Microcell Zone Concept

● Definition: The microcell zone concept involves dividing a large cell into smaller
"microcells" to provide better capacity and coverage in areas with high user density.
● Implementation: Uses multiple low-power base stations within the same cell, covering
small zones.
● Advantages:
○ Increased Capacity: Serves more users by reducing the number of users per
cell.
○ Improved Coverage: Addresses weak signal areas or high-traffic zones.
○ Reduced Interference: Lowers co-channel interference due to smaller coverage.

Applications
● Used in urban environments, shopping malls, or event areas where user density is high.

Quick Revision:

● Definition: Microcells divide large cells into smaller zones for enhanced service in dense
areas.
● Power Usage: Low-power base stations cover these small zones efficiently.
● Capacity: Increases network capacity by reducing user load per cell.
● Coverage: Improves signal strength and quality in high-traffic or weak signal areas.
● Interference: Reduces co-channel interference due to smaller cell size.
● Application: Suitable for urban areas, malls, and event spaces.

Handoff Strategies in Cellular

Systems
HARD HANDOFF :
- One Communication at a time.
- Disturbance Possibility
- Cheap

SOFT HANDOFF :
- No Disturbance
- Simultaneous connections for some time.
- Expensive relatively

Handoff ensures a seamless transition of an active call or data session from one cell to another
when a mobile user moves between coverage areas. Below are the key strategies:
 1. Hard Handoff

● Definition: A "break-before-make" strategy where the connection to the current cell is

terminated before establishing a new connection with the target cell.
● Process:
○ Mobile device disconnects from the serving base station.
○ A new link is established with the target base station.
● Advantages:
○ Simpler implementation.
○ Requires fewer resources and less complex equipment.
● Disadvantages:
○ Can cause a brief disruption in the connection, leading to potential call drops.
○ Not ideal for high-speed data services.

Example: GSM networks.

2. Soft Handoff

● Definition: A "make-before-break" strategy where the mobile device simultaneously

connects to multiple base stations during the handoff process.
● Process:
○ The mobile maintains links with both the current and target cells.
○ The weaker link is dropped after establishing a stronger connection with the
target cell.
● Advantages:
○ Reduces the risk of dropped calls.
○ Improves call quality by providing a smoother transition.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires more complex infrastructure.
○ Higher network resource usage.

Example: CDMA networks.

3. Hard vs. Soft Handoff

● Hard handoff is abrupt and resource-efficient but may lead to call drops.
● Soft handoff ensures smoother transitions at the cost of complexity and resources.

4. Intra-system and Inter-system Handoff

● Intra-system Handoff: Handoff occurs within the same network, such as moving
 between cells in a GSM network.
● Inter-system Handoff: Handoff happens between different networks, such as from GSM
to CDMA or from 4G to 5G.

5. Horizontal and Vertical Handoff

● Horizontal Handoff: Occurs between cells within the same network layer (e.g.,
4G-to-4G).
● Vertical Handoff: Happens between different layers or technologies (e.g., 4G-to-Wi-Fi).

Quick Revision:
● Hard Handoff: Disconnect current link before establishing a new one; simpler but may
cause call drops.
● Soft Handoff: Maintain links with both cells during the transition; smoother but
resource-intensive.
● Intra-system: Within the same network; Inter-system: Across different networks.
● Horizontal Handoff: Same technology; Vertical Handoff: Different technologies.

Cell Splitting
Definition:

● Cell splitting is the process of dividing a larger cell into smaller cells (microcells) to
increase network capacity and handle higher traffic loads.

Key Features:

● Objective: Enhance capacity by reducing the number of users per cell.

● Implementation:
○ Deploy additional base stations with reduced transmission power.
○ Smaller cells cover smaller geographic areas.
● Advantages:
○ Accommodates more users by increasing cell density.
○ Improves frequency reuse.
● Disadvantages:
○ Increases cost due to the need for more base stations.
○ Requires careful planning to manage interference.

