CHAPTER 1 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Q.1. Find the Miller indices of a set of parallel planes which makes
intercepts as 3a : 4b on the X and Y-axes, and are parallel to Z-axis.
r r r
Here a, b, c are the primitive vectors of the lattice.
Ans. As the plane is parallel to Z-axis, their intercept on Z-axis is infinity, If
r r r
p, q and r are intercepts and a, b, c are primitive vectors in crystal
structure then according to definition of
a b c a b c
Miller indices we have, : : = h : k : l Þ h : k : l = : :
p q r 3a 3b ¥
a b c 1 1 1
Þ h:k :l = : : = : :
3a 4b ¥ 3 4 ¥
On multiplying the ratio with LCM we have,
12 12
h : k : l = : : 0 ´ 12 = 4 : 3 : 0
3 4
So, Miller indices are (430).
Q.2. In an ortho-rhombic crystal a lattice plane cuts intercepts of lengths
r r r
3a, - 2b, 3c / 2 along the three axes where a, b, c are the primitive
vectors of the lattice. Deduce the Miller Indices of the plane.
Ans. According to definition of Miller indices
a b c a b 2c
: : =h:k :l = : :
p q r 3a 2b 3c
On multiplying the ratio with LCM
Miller indices are ( 2 3 4).
Q.3. In a crystal whose primitives are 1.2 Å, 1.8 Å and 2 Å, a plane
whose Miller Indices are (231) cuts intercept 1.2 Å along X-axis.
What will be the lengths of intercepts along Y and Z-axis?
Ans. According to Miller indices definition if p, q, r are intercepts on X , Y , Z
axis and h, k, l are miller indices then

© The Author(s) 2022 187

P. K. Basu and H. Dhasmana, Solid State Engineering Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10940-9
188 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

a b c 1.2 18
. 2 18
. 2
h:k :l = : : Þ 2 : 3 :1 = : : = 1 : :
p q r 1.2 q r q r
From the above ratio we get q = 1.2 Å , r = 4 Å.
Thus length of intercepts along Y-axis and Z-axis are 1.2 Å and 4 Å.
Q.4. In a simple cubic lattice find the ratio of intercepts on the three axes
by ( 132) planes.
1 1 1
Ans. In simple cubic lattice, a = b = c, so : : = h : k : l
p q r
Here h = 1, k = - 3, l = 2 therefore,
1 1 1
: : =1 : -3 : 2 Þ p : q : r = 6 : - 2 : 3
p q r
Thus the intercepts ratio are 6 : - 2 : 3.
Q.5. Lead is an FCC lattice with an atomic radius of 1.746 Å. Find the
spacing of (i) (200) planes, (ii) (220) planes.
Ans. As we know in cubic lattice a = b = c;
a
so d hkl = .
h + k 2 + l2
2

4r 4 ´ 1746
.
Lead is FCC, so a= = = 4.93 Å
2 2
4.93
(i) Thus, d 200 = = 2.465 Å
22 + 0 + 0
4.93
(ii) d 220 = = 1748
. Å.
22 + 22 + 0
Q.6. In a general lattice a = b = 2.5 Å, c = 1. 8 Å. Deduce lattice spacing
between (111) planes.
Ans. As we know the interplaner spacing ‘d’ is given by
1
d hkl = ;
2
h k 2 l2
+ +
a2 b2 c2
1
d111 = = 1.26 Å
2 2 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö æ1 ö
ç ÷ +ç ÷ +ç ÷
è 2.5 ø è 2.5 ø è 18 . ø
Q.7. In a SCC (i), find the ratio of intercepts on the three axes by (123)
plane, (ii) Find the ratio of the spacing of the (110) and (111) planes,
(iii) Find the ratio fo the nearest neighbour distance to the next
nearest neighbour distance.
Ans. (i) In simple cubic lattice, by the definition of Miller indices
NUMERICALS 189

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
: : = h : k : l Þ p : q :r = : : Þ p : q :r = : :
p q r h k l 1 2 3
On multiplying the ratio by LCM p : q : r = 6 : 3 : 2
(ii) The interplaner spacing is given by
a
d hkl =
h + k 2 + l2
2

a a
So, d110 = = ;
2 2 2
1 +1 + 0
a a
d111 = = .
2 2 2
1 +1 +1 3
Thus the ratio of interplaner spacing in (110) and (111) plane is given
by
d110 : d111 = 3 : 2
(iii) The distance of nearest neighbour in SCC is d1 = a.
The distance of next nearest neighbour in SCC is d 2 = a 2.
So d1 : d 2 = 1 : 2.
Q.8. Sodium crystallizes as a cubic lattice. The edge of the unit cell is
4.3 Å. The density of sodium is 963 kg/mt 3 and its atomic weight is
23. How many atoms are contained in a unit cell? What type of
cubic unit cell does sodium form?
MN eff
Ans. The density of crystal is given by r = ;
a3 NA
Here N eff is the effective number of atoms per unit cell, M = 23,
a = 4.3 Å , N A = 6.023 ´ 10 26 and l = 963, hence,
23 ´ N eff
963 = Þ N eff » 2.
( 4.3) ´ 6.023 ´ 10 26
3

This means crystal has BCC structure.

