1. Differentiate between lapping and honing process.

2. Draw conventional diagram of limits and fits and tolerances

3. Enumerate Various Screw threads parameters for metrological
measurement Also enlist instruments corresponding to their
measurements
4. Explain the working principle of sine bar with a neat sketch. state the
limitations of sine bar.
5. Explain the construction working principle of the autocollimator with a
neat sketch.
6. Differentiate between tolerance and allowance
7. Explain Taylor’s principle for design of limit gauges
8. Compare clearance Fit, Interference fit and transition fit.

Honing Process Lapping Process

Precision machining using abrasive Abrasive machining involving the rubbing

stones or sticks, with a rotating and of a workpiece against a surface with an
oscillating/linearly moving tool. abrasive slurry.
Material is removed by cutting Material removal involves abrasive
action. particles in a slurry wearing away material.
Produces a controlled surface finish Generally produces a finer surface finish
with a cross-hatch pattern. compared to honing.
Used to achieve tight tolerances in Employed for achieving tight tolerances
cylindrical dimensions. and precise flatness in various dimensions.
Rotating and reciprocating/oscillating Relative movement between the workpiece
or linear tool movement. and lapping tool, often in a planetary
motion.
Focus on achieving precise Versatile, applied to both internal and
dimensions and desired surface external surfaces for achieving precision
finish in internal cylindrical surfaces. and smoothness.
Primarily used for finishing internal Used for both internal and external
cylindrical surfaces (e.g., engine surfaces across a wide range of materials
bores, hydraulic cylinders). (metals, ceramics, plastics).

Draw conventional diagram of limits and fits and tolerances

Fig: Conventional diagram representing Limits and Fits

Enumerate Various Screw threads parameters for metrological measurement

Also enlist instruments corresponding to their measurements
Characteristic External Thread Measurement Internal Thread Measurement

Major diameter Ordinary micrometer or Bench Using cast of the thread. Once a
micrometer, cast
Tool - maker’s microscope, is made, major diameter can be
Profile projector. determined by using microscope
or
optical projector.

Minor diameter Bench micrometer, a floating carriage Bench micrometer using taper
diameter measuring machine with parallels or rollers. Thread
V-pieces, optical projector or measuring machine.
microscope.

Effective diameter Screw thread micrometers. Floating Screw thread micrometer.

carriage diameter measuring
machines
using wires.

Pitch Pitch measuring machine, screw pitch Screw pitch gauge or profile gauge,
gauge (profile gauge) and pitch error microscope or pitch measuring
testing machines. machine.
Thread angle and form (profile) Optical projector. Using cast of thread. Once a cast is

made, thread angle and form can be

determined using either a

microscope or an optical projector.

Explain the working principle of sine bar with a neat sketch. state the
limitations of sine bar.

Sine Bar :
A sine bar is a high-precision and accurate angle-measuring instrument. It is
used in conjunction with a set of angle gauges. It is kept on two hardened
rollers of accurately equal diameters spaced at a known dimension (with
options at 100 mm, 200 mm, and 300 mm) at each end.
The rollers are brought in contact with the bar in such a way that the top
surface of the bar is absolutely parallel to the centerline of the (setting) rollers.
The holes drilled in the body of the sine bar to make it lighter and to facilitate
handling, are known as relief holes. This instrument is always worked with
true surfaces like surface plates. Figure 7.16 shows the nomenclature for a
sine bar as recommended by IS: 5359–1969. Figure 7.17 shows the pictorial
view of a sine bar of a center distance equal to 300 mm.
Fig. 7.16 Nomenclature for sine bar as recommended by IS: 5359–1969

Principle of using Sine Bar :

The law of trigonometry is the base for using a sine bar for angle
measurement. A sine bar is designed to set the angle precisely, generally in
conjunction with slip gauges. The angle is determined by an indirect method
as a function of sine—for this reason, the instrument is called a ‘sine bar’.
Also, to set a given angle, one of the rollers of the bar is kept on the datum
surfaces (generally, the surface plate), and the combination of the slip gauge
set is inserted under the second roller.

Fig. 7.18 Principle of using a sine bar

If L is the fixed distance between the two roller centers and H is the height of
the combination slip gauge set then
limitations of sine bar:
1. It is impractical to use sine bars for angle measurement above 45°.
2. It is difficult to hold taper plug gauge in desired position steadily
for long time.
3. A small error in sine bar causes large error, in the angle measured.