Example: Used in growing urban areas with increasing subscriber density.

 Cell Sectorization
Definition:

● Cell sectorization divides a single cell into smaller sectors using directional antennas to
improve frequency reuse and reduce interference.

Key Features:

● Structure: A cell is typically divided into 3 or 6 sectors, each served by a directional

antenna.
● Frequency Reuse: Reduces co-channel interference by directing signals to specific
zones.
● Advantages:
○ Enhances capacity and coverage without increasing the number of base stations.
○ Improves signal quality by minimizing interference.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires sophisticated antenna systems.
○ Limited improvement compared to cell splitting in high-density areas.

Example: Common in urban areas with high traffic and interference challenges.

Quick Revision:
Cell Splitting:

● Definition: Divide large cells into smaller cells for higher capacity.
● Advantages: More users, better frequency reuse.
● Disadvantages: High cost, complex planning.

Cell Sectorization:

● Definition: Divide a cell into directional sectors using antennas.

● Advantages: Better frequency reuse, reduced interference.
● Disadvantages: Limited in handling very high-density traffic.

Dwell Time
Definition:

● Dwell time is the duration for which a mobile station (user device) stays in a cell before a
 handoff occurs.

Key Factors Affecting Dwell Time:

1. Velocity of the Mobile User: Higher speed reduces dwell time.

2. Cell Size: Smaller cells result in shorter dwell times.
3. Radio Conditions: Poor signal quality may lead to earlier handoffs.

Importance:

● Determines the frequency of handoffs.

● Impacts network performance and call quality.

Quick Revision:

● Dwell Time: Time spent in a cell before handoff.

● Depends on: User speed, cell size, and signal quality.
● Significance: Influences handoff rate and network efficiency.

Co-Channel Interference (CCI)

Definition:

● Interference caused by using the same frequency in multiple cells within the network.

Key Characteristics:

● Source: Occurs due to frequency reuse in cellular systems.

● Impact: Reduces signal quality in overlapping coverage areas.
● Reduction Techniques:
○ Increase frequency reuse distance.
○ Optimize antenna design and directionality.

Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)

Definition:

● Interference caused by overlapping signals from channels with closely spaced

frequencies.

Key Characteristics:

● Source: Poor filtering or improper frequency allocation.

 ● Impact: Degrades signal quality even if frequencies are not identical.
● Reduction Techniques:
○ Use better filters.
○ Maintain guard bands between adjacent channels.

Differences
Aspect Co-Channel Interference (CCI) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)

Cause Same frequency in nearby cells. Overlap between closely spaced

frequencies.

Impact Interference between co-channel Overlap degrades quality for adjacent

users. users.

Control Increase distance, better antennas. Use guard bands, better filters.

Occurrenc Depends on frequency reuse Due to hardware or frequency allocation.

e pattern.

Quick Revision:

● CCI: Same frequency interference; fix by increasing reuse distance and better antennas.
● ACI: Nearby frequency interference; fix with filters and guard bands.
● Key Difference: CCI stems from frequency reuse; ACI arises from poor frequency
allocation.

Co-Channel Cells
Definition:

● Co-channel cells are cells in a cellular network that reuse the same frequency channels
for communication, based on the principle of frequency reuse.

Key Characteristics:

● Purpose: Maximizes spectrum efficiency by reusing frequencies in non-adjacent cells.

● Challenge: Causes co-channel interference, which needs to be minimized through
 proper design.

Management:

● Increase the frequency reuse distance (distance between co-channel cells).

● Use directional antennas to reduce interference.

Geometry of Co-Channel Cells

Hexagonal Geometry:

● Cellular networks use hexagonal cells to cover an area efficiently.

● Each hexagon represents a base station's coverage area.

Frequency Reuse Pattern:

● Defined by the reuse factor NNN, which indicates the number of cells in a cluster that
use different frequencies.
● Formula for the reuse distance DDD: D=R3ND = R \sqrt{3N}D=R3N​Where RRR is the
cell radius and NNN is the cluster size.

Cluster Formation:

● Co-channel cells are positioned such that they maintain a distance DDD, avoiding
interference.
● Common cluster sizes: N=3,4,7,12N = 3, 4, 7, 12N=3,4,7,12.

Quick Revision:

● Co-Channel Cells: Use the same frequency; manage interference with distance and
directional antennas.
● Geometry: Hexagonal cells with frequency reuse defined by cluster size NNN.
● Reuse Distance: D=R3ND = R \sqrt{3N}D=R3N​, ensuring efficient spectrum usage with
minimal interference.

Signal-to-Interference Ratio (S/I

 Ratio)
Definition:

● The Signal-to-Interference Ratio (S/I) is the ratio of the power of the desired signal to
the power of co-channel interference signals in a cellular system.
● It measures the quality of the communication link, with a higher ratio indicating better
signal clarity and reduced interference.

Importance of S/I Ratio

1. Call Quality: Higher S/I ensures clear voice or data transmission.
2. System Performance: Helps optimize frequency reuse and reduce call drops.
3. Interference Management: Determines the minimum spacing between co-channel cells
to maintain acceptable service.

Formula for S/I Ratio

 Improving S/I Ratio
1. Increase Reuse Distance: Separate co-channel cells further apart.
2. Directional Antennas: Focus energy to reduce interference.
3. Power Control: Optimize signal power without causing additional interference.

Quick Revision:

● S/I Ratio: Measures desired signal vs. interference strength.

● Importance: Ensures clear communication and interference management.
● Formula: S/I=S∑IiS/I = \frac{S}{\sum I_i}S/I=∑Ii​S​, dependent on distance and path loss.
● Improvement: Use larger reuse distance, directional antennas, and power control.

Illustration of 120-Degree Sectoring to

 Reduce Co-Channel Interference
Concept:

● Sectoring divides a cell into smaller sectors using directional antennas to reduce
interference from co-channel cells and improve capacity.
● 120-degree sectoring is commonly used, where each cell is divided into three equal
sectors, each covering 120° of the total 360°.

How Sectoring Reduces Co-Channel Interference

1. Before Sectoring (Omnidirectional Antennas):
○ The base station in a cell uses an omnidirectional antenna, radiating energy
uniformly in all directions.
○ This leads to interference from all co-channel cells that are nearby, especially
those in direct line-of-sight.
2. After Sectoring (120-Degree Antennas):
○ The base station uses three directional antennas, each covering 120° of the
area.
○ This focusing of the signal reduces interference from co-channel cells by
minimizing overlap in the direction of transmission.
○ The interference from co-channel cells is now more manageable because each
sector has a specific direction of communication, and co-channel cells are less
likely to overlap in these directions.
3. Result:
○ Co-channel interference is greatly reduced as signals are transmitted in a more
controlled direction.
○ Increases the frequency reuse and allows more users to be served without
significant interference.

Diagram (Visualized Concept)

Imagine a hexagonal cell with 120° sectors:

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/ \
/ \
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Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3

● Each Sector 1, 2, and 3 is covered by a directional antenna, reducing the interference

from neighboring cells in the direction that the antenna is pointing.

Quick Revision:
● 120-Degree Sectoring: Divides a cell into three sectors, reducing co-channel
interference.
● Impact: Focusing signal transmission helps avoid overlap, leading to better frequency
reuse and less interference.
● Result: More efficient spectrum usage and improved call quality.

Improving Coverage & Capacity in

Cellular Systems
Improving both coverage and capacity is essential for optimizing a cellular network's
performance, ensuring better service quality, and accommodating more users. Several
strategies can be employed to achieve this:
1. Cell Splitting
● Definition: Dividing larger cells into smaller cells (microcells) to increase the network's
capacity.
● How It Works:
○ Deploy additional base stations with lower power levels to serve smaller areas.
○ Reduces the number of users per cell, thereby improving capacity.
● Advantages:
○ Increases the number of users that can be served in a specific area.
○ Better frequency reuse due to smaller cell sizes.
● Disadvantages:
○ Increased infrastructure costs due to more base stations.

2. Cell Sectorization
● Definition: Dividing a single cell into multiple sectors (typically 3 or 6), each served by a
directional antenna.
● How It Works:
○ Reduces co-channel interference by directing signals to specific regions,
improving frequency reuse.
● Advantages:
○ Improves capacity by handling more users in the same area.
○ Reduces interference between adjacent cells.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires more complex antenna systems and precise planning.

3. Repeaters
● Definition: Devices used to extend coverage in weak signal areas.
● How It Works:
○ Repeaters receive the base station signal and amplify it before retransmitting it.
● Advantages:
○ Increases coverage in remote or poorly covered areas (e.g., tunnels, rural areas).
● Disadvantages:
○ Can add delay and slightly degrade signal quality.

4. Microcell Zone Concept

● Definition: Small, low-power base stations (microcells) deployed in high-traffic areas.
● How It Works:
○ Used in urban or dense areas to handle high user demand and improve capacity.
● Advantages:
○ Increases coverage in specific areas (e.g., city centers, malls).
○ Reduces interference by lowering cell size.
● Disadvantages:
○ Increased infrastructure requirements.

5. Umbrella Cells
● Definition: Large cells (umbrella cells) cover an area with smaller, high-capacity cells
overlaid in high-demand zones.
● How It Works:
○ The large umbrella cell ensures coverage, while small cells handle high-speed
users.
● Advantages:
○ Reduces the frequency of handoffs for fast-moving users.
○ Provides seamless coverage.
● Disadvantages:
○ Requires more careful planning to balance coverage and capacity.

6. Use of Higher Frequency Bands

● Definition: Shifting to higher frequency bands (e.g., millimeter waves in 5G).
● How It Works:
○ Higher frequencies provide more bandwidth, allowing higher data rates and more
users.
● Advantages:
○ Increases capacity and data throughput.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited coverage due to increased signal attenuation and shorter range.

7. Dynamic Power Control

● Definition: Adjusting the power levels of mobile devices and base stations to optimize
coverage and minimize interference.
● How It Works:
○ Power is increased in areas with weak signals and reduced in areas with strong
signals.
● Advantages:
○ Reduces interference.
○ Extends battery life for mobile devices.
● Disadvantages:
 ○ Requires sophisticated algorithms for power adjustment.

Quick Revision:
● Cell Splitting: Divide large cells to handle more users; increases capacity.
● Cell Sectorization: Use directional antennas to reduce interference and improve
capacity.
● Repeaters: Amplify signals to extend coverage in weak areas.
● Microcell Zones: Small cells for high-traffic areas to improve capacity and coverage.
● Umbrella Cells: Large cells with small cells for high-speed users.
● Higher Frequency Bands: Increased bandwidth but shorter range.
● Dynamic Power Control: Optimizes signal strength and reduces interference.

Frequency Reuse
Definition:

● Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in cellular systems where the same

frequency channels are used in different cells, separated by sufficient distance, to
optimize the limited spectrum available. This allows the system to serve more users
while minimizing interference.

Quick Revision:
● Frequency Reuse: Repeated use of frequencies in different cells, separated by
distance, to maximize spectrum efficiency.
● Reuse Factor (N): Number of cells in a cluster with unique frequencies.
● Formula: D=R3ND = R \sqrt{3N}D=R3N​determines the reuse distance to avoid
interference.
● Advantages: Efficient spectrum use, increased capacity, scalability.
● Challenges: Co-channel interference and frequency planning.
N = No. of Cells in a Cluster