RECENT TRENDS IN ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE

Artificial intelligence (AI), in its

broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited
by machines, particularly computer
systems. It is a field of
research in computer science that
develops and studies methods
and software that enable machines
to perceive their environment and
use learning and intelligence to take
actions that maximize their chances of
achieving defined goals.[1] Such machines
may be called AIs.
Some high-profile applications of
AI include advanced web search
engines (e.g., Google
Search); recommendation systems (used
by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix);
interacting via human
speech (e.g., Google Assistant, Siri,
and Alexa); autonomous
vehicles (e.g., Waymo); generative and cr
eative tools (e.g., ChatGPT, and AI art);
and superhuman play and analysis
in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go).

Reasoning and problem-solving

Early researchers developed algorithms
that imitated step-by-step reasoning that
humans use when they solve puzzles or
make logical deductions. By the late
1980s and 1990s, methods were
developed for dealing with uncertain or
incomplete information, employing
concepts from probability and economics.
Many of these algorithms are insufficient
for solving large reasoning problems
because they experience a "combinatorial
explosion": They become exponentially
slower as the problems grow. Even
humans rarely use the step-by-step
deduction that early AI research could
model. They solve most of their problems
using fast, intuitive judgments. Accurate
and efficient reasoning is an unsolved
problem.

Knowledge representation

An ontology represents knowledge as a

set of concepts within a domain and the
relationships between those concepts.
Knowledge representation and knowledge
engineering allow AI programs to answer
questions intelligently and make
deductions about real-world facts. Formal
knowledge representations are used in
content-based indexing and
retrieval, scene interpretation, clinical
decision support, knowledge discovery
(mining "interesting" and actionable
inferences from large databases), and
other areas.
A knowledge base is a body of knowledge
represented in a form that can be used by
a program. An ontology is the set of
objects, relations, concepts, and
properties used by a particular domain of
knowledge. Knowledge bases need to
represent things such as objects,
properties, categories, and relations
between objects; situations, events,
states, and time; causes and
effects; knowledge about knowledge
(what we know about what other people
know); default reasoning (things that
humans assume are true until they are
told differently and will remain true even
when other facts are changing) 28]; and
many other aspects and domains of
knowledge.
Among the most difficult problems in
knowledge representation are the
breadth of commonsense knowledge (the
set of atomic facts that the average
person knows is enormous); and the sub-
symbolic form of most commonsense
knowledge (much of what people know is
not represented as "facts" or
"statements" that they could express
verbally). There is also the difficulty
of knowledge acquisition, the problem of
obtaining knowledge for AI applications.

Planning and decision-making

An "agent" is anything that perceives and
takes actions in the world. A rational
agent has goals or preferences and takes
actions to make them
happen. In automated planning, the agent
has a specific goal. In automated
decision-making, the agent has
preferences—there are some situations it
would prefer to be in, and some situations
it is trying to avoid. The decision-making
agent assigns a number to each situation
(called the "utility") that measures how
much the agent prefers it. For each
possible action, it can calculate the
"expected utility": the utility of all
possible outcomes of the action, weighted
by the probability that the outcome will
occur. It can then choose the action with
the maximum expected utility.
In classical planning, the agent knows
exactly what the effect of any action will
be. In most real-world problems, however,
the agent may not be certain about the
situation they are in (it is "unknown" or
"unobservable") and it may not know for
certain what will happen after each
possible action (it is not "deterministic").
It must choose an action by making a
probabilistic guess and then reassess the
situation to see if the action worked.
Learning
Machine learning is the study of programs
that can improve their performance on a
given task automatically It has been a
part of AI from the beginning.

There are several kinds of machine

learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes
a stream of data and finds patterns and
makes predictions without any other
guidance. Supervised learning requires
labeling the training data with the
expected answers, and comes in two
main varieties: classification (where the
program must learn to predict what
category the input belongs in)
and regression (where the program must
deduce a numeric function based on
numeric input).
In reinforcement learning, the agent is
rewarded for good responses and
punished for bad ones. The agent learns
to choose responses that are classified as
"good”. Transfer learning is when the
knowledge gained from one problem is
applied to a new problem. Deep
learning is a type of machine learning
that runs inputs through biologically
inspired artificial neural networks for all of
these types of learning.
Natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP). allows
programs to read, write and communicate
in human languages such as English.
Specific problems include speech
recognition, speech synthesis, machine
translation, information
extraction, information
retrieval and question answering.
Early work, based on Noam
Chomsky's generative
grammar and semantic networks, had
difficulty with word-sense
disambiguation unless restricted to small
domains called "micro-worlds" (due to the
common sense knowledge
problem). Margaret Masterman believed
that it was meaning and not grammar
that was the key to understanding
languages, and that thesauri and not
dictionaries should be the basis of
computational language structure.
Modern deep learning techniques for NLP
include word embedding (representing
words, typically as vectors encoding their
meaning), transformers (a deep learning
architecture using
an attention mechanism), and others. In
2019, generative pre-trained
transformer (or "GPT") language models
began to generate coherent text, and by
2023, these models were able to get
human-level scores on the bar
exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other
real-world applications.

Perception
Machine perception is the ability to use
input from sensors (such as cameras,
microphones, wireless signals,
active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile
sensors) to deduce aspects of the
world. Computer vision is the ability to
analyze visual input.

Social intelligence

A robot head which was made in the

1990s; it is a machine that can recognize
and simulate emotions.
Affective computing is an interdisciplinary
umbrella that comprises systems that
recognize, interpret, process, or simulate
human feeling, emotion, and mood. For
example, some virtual assistants are
programmed to speak conversationally or
even to banter humorously; it makes
them appear more sensitive to the
emotional dynamics of human interaction,
or to otherwise facilitate human–
computer interaction.
However, this tends to give naive users
an unrealistic conception of the
intelligence of existing computer
agents Moderate successes related to
affective computing include
textual sentiment analysis and, more
recently, multimodal sentiment analysis,
wherein AI classifies the effects displayed
by a videotaped subject

General intelligence
A machine with artificial general
intelligence should be able to solve a
wide variety of problems with breadth
and versatility similar to human
intelligence

Conclusion
The conclusion of artificial intelligence is
still uncertain, with experts and
researchers divided on the potential
outcomes. Some argue that AI has the
power to revolutionize industries, improve
efficiency, and enhance our quality of life.