4. Components of very large sizes cannot be inspected by sine bars .

Explain the construction working principle of the autocollimator with a

neat sketch.

Autocollimator

Principle

The two main principles used in an autocollimator are

1. the projection and the refraction of a parallel beam of light by a lens,

and

2. the change in direction of a reflected angle on a plane reflecting

surface with a change in angle of incidence.

To understand this, let us imagine a converging lens with a point source of

light O at its principal focus, as shown in Figure 6.7(a).
 (a) ) Reflector is at 90 with the Direction of Rays

When a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting surface, a part of the beam is
absorbed and the other part is reflected back. If the angle of incidence is
zero, i.e. incident rays fall perpendicular to the reflecting surface, the
reflected rays retrace the original path.

Figure 6.7(b) : Reflector is not at Right Angles to the Direction of the Rays

When the reflecting plane is tilted at a certain angle, the total angle through
which the light is deflected is twice the angle through which the mirror is
tilted. Thus, alternately, if the incident rays are not at a right angle to the
reflecting surface, they can be brought to the focal plane of the light sources
by tilting the reflecting plane at an angle half the angle of reflection as shown
in Figure 6.7(b).

Now, from the diagram, OO’= 2θ x f = x, where f is the focal length of the lens. Thus,
by measuring the linear distance x, the inclination of the reflecting surface θ can be
determined. The position of the final image does not depend upon the distance of the
reflector from the lens. If, however, the reflector is moved too long, the reflected ray
will then completely miss the lens and no image will be formed.
Working

In actual practice, the work surface whose inclination is to be obtained forms the
reflecting surface, and the displacement x is measured by a precision microscope
which is calibrated directly to the values of inclination .
The optical system of an autocollimator is shown in Figure 6.8. The target wires are
illuminated by the electric bulb and act as a source of light since it is not convenient
to visualize the reflected image of a point and then to measure the displacement x
precisely. The image of the illuminated wire after being reflected from the surface
being measured is formed in the same plane as the wire itself. The eyepiece system
containing the micrometer microscope mechanism has a pair of setting lines that
may be used to measure the displacement of the image by setting to the original
cross lines and then moving over to those of the image. Generally, calibration is
supplied with the instrument. Thus, the angle of inclination of the reflecting surface
per division of the micrometer scale can be directly read.

Autocollimators are quite accurate and can read up to 0.1 seconds, and may
be used for distances up to 30 meters.

Figure 6.8 : Optical System of an Autocollimator

Applications of auto-collimator

Auto-collimators are used for

1. Measuring the difference in height of length standards.

2. Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.
3. Checking the squareness of two surfaces.
4. Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.
5. Checking alignment or parallelism.
6. Measurement of small linear dimensions.
7. For machine tool adjustment testing
Differentiate between tolerance and allowance

TOLERANCE ALLOWANCE

It is the permissible variation It is the prescribed difference

in any dimension of a part between the dimensions of two
(either hole or shaft). mating parts (hole and shaft) to
obtain required type of fit.
It is the difference between It is the prescribed difference
higher and lower limits of a intentionally kept between the
dimension of a part. lower limit of hole and higher
limit of shaft to obtain required
type of fit.
Tolerance is to be provided on Allowance is to be provided
a between dimensions of mating
dimension of part, as it is not parts to obtain required type of
possible to make a part of fit.
exact
specified dimensions.
It has an absolute value Allowance may be positive
without (clearance) or negative
algebraic sign. (Neither positive (interference).
nor negative)

ALLOWANCE TOLERANCE

The intentional difference The total amount by which a

between the maximum specific dimension is allowed
shaft size and the to vary, usually specified as
minimum hole size in a fit. a range around the nominal
dimension.

Determines the type of fit Defines the allowable

(clearance fit, interference variation in dimensions to
fit, or transition fit) ensure proper functionality
between mating parts. and assembly of parts.
 Allowance = Maximum Tolerance = Upper Limit -
Hole Size - Minimum Lower Limit
Shaft Size

Clearance allowance Geometric tolerance

(positive), Interference (straightness, flatness,
allowance (negative), position, etc.), Dimensional
Transition allowance tolerance (e.g., ±0.1 mm).
(both positive and
negative).

ALLOWANCE TOLERANCE
Determines whether a fit Ensures that parts can be
is clearance, interference, manufactured within
or transition. specified limits and still
function together properly.
Allowance directly Tolerance indirectly
influences the fit type influences the fit by
(clearance, interference, specifying how much
or transition). variation is acceptable.