Q.9. Sodium chloride crystallizes in FCC structure with density 2160 kg/
mt 3 . If the atomic weight of sodium is 23 and of chloride is 35.5,
calculate the distance between the two adjacent atoms.
Ans. The density of crystal is given by
( M Na + M Cl ) ´ N eff
r=
a3 ´ NA
Given values are
r = 2160 kg/ m 3 , M Na = 23 kg/kmol, M Cl = 35.5 kg/mol,
N A = 6.023 ´ 10 26 atoms/kmol.
190 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

In FCC structure effective number of lattice points per unit cell is 4 i.e.,
N eff = 4,
N( M Na + M Cl ) 4 ´ 58.5
hence, a 3 = = Þ a = 5.63 Å.
lN A 2160 ´ 6.023 ´ 10 26
In FCC the distance between two adjacent atoms is
5.63
d = a/ 2 = = 2.815 Å.
2
Q.10. The spacing between successive (100) planes in NaCl crystal is
2.82 Å. X-ray incident upon the surface of this crystal and it is
found that it gives rise to the first order Bragg reflection at a
grazing angle of 8°35¢. Calculate the wavelength of X-ray and find
the angle at which the 2nd order Bragg reflection would occur.
Ans. Here the order of reflection n =1, interplaner spacing is d = 2.82 Å and
q = 8°35¢.
According to Bragg’s law,
2d sin q = nl Þ 2 ´ 2.82 ´ sin 8°35¢ = 1 ´ l
Thus the wavelength of X-ray,
l = 0.842 Å
When n = 2, then from Bragg’s law, the Bragg’s angle may be given as
2l
sin q = = 0.295 Þ q = 17°22¢
2d
Q.11. The Bragg angle corresponding to the 1st order reflection from
plane (111) in a crystal is 30° when X-rays of l = 1.75 Å are used.
Calculate the interatomic spacing.
Ans. According to Bragg’s law 2d sin q = nl
Given data are q = 30° , n = 1, l = 175
. Å,
1 ´ 175
.
So d= = 175
. Å
2 ´ sin 30°
The interplaner spacing is given by
a
d hkl = .
h2 + k 2 + l2
The interatomic spacing is thus
a = d ´ h 2 + k 2 + l 2 = 175
. ´ 3 = 3.03 Å
Q.12. Calculate the glancing angle on the cube (110) of rock salt crystal
( a = 2. 814 Å ) corresponding to 2nd order diffraction maximum for
X-ray with l = 0.71 Å.
Ans. The interplaner spacing d is given by
a
d h, k = .
h + k 2 + l2
2
NUMERICALS 191

2.814
So, d110 = = 1.989 Å
1 + 12 + 0 2
2

Here the order of reflection, n is 2 and wavelength, l = 0.71 Å.

According to Bragg’s law 2d sin q = nl
2 ´ 0.71
sin q = = 0.3569 Þ q = 20°55¢
2 ´ 1.989
Q.13. Electrons are accelerated to 344 volts and are reflected from a
crystal. The 1st reflection maximum occurs when glancing angle is
60°. Determine the spacing of the crystal. Given, h = 6. 62 ´ 10 -34
J-sec, e = 1. 6 ´ 10 -19 Coulomb, m = 9. 1 ´ 10 -31 kg.
Ans. The de Broglie waelength of a moving particle is given by
h
l= .
mv
1
The kinetic energy of electron E = mv 2 Þ mv = 2mE
2
Electron’s kinetic energy accelerated by voltage V, i.e.,
E = qV = eV
h
So, l=
2mE
h 6.6 ´ 10 -34
Þ l= = = 0.66 ´ 10 -10 mt
2meV -31 -19
2 ´ 91
. ´ 10 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 ´ 344
Now 2d sin q = nl
Here n = 1, l = 0.66 ´ 10 -10 mt,
nl 1 ´ 0.66 ´ 10 -10
so, d= = = 0.38 Å
2 sin q 2 ´ sin 60°
A B
Q.14. If potential energy is expressed as U = - + , show that (i) the
6
R R12
1/ 6
A2
intermolecular distance R 0 is given by é ù , and (ii) U min =
2B
.
êë A úû 4B
dU
Ans. (i) At equilibrium we have, = 0.
dR R = R0
The intermolecular distance in this condition is known as equilibrium
distance R 0 .
1/ 6
dU 6A 12B é 2B ù
Thus, = - Þ R0 =
7 13
dR R 0 R 0 êë A úû

(ii) The energy at equilibrium is minimum so

U min = U | R = R0
192 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

A B A é B ù
\ U min = - + =- ê1- ú
R 06 R 12
0 R 06 êë AR 06 úû
A ö é B æ A öù A2
= - A æç ÷ ê1 - ç ÷ú = -
è 2B ø ë A è 2B øû 4B
Q.15. The mutual interaction potential of two particle system is expressed
A B
as U = - + . Show that the potential energy of these two
m
R Rn
4é A ù
particles in stable configuration is equal to - ê ú for m = 2,
5 êë R 02 úû
n = 10.
Ans. The mutual interaction potential for the two particle system is given as
A B
U =- +
m
R Rn
When m = 2, n = 10, The function is given as
A B
U =- +
2
R R 10
dU 2A 10B
In stable equilibrium =0Þ - =0
dR R 03 R 110
1/8
Þ R 0 = æç
5B 5B ö
Þ R 80 = ÷
A è A ø
At R = R 0 , the potential in stable configuration
A B A B
U R = R0 = - + =- +
2 10 1/ 4 5/ 4
R0 R0 æ 5B ö æ 5B ö
ç ÷ ç ÷
è A ø è A ø
1/ 4 1/ 4
= - A æç
A ö
+ B æç
A ö æ A ö
÷ ÷ ç ÷
è Bø
5 è Bø
5 è 5B ø
4A æç A ö
1/ 4 1/ 4
æ A ö é Aù 4A æ A ö ÷
= -ç ÷ A- =- ç ÷ =
è 5B ø êë ú
5û 5 è 5B ø 5 çè AR 80 ÷
ø
[Q5B = AR 80 ]
4A
So, U R = R0 = - .
5R 02
Q.16. The fraction of vacancy sites in a metal is 1 ´ 10 -10 at 500°C. What
will be the fraction of vacancy sites at double the temperature?
Ans. The concentration of vacancy defect is given by
- E p / 2 kT
n = Ne
NUMERICALS 193

The fraction of vacancy sites is

n - E / 2 kT
f = =e p = 1 ´ 10 -10
N
Ep Ep
Þ log e f = log e e = -
2kT 2kT
So putting the value of ‘f ’ we have,
Ep Ep
log e (1 ´ 10 -10 ) = - Þ = 23.026 T
2kT 2k
Ep
Hence, at T = 500° C = 773° K, = 23.026 ´ 773
2k
and at T = 1000° C = 1273° K.
Thus fraction of vacancy sites at 1000°K.
- E p / 2 kT
f¢ =e = e - 23.06 ´ 773 /1273
Þ f ¢ = 8.45 ´ 10 -7
Q.17. The densaity of Schottkey defects in a certain sample of NaCl is
5 ´ 1011 per mt 3 at 25°C. If the observed interionic (Na + – Cl - )
distance is 2.82 Å, what is the average energy required to create one
Schottkey defect?
Ans. One unit cell of NaCl contains 4 ions pairs and the volume V of unit cell
is V = ( 2a) 3 .
Where a is the interionic distance then,
V = ( 2 ´ 2.82 ´ 10 -10 ) 3 = 1794
. ´ 10 -28 m 3
No of ion pairs in 1 m 3 of an ideal NaCl crystal
4
= = 2.23 ´ 10 28
-28
1794
. ´ 10
n - E / 2 kT
As we know =e p
N
Þ E p = 2kT ´ 2.303 log ( N / n)
é 2.23 ´ 10 28 ù
= 2 ´ 8.625 ´ 10 -5 ´ 298 ´ 2.303 log10 ê =1.971 eV
11 ú
êë 5 ´ 10 úû
Q.18. The average energy required to create Frenkel defect in an ionic
crystal is 1.4 eV. Calculate the ratio of the number of Frenkel
defects at 20°C and 300°C for 1 gram of the crystal.
Ans. The concentration of Frenkel defect is given by
é Ep ù
n = ( NNi ) 1/ 2 exp ê- ú
ë 2kT û
194 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

So concentration of Frenkel defect at 20°C and 300°C are given as

n 293 = ( NNi ) 1/ 2 e - 1.4 /586 k
and n573 = ( NNi ) 1/ 2 e - 1.4 /1146 k
1. 4 1. 4
é n 293 ù - +
ên ú = e
Hence, 586 k 1146 k
ë 573 û
én ù 1.4 é 1 - 1 ù
Þ log e ê 293 ú = -
- ê ú
ë n573 û 8.625 ´ 10 ë586 1146 û
5

n 293
Þ . ´ 10 -6
= 133
n573
Q.19. For a SCC lattice compare the interplaner spacing in (111) and
(110) planes.
Ans. The interplaner spacing ‘d’ between adjacent planes in SCC is given by
a
d hkl =
h + k 2 + l2
2

a a
So, d111 = =
12 + 12 + 12 3
a a
and d110 = =
12 + 12 + 0 2 2

Thus ratio of interplaner spacing between two is

d111 a / 3
= = 2 : 3.
d110 a / 2
Q.20. Polonium belongs to SCC lattice. If the lattice constant is 3.36 Å,
calculate its density. (The atomic mass of Polonium is 209).
Ans. The crystal density is given by
N M
r = eff
NA a3
In SCC lattice N eff =1; Avagadro number N A = 6.023 ´ 10 26 ,
Molecular weight M = 209 and a = 3.36 Åand so,
1 ´ 209
r=
6.023 ´ 10 26 ´ (3.36 ´ 10 -10 ) 3
209
= ´ 10 30 = 9150 kg/ m 3
26
6.023 ´ 10 ´ 37.9331
Q.21. The potential energy function for the force between two atoms in a
b a
diatomic molecule is V( x) = - + , where a and b are positive
6
x x12
constants, x is the distance between the two atoms.
NUMERICALS 195

(i) At what value of x, V( x) is equal to zero?

(ii) At what value of x, V( x) is minimum?
(iii)Derive an expression for the force between two atoms and show
that the two atoms repel each other for x < x 0 and attract each
other for x > x 0 . Determine x 0 .
Ans. (i) The potential function at interatomic distance x is given as
b a
V ( x) = - +
6
x x 12
Let at x = x¢ the potential function becomes zero, then,
1/ 6
Þ x¢ = æç ö÷
b a a
0=- +
x¢ 6 x¢ 12 èbø
dV
(ii) In stable equilibrium, x = x 0 and =0
dx
1/ 6
dV 6b 12a 2a æ 2a ö
Therefore, = - = 0 Þ x 06 = Þ x0 =ç ÷
7 13
dx x 0 x 0 b è b ø
(iii) The force between two atoms in terms of potential function is given
by
dV 6b 12a
F =- =- +
dx x 7 x 13
In stable equilibrium net force, i.e., attractive force plus repulsive force
acting between two atoms is zero. If this force function is positive then
repulsive force is gereater than attractive force and if it is negative then
attractive force is greater then repulsive force.
Thus F is repulsive then
1/ 6
6b 12a 2a æ 2a ö
F >0Þ - + >0Þ >x6 or x <ç ÷ Þ x < x0
x 70 x 13
0
b è b ø
1/ 6
æ 2a ö
where x0 =ç ÷
è b ø
6b 12a 2a
F is attractive when F < 0, so - + <0Þ <x6
x 70 x 13
0
b
1/ 6
æ 2a ö
or x >ç ÷ Þ x > x0
è b ø
1/ 6
æ 2a ö
where x0 =ç ÷
è b ø
196 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

CHAPTER 2 QUANTUM PHYSICS

Q.1. Electrons are accelerated to 344 Volts and are reflected from a
crystal. The 1st reflection maximum occurs when glancing angle is
60°. Determine the interatomic spacing of the crystal.
Ans. We know that kinetic energy of electron with accelerated voltage V is
given by
1
K.E. = mv 2 = eV Þ ( mv) 2 = 2meV Þ mv = 2meV
2
The de-Broglie wavelength of a moving particle is given by
h h
l= =
mv 2emV
6.62 ´ 10 -34
= = 0.66 ´ 10 -10 m
-31 -19
2 ´ 9 ´ 10 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 ´ 344
According to Bragg’s law,
nl 0.66 ´ 10 -36
2d sin q = nl Þ d = = = 0.38 Å
2 sin q 2 ´ sin 60°
Q.2. Find the energy of the neutron in units of eV whose de-Broglie
wavelength is 1 Å. Mass of neutron = 1. 674 ´ 10 -27 kg.
Ans. The de-Broglie wavelength of a moving particle is given by
h
l=
mv
1
As the energy is E = mv 2
2
h h2
So, l = ÞE=
2mE 2ml2
( 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
= = 0.0813 eV
2 ´ 1.674 ´ 10 -27 ´ (10 -10 ) 2 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.3. In an experiment tungsten cathode which has a threshold
wavelength 2300 Å is irradiated by UV light of l = 1800 Å. Calculate
(i) maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons, and (ii) work
function of tungsten.
Ans. By Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation, the kinetic energy of
photoelectron is given by
1 æc c ö
Tmax = mv 2 = h( v - v 0 ) = h çç - ÷÷
2 è l l0 ø
é 1 1 ù 3 ´ 108
Þ Tmax = 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ ê - ú ´
-10
êë1800 ´ 10 2300 ´ 10 -10 úû 1.6 ´ 10 -19
=1.485 eV
NUMERICALS 197

The work function of tungsten is given by

hc 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ 3 ´ 108
j = hv 0 = = = 5.38 eV
l 0 2300 ´ 10 -10 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.5. Calculate the stopping potential for the photoelectrons emitted by a
gold cathode if the wavelength of incident radiation is 2 ´ 10 -7 mt
( j = 4. 8 eV ).
Ans. According to Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation, the maximum
kinetic energy is given by
1
Tmax = mv 2 = h( v - v 0 )
2
If Vs is stopping potential then we have
hc
Tmax = - j = eVs
l
hc f 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ 3 ´ 108 4.8 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Þ Vs = - = - = 1.41 eV
el e 1.6 ´ 10 -19 ´ 2 ´ 10 -7 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.6. The energy required to remove an electron for sodium is 2.3 eV.
Does sodium show a photoelectric effect for orange light with
l = 6800 Å?
Ans. According to photoelectric effect, the incident photon must have
threshold wavelength given by
hc
l0 =
f
Given the work function for sodium is f = 2.3 eV
6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ 3 ´ 108
Hence, l0 = = 5380 Å
2.3 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Since orange light has larger wavelength than threshold wavelength
therefore sodium will not show photoelectric effect.
Q.7. A photon of l = 3310 Å falls on photocathode and eject an electron
of energy 3 ´ 10 -19 J. If l is changed to 5000 Å, the energy of the
ejected electron is 0. 972 ´ 10 -19 J. Calculate h, threshold frequency
and work function j.
Ans. According to Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation, the maximum
kinetic energy is given by
1 æ1 1 ö
Tmax = mv 2 = hv - hv 0 = hc çç - ÷÷
2 è l l0 ø
When the incident light has wavelength l1 and l 2 , the maximum
kinetic energy T1 and T2 are given as
198 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
T1 = hc çç - ÷÷ and T2 = hc çç - ÷÷
è l1 l 0 ø è l2 l0 ø
æ 1 1 ö l l (T - T2 )
\ T1 - T2 = hc çç - ÷÷ Þ h = 2 1 1
l
è 1 l 2 ø c( l1 - l 2 )
3310 ´ 10 -10 ´ (3 ´ 10 -19 - 0.972 ´ 10 -19 )
h= = 6.62 ´ 10 -34 J-s
8 -10
3 ´ 10 (5000 - 3310) ´ 10
Threshold frequency is given by
T c T 3 ´ 108 3 ´ 10 -19
v0 = v - = - = -
h l h 3310 ´ 10 -10 6.62 ´ 10 -34

= 4.53 ´ 1014 sec -1

The work function of the photocathode is given by
29.9886 ´ 10 -20
j = hv 0 = 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ 4.53 ´ 1014 = = 1875
. eV
1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.8. One milliwatt of light of l = 4560 Å is incident on cesium surface.
Calculate the photoelectric current liberated assuming a quantum
efficiency of 0.5% of (j = 1. 93 eV).
Ans. Energy of incident photon of wavelength 4560 Å on cesium surface is
given by
hc 6.62 ´ 10 -34 ´ 3 ´ 108
E= = = 4.32 ´ 10 -19 J
l 4560 ´ 10 -10
Energy of incident light in terms of joule, i.e.,
1 mW = 10 -3 J/ s
10 -3
So number of photons in 1 mW of light is = 2.32 ´ 1015
-19
4.3 ´ 10
photon per second.
Quantum efficiency is 0.5%, i.e., only 0.5% of incident photon releases
photoelectrons.
Thus number of photoelectrons emitted from cesium surface per
second is
0.5
´ 2.32 ´ 1015 = 116
. ´ 1013 /sec
100
Hence photoelectric current = number of electron ´ electronic charge
. ´ 1013 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19 = 1856
= 116 . mA
Q.9. Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 27°C assuming
energy of a particle at absolute temperature T is of the order of kT
(k is Boltzmann’s constant and k = 1. 38 ´ 10 -23 J/K).
NUMERICALS 199

Ans. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with moving neutron is given by

h h
l= = ;
mv 2mE
1
where E is the kinetic energy = mv 2
2
For thermal neutron, the wavelength is given as
h 6.6 ´ 10 -34
l= = = 177
. Å
2mkT -27 -23
2 ´ 1.67 ´ 10 ´ 138
. ´ 10 ´ 300
Q.10. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an alpha particle accelerated
through a potential difference of 2 kV.
Ans. The de-Broglie wavelength associated with a-particle is given by
h h
l= =
mv 2mE
At 2 KV the energy E of a-particle is given by
E = qV = 2eV = 2 ´ 1000 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19 J
Thus the wavelength of a-particle with accelerated voltage 2 KV is
given by
h
l=
2meV
As the mass of a-particle is four times of protons mass, so
m = 4 ´ m p = 4 ´ 1.67 ´ 10 -27 kg
6.62 ´ 10 -34
Hence, l = = 2.3 ´ 10 -3 Å
-27 -19
2 ´ 4 ´ 1.67 ´ 10 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 ´ 2 ´ 1000
Q.11. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron in Å of energy
‘V’ eV.
Ans. Here, E = V eV = 1.6 ´ 10 -19 V J, m = 91
. ´ 10 -31 kg
h h h 12.28 1 2E
l= = = = Å; (as E = mv 2 Þ v = )
p mv 2mE V 2 m
Q.12. Calculate the wavelength associated with an electron subjected to a
potential difference of 1.26 kV.
Ans. The de-Broglie wavelength for an electron is given by
12.28
l= Å ; V = 1.26 kV. So, l = 0.4 Å.
V
Q.13. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a proton moving with
velocity which is equals to 1/20 of the velocity of light.
3 ´ 108
Ans. v= mt/ sec; m = 1.67 ´ 10 -27 kg
20
h h
So, l= = = 2.634 ´ 10 -14 mt
p mv
200 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Q.14. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of neutron of energy 28.8 eV.

Given, mn = 1. 674 ´ 10 -27 kg.
h h h 6.624 ´ 10 -34
Ans. l= = = = = 0.05 Å
p mv 2mE 2 ´ 1.674 ´ 10 -27 ´ 28.8 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.15. What is the energy of neutron with de-Broglie wavelength is 1 Å.
h h h
Ans. l= = =
p mv 2mE
h2 ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
Þ E= =
2ml2 2 ´ 1.674 ´ 10 -27 ´ (10 -10 ) 2
13.01 ´ 10 -21
= 13.01 ´ 10 -21 J = = 0.0813 eV
1.6 ´ 10 -19
Q.16. Show that the de-Broglie wavelength for a material particle of rest
mass m0 and charge q, accelerated from rest through a potential
difference of V volts relativistically is given by
h
l=
ïì qV ïü
2m0 qV í 1 + ý
ïî 2m0 c 2 ïþ

Ans. Here kinetic energy, T = qV . Also we have, E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4

But, E = T + m 0 c 2 = qV + m 0 c 2
Substituting this in above,
E 2 = [ qV + m 0 c 2 ] 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4
Þ [ qV + m 0 c 2 ] 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 02 c 4
Þ ( qV ) 2 + 2m 0 eVc 2 = p 2 c 2
( qV ) 2 + 2m 0 qVc 2 ( qV ) 2
Þ p2 = = 2m 0 eV +
c2 c2
é ( qV ) 2 ù é qV ù
= 2m 0 qV ê1 + ú = 2m 0 qV ê1 + ú
2 2
êë 2m 0 eVc úû êë 2m 0 c úû
h h
Þ l= =
p ìï qV üï
2m 0 qV í1 + ý
ïî 2m 0 c 2 ïþ
Q.17. A beam of mono-energetic neutrons corresponding to 27°C is
allowed to fall on a crystal. A first order reflection is observed at a
glancing angle of 30°. Calculate the interplaner spacing of the
crystal.
NUMERICALS 201

Ans. Here, q = 30° , n = 1. Using Bragg’s law, 2d sin q = nl, we have,

2d sin 30° = 1 ´ l Þ d = l
Now, thermal energy = E = kT , T = 27° C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
and momentum = p = 2mE = 2mkT
h h h
Now, d =l= = =
p 2mE 2mkT
6.624 ´ 10 -34
= = 178
. Å
2 ´ 1.674 ´ 10 -27 ´ 138
. ´ 10 -23 ´ 300

CHAPTER 3 & 4 FREE ELECTRON THEORY AND

BAND THEORY
Q.1. An electron is confined to move between two rigid walls separated
by 10 -9 m. Find the de-Broglie wavelengths representing the first
three allowed energy states of the electron and the corresponding
energies?
Ans. Electron moving back and forth between rigid walls will from a
stationary wave pattern with nodes at the walls. So the distance between
the walls ‘L’ must be an integral multiple of the de-Broglie half
wavelengths.
l
Hence, L = n ; n = 1, 2, 3, ¼
2
-9 l L 2 ´ 10
Here, L = 10 mt = 10 Å; so, L = n Þ l = 2 = Å
2 n n
Thus first three de-Broglie wavelengths are
2 ´ 10 2 ´ 10 2 ´ 10
l= = 20 Å , = 10 Å , = 6.67 Å
1 2 3
Also, the corresponding energy is given by
p2 h 2 n2h2
En = n 2 = ;
2mL2 8mL2
The first three energy eigen values are
12 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E1 = J = 0.37 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -9 ) 2
8 ´ 91
2 2 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E2 = J = 1.48 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -9 ) 2
8 ´ 91
3 2 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E3 = J = 3.33 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -9 ) 2
8 ´ 91
202 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Q.2. An electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of side

1 Å. Obtain first two eigen values of the electron in eV?
Ans. As above, the corresponding energy is given by
n2h2
En =
8mL2
Here, L = 1 ´ 10 -10 mt

12 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E1 = J = 36 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -10 ) 2
8 ´ 91
2 2 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E2 = J = 144 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -10 ) 2
8 ´ 91
3 2 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E3 = J = 324 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -10 ) 2
8 ´ 91
4 2 ´ ( 6.624 ´ 10 -34 ) 2
E4 = J = 576 eV
. ´ 10 -31 ´ (1 ´ 10 -10 ) 2
8 ´ 91
Q.3. Determine the temperature at which there is one percent
probability that a state with an energy 0.25 eV above the Fermi
energy will be occupied by an electron?
Ans. For electron, the probability of occupancy of energy level E is given by
the Fermi-Dirac distribution function f ( E) as given below
1
f ( E) =
[E - E F ]
+1
e kT
1 1 1
Here, f ( E) = Þ =
[E - E F ] 100 [ 0. 25 eV ]
+1 +1
e kT e kT
1 1
Þ = Þ T = 631 K
100 [ 0. 25 ´ 1. 6 ´ 10 -19]
+1
1. 38 ´ 10 -23 ´ T
e
Q.4. Calculate the thermoionic emission of a tungsten filament of length
0.05 m and area of cross-section 5p ´ 10 -6 m 2 at a temperature
2400 K? (F = 4.5 eV)
Ans. Thermoionic current is given by I = J ´ A.
Here, ‘J’ and ‘A’ are the current density and the cross-sectional area of
the filament. So, using Richardson’s equation,
é em ù
I =ê ( kT ) 2 e -f / kT ´ A
2 3ú
ë 2p h û
NUMERICALS 203

é ù
ê ú
ê 1.6 ´ 10 -19 ´ 91. ´ 10 -31 ú
=ê ú
ê æ -34 ö 3 ú
6.626 ´ 10
ê 2p 2 ´ ç ÷ ú
êë ç 2 p ÷ ú
è ø û
4.5 ´ 1. 6 ´ 10 -19
-
( 1. 38 ´ 10 -23 ´ 2400 )
. ´ 10 -23 ´ 2400) 2 e
(138 ´ 5p ´ 10 -6
= 0.324 A
Q.5. Copper has density and electric conductivity at 300 K as
8. 96 ´ 10 3 kg/ m 3 and 6. 4 ´ 10 7 W –1 m –1 respectively. Determine
the relaxation time?
Ans. Number density or concentration is given by
Nr
n=
M
Here, Avagadro’s number = N = 6.023 ´ 10 26 ;
density = r = 8.96 ´ 10 3 kg/ mt 3
Kilo-molar mass = M = 63.34 kg
Nr
So, n= = 8.5 ´ 10 28 mt -3
M
Also, we know that the electrical conductivity
ne 2 ms
r= tÞ t = = 2.67 ´ 10 -14 sec.
m 2
ne
Q.6. Hall voltage of 1 mV is found to be developed when a sample
carrying a current of 10 mA is placed in a transverse magnetic field
of 3 KG. Calculate the charge carriers concentration of the sample.
Given thickness of the sample along the direction of magnetic field
is 0.3 mm?
Ans. Here, VH =1 mV, I =10 mA, B = 3 kG = 0.3 T, d = 0.3 mm
VH d 1
RH =
and also R H = .
IB ne
1 VH d IB
Hence, = Þn=
ne IB edVH
10 ´ 10 -3 ´ 0.3
=
1.6 ´ 10 -19 ´ 0.3 ´ 10 -3 ´ 1 ´ 10 -3
= 6.25 ´ 10 22 mt -3
Q.7. An n-type Ge sample has a donor density of 10 21 /m 3 . It is arranged
in a Hall experiment having magnetic field of 0.5 T and current
204 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

density is 500 A/m 2 . Find the Hall voltage of the sample is 3 mm

wide?
Ans. Given, N D = n = 10 21 mt -3 ; J = 500 mA / mt 2 , B = 0.5 T, W = 3 mm.
VH d 1 1 VH d VH d V d
RH = ; RH = Þ = = = H
IB ne ne IB ( JA) B ( JdW ) B
1 V JBW
Þ = H Þ VH = = 4.7 mV
ne ( JW ) B ne

CHAPTER 6 MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Q.1. The horizontal component of flux density of the earth’s magnetic
field is 1.7 ´ 10 -5 W/m 2 . What is the horizontal component of the
magnetic intensity?
Ans. We have the flux density in free space as
B0 = m 0 H
-5
B0 . ´ 10 W/ mt 2
17
So, H = = = 13.5 A / mt.
m 0 4p ´ 10 -7 W/A - mt

Q.2. A bar magnet has a coercivity of 5 ´ 10 3 A/m. It is desired to

demagnetize it by inserting it inside a solenoid 10 cm long and
having 50 turns. What current should be sent through the solenoid?
Ans. The bar magnet requires a magnetic intensity H ( = 5 ´ 10 3 A / mt) to
become demagnetized. Let I be the current carried by the solenoid to
produce the magnetic intensity, then, H = nI , here ‘n’ is the numbers of
turns of the solenoid per unit length.
H 5 ´ 10 3
Hence, I= = = 10 A
n 50 / 01
.
Q.3. An iron rod of volume 10 -4 mt 3 and relative permeability 1000 is
placed inside a long solenoid wound with 5 turns per cm. If a
current of 0.5 A is passed through the solenoid find the magnetic
moment of the rod?
Ans. We have, B = m 0 (H + M ) = m 0m r H
Þ m 0 ( M ) = m 0 m r H - m 0 ( H ) = m 0 (m r - 1) H
Þ M = (m r - 1) H = (m r - 1) nI
5
Þ M = (1000 - 1) ´ ´ 0.5 A / mt = 249750 A / mt
0.01
So, magnetic moment = M ´ volume = 249750 ´ 10 -4 A - mt 2 .
Q.4. An iron ring of mean circumferential length 30 cm, cross-section
1 cm 2 is wound uniformly with 300 turns of wire. When a current
NUMERICALS 205

of 0.032 A flows in the windings, the flux in the ring is 2 ´ 10 -2 Wb.

Find the flux density in the ring, the magnetic intensity and the
permeability of iron?
Ans. Here, L = 30 cm = 0.3 mt; A = 1 cm 2 = 10 -4 mt 2 ; N = 300;1 = 0.032 A,
fB = 2 ´ 10 -6 Wb
fB 2 ´ 10 -6
So, flux density is B = = = 2 ´ 10 -2 Wb - mt 2 .
A - 4
10
N 300
The magnetic intensity is H = I = ´ 0.032 = 32 A-turns/ mt.
L 0.3
B 2 ´ 10 -2
So, m= = = 6.25 ´ 10 -4 Wb/A-mt.
H 32
m 6.25 ´ 10 -4
and mr = = = 500
m0 4p ´ 10 -7
Q.5. The magnetic susceptibility of medium is 9. 48 ´ 10 -9 . Calculate m r .
Ans. We know m r = 1 + X = 1 + 9.48 ´ 10 -9 .
Q.6. A material core has 10 turns/cm of wire wound uniformly upon it
which carries a current of 2 A. The flux density in the material is
1.0 Wb/m 2 . Calculate the magnetizing force and magnetization of
the material. What wound be the relative permeability of the core?
(m 0 = 4p ´ 10 -7 Wb/ m 2 )
N 10
Ans. Here, Magnetizing force H = I= ´ 2 = 2000 A-turns/ mt.
L 0.01
Also, the intensity of magnetization in material
B = m 0 (H + M )
B 1
Þ M= -H = - 2000 = 7.94 ´ 105 A-turns/ mt
m0 -7
4p ´ 10
Now, B = m 0m r H
B 1
Þ mr = = = 397
-
m 0 H 4p ´ 10 7 ´ 2000
Q.7. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A/mt and
produces a flux density of 0.00314 Wb/mt 2 . Calculate the
magnetizing force and relative permeability of the material.
Ans. The magnetizing force is given by
B 0.00314
B = m 0 (H + M ) Þ H = -M = - 2300 = 198 A / mt
m0 4p ´ 10 -7
The relative permeability is
B 0.00314
mr = = = 12.56
m 0 H 4p ´ 10 -7 ´ 198
206 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Q.8. Consider a He atom in its ground state (1s). The mean radius in the
Langevin formula may be approximate by Bohr radius, < r 2 >
= 0.53 ´ 10 -8 cm. Using N = 27 ´ 10 23 /cm 3 for atomic density of He
gas and e 2 / mc 2 = 2. 8 ´ 10 -13 cm, calculate the diamagnetic
susceptibility of He-atom.
Ans. The diamagnetic susceptibility for any material is given by
ZNe 2
X =- <r 2>
2
6mc
In case of Helium atom Z = 2.
é Ne 2 ù
So, X = - 2 ê mc 2 ú < r 2 > = - 0.71 ´ 10 -5 .
êë 6 úû
Q.9. Diamagnetic Al 2 O 3 is subjected to an external magnetic field of
105 A/m. Evaluate magnetization and magnetic flux density in
Al 2 O 3 ? (c = 5 ´ 10 -5 )
Ans. We know the magnetization for diamagnetic material is given by
M = - cH
and B = m 0 ( H + M ) = m 0 ( H - cH )
= m 0 H(1 - c) = 4p ´ 10 -7 ´ 105 ´ (1 - 5 ´ 10 -5 )
= 0126
. Wb/ mt 2
Q.10. The susceptibility of paramagnetic FeCl 3 is 3.7 ´ 10 -3 at 27°C.
What will be the value of its relative permeability m r at 200 K and
500 K?
Ans. The Curie constant C = cT = 3.7 ´ 10 -3 ´ ( 273 + 27) = 111
. K
C 111
.
Hence, c 200 = = = 5.55 ´ 10 -3
T 200
Þ m r = 1 + c 200 = 1 + 5.55 ´ 10 -3
C 111
.
c 500 = = = 2.22 ´ 10 -3
T 500
Þ m r = 1 + c 500 = 1 + 2.22 ´ 10 -3

CHAPTER 7 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Q.1. For a given superconductor the critical fields are 1. 4 ´ 105 and
4. 2 ´ 105 A/m for 14 K and 13 K respectively. Calculate the
transition temperature and critical field at 4.2 K?
é æ T ö
2ù
Ans. We know, HC = H 0 ê1 - çç ÷÷ ú ; Here H 0 is the critical field at 0°K.
ê è TC ø ú
ë û
NUMERICALS 207

é æ T ö2 ù éT 2 - T12 ù
Thus, at T = T1 , HC1 = H 0 ê1 - çç 1 ÷÷ ú = H 0 ê C ú
ê è TC ø ú êë TC
2
úû
ë û
éT - T2 ù
2 2
and at T = T2 ; HC 2 = H 0 ê c ú
2
êë Tc úû
HC1 TC2 - T12 1.4 ´ 10 5
T 2 - (14) 2
So, = Þ = C Þ TC = 14.5 K
HC 2 TC2 - T22 4.2 ´ 105 TC2 - (13) 2
At T = T1 = 14 K, we have
é æ T ö2 ù
HC1 = H 0 ê1 - çç 1 ÷÷ ú
ê è TC ø ú
ë û
5
HC1 1.4 ´ 10
Þ H0 = = = 20.66 ´ 105 A / mt
é æ T ö ù é æ 14 ö 2 ù
2
ê1 - çç 1 ÷÷ ú ê1 - ç ÷ ú
ê è TC ø ú êë è 14.5 ø úû
ë û
So at T = 4.2 K, we have
é æ T ö2 ù é 4.2 ö ù
2
HC = H 0 ê1 - çç 1 ÷÷ ú = 20.66 ´ 105 ´ ê1 - çæ 5
÷ ú = 18.9 ´ 10 A / mt
ê è TC ø ú
ë û êë è 14.5 ø úû
Q.2. The TC for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185 K. Calculate its TC
when its isotopic mass changes to 203.4?
Ans. The variation of critical temperature TC with isotopic mass M is given
as
TC M 1/ 2 = constant
Hence for two different isotopic masses M 1 and M 2 we have
TC1 M 11/ 2 = M C 2 M 12/ 2
Þ . ) ´ (199.5) 1/ 2 = TC 2 ´ ( 203.4) 1/ 2 Þ TC 2 = 414
( 4185 . K
Q.3. Calculate the critical current density for 1 mm diameter wire of
lead at 4.2 K. Given TC for lead is 7.18 K and H 0 = 6.5 ´ 10 4 A/m.
é æ T ö2 ù é 4.2 ö ù
2
Ans. We know, HC = H 0 ê1 - çç ÷÷ ú = 1712
. ´ 108 ´ ê1 - æç ÷ ú
ê è TC ø ú
ë û êë è 718 . ø ú
û
= 4.28 ´ 10 4 A / mt
Here, radius = r = 1/ 2 mm = 0.5 ´ 10 -3 mt
The critical current is I C = 2prHC
So the critical current density is
I 2prHC 2 2HC
JC = C = r =
A p r
2 ´ 4.28 ´ 10 4
= = 1712
. ´ 108 A / mt 2
-3
0.5 ´ 10

qqq
 1. (a) What do you mean by crystal structure. Define space lattice, plane
lattice, primitive cell, unit cell and translational vector.
(b) Determine the interplaner spacing for different planes in SCC, BCC
and FCC structure.
2. (a) Calculate the number of lattice points per unit cell in SCC, BCC and
FCC structure. Define coordination number. Determine the
coordination number for SCC, BCC and FCC structure.
(b) Calculate the atomic packing fraction for SCC, BCC and FCC
structure.
3. (a) What are Miller Indices? Deduce formula for distance between two
adjacent planes of a simple cubic lattice.
(b) Draw planes and their direction with steps illustrating (101), (111),
(200) plane in a cubic unit cell.
4. (a) What do you mean by Madelung constant. Derive the expression of
Lattice energy of an ionic crystal.
(b) Give the classification of various bonding in solid with example.
5. What is Bragg’s law? Why does it hold for atomic arrangement? Explain
Laue and Powder crystal methods.
6. (a) What are point defects? Explain with examples.
(b) Constitute the expression of concentration of Frenkel defects
produced in a crystal at a fixed temperature.
7. Write short notes on following :
(a) Elementary idea of quark and gluons
(b) Sodium chloride structure
(c) Bragg’s law of diffraction
8. (a) What are the inadequacies in Classical Physics?
(b) Derive Planck’s radiation law.
9. (a) What is difference between phase and group velocity? Prove their
expression.
(b) Show that the de-Broglie group velocity associated with wave
packet is equal to velocity of the particle.

© The Author(s) 2022 209

P. K. Basu and H. Dhasmana, Solid State Engineering Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10940-9
210 SOLID STATE ENGINEERING PHYSICS

10. Giving physical significance of wave function, derive time dependent

Schrödinger’s wave equation.
11. Discuss the essential features of electron energy band structure of solid on
the basis of Kronig Penny model.
12. (a) What are Brillouin zones? Illustrate by constructing two
dimensional Brillouin zone for square lattice.
(b) Explain E-k diagram and effective mass.
13. What is Hall effect? Give theory of Hall Effect. Define Hall voltage, Hall
coefficient, Hall angle and Hall mobility. Derive the mathematical
relationship between them. Mention application of Hall effect.
14. What are traps? Discuss simple model to show the effect of traps on the
photoconductivity. Calculate the gain factor.
15. (a) What is photoconductivity? State the principle of photoconductive
cell. Describe construction working and uses. Show the illumination
characteristic and spectral response.
(b) Discuss the energy conversion process in a photovoltaic cell. Also
explain characteristics of a photovoltaic cell.
16. Distinguish Dia, Para, Ferromagnetism. Derive expression for diamagnetic
susceptibility on the basis of Langevin’s theory and show it is independent
of temperature.
17. Explain classical theory of Paramagnetism. Derive the expression for
susceptibility in paramagnetic substances.
18. What are distinguish features of ferromagnetism? Calculate the
susceptibility in ferromagnetic materials with required theory. Also
explain the domain theory associated with it.
19. What is superconductivity? Describe Meissner’s effect. Distinguish
between Type-I and Type-II superconductor. Write various applications of
superconductors.
20. Derive London’s equation and discuss how it’s solution explain
Meissner’s effect.
21. What do you mean by nanotechnology. Differentiate between old
nanotechnology and new nanotechnology. Describe various nanomaterials
and write the role of quantum mechanics.
22. Write principle, construction and working of SEM, TEM, AFM and IR
spectroscopy with their applications.

qqq