnetostriction:
Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them
to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of
materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive
magnetostrict strain
until reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when
observing a sample of iron.[1] This effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in
susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The effect is also responsible for the low-pitchedpitched humming
sound that can be heard coming from transformers, where oscillating AC currents produce a
changing magnetic field.

Explanation
Internally, ferromagnetic materials have a structure that is divided into domains, each of which is
a region of uniform magnetic polarization. When a magnetic field is applied, the boundaries
between the domains shift and the domains rotate; both of these effects cause a change in the
material's dimensions. The reason that a change in the magnetic tic domains of a material results in
a change in the materials dimensions is a consequence of magnetocrystalline anisotropy, that it
takes more energy to magnetize a crystalline material in one direction than another. If a magnetic
field is applied to the material at an angle to an easy axis of magnetization, the material will tend
to rearrange its structure so that an easy axis is aligned with the field to minimize the free energy
of the system. Since different crystal directions are associated with different lengths this effect
induces a strain in the material.

Examples with Applications

Magnetostrictive materials can convert magnetic energy into kinetic energy, or the reverse, and
are used to build actuators and sensors.

Cobalt exhibits the largest room-temperature magnetostriction of a pure element at 60

microstrains. Among alloys, the highest known magnetostriction is exhibited by Terfenol-D,
TbxDy1−xFe2, exhibits about 2,000 microstrains in a field of 2 kOe (160 kA/m) at room
temperature and is the most commonly used engineering magnetostrictive material.Galfenol is a
newer such material.

Another very common magnetostrictive composite is the amorphous alloy Fe81Si3.5B13.5C2

with its trade name Metglas 2605SC.

In early sonar transducers, during World War II, nickel was used as a magnetostrictive material.