Critical for specifying fits Essential for ensuring parts

in assemblies to ensure meet design requirements
proper functionality and and can be manufactured
performance. within acceptable limits.
Explain Taylor’s principle for design of limit gauges
Taylors Principle of Gauge Design:

Limit gauges are designed based on Taylors principle. It states that,

(i) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum materials limit while the NOGO
gauges should be designed to check the minimum material limit of shaft/hole,

(ii) GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location) simultaneously

whereas NO-GO gauge should check only one element of dimension at a time.

Compare clearance Fit, Interference fit and transition

fit.
 CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT TRANSITION FIT
A fit where intentional A fit where intentional A fit where
clearance is provided interference is provided intentional variation
between mating parts. between mating parts. allows for either
clearance or
interference based on
specific needs.

Fig: Schematic Fig: Schematic Fig:Schematic

representation of representation of
representation of
Clearance Fit Transition Fit
interference Fit
The tolerance zone of the The tolerance zone of the In a transitional fit the
hole is entirely above that of shaft is entirely above tolerance zones of two
the shaft that of the hole mating parts partly
overlap each other.
A positive allowance exists Interference fit has a Allowance can be
between the largest possible negative allowance, i.e. positive or negative.
shaft and the smallest interference exists
possible hole, i.e., when the between the high limit of
shaft and hole are at their hole and low limit of the
maximum metal conditions shaft.

Easy assembly due to Requires force for Facilitates both easy

intentional clearance assembly; may involve and forceful
heating or pressing. assembly based on
needs.
CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT TRANSITION FIT
The most commonly used The most commonly The most commonly
fits of clearance type are : used fits of used fits of
1. Slide fit Interference Type Fit Transition Types Fit
2. Easy slide 1. Shrink Fit or 1. Light press fit
3. Running fit Heavy Force Fit
 4. Slack running fit 2. Medium Force Fit 2. Force Fit/shrink
5. Loose running fit. fit
3. Tight Fit or Force
Fit 3. Push fit /snug
fit

4. Easy push fit

clearance fits are used for Interference fits are used It is used when mating
running fits for non-sliding fits parts are to be
without additional fixing repeatedly assembled
devices like a key way. and disassembled

Intentional clearance Intentional interference Intentional variation

between mating parts for between mating parts to allow for either
easy assembly and for a tight fit. clearance or
disassembly interference based on
specific needs.

CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT TRANSITION FIT

Examples of Examples of Examples of
Clearance fits are interference fits are transition fits are
1. Plumbing fittings 1. Steel tyres on railway 1.Shaft and hub
car wheels, connections in certain
2. Door hinges in 2. Gears on the mechanical assemblies

furniture. intermediate shafts of

3.Consumer electronics trucks, 2. Connecting rod and

casing. 3. Bushing in the gear piston in internal
of a lathe head stock, combustion engines.
4. Pump impeller on
shaft,
 5. Drill bush in jig plate
and cylinder linear in
block
6. Bearing bushes in
small end of connecting
rod
7.Cylinder liner in
Engine cylindrical
block.
8.Steel rings in a
wooden bullock cart

CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT TRANSITION FIT

Maximum Clearance. It is Maximum Maximum clearance is

the difference between the Interference: It is the obtained when a hole of
minimum size of shaft and
difference between the maximum size is combined
maximum size of hole. with a shaft of minimum size.
minimum size of hole
Maximum clearance ( C max MAXIMUM CLEARANCE (C
and the maximum size of
)= max) = Difference between
shaft prior to assembly
upper limit of hole - lower maximum size of hole and
limit of shaft
Minimum Interference:
minimum size of shaft
Maximum clearance ( C max It is the difference = upper limit of hole - lower
)= between the maximum limit of shaft maximum
D max – d min size of hole and the clearance (c max) = d max –
Minimum Clearance. It is minimum size of shaft d min
the difference between the prior to assembly. Maximum interference is
maximum size of shaft and obtained when a shaft of
minimum size of hole. maximum size is combined
Note: A negative
with a hole of minimum size.
difference between
Minimum clearance ( C min diameter of the hole MAXIMUM INTERFERENCE (
)= and the shaft is called I max ) = Overlapped zone
lower limit of hole - upper of maximum size of shaft
interference.
limit of shaft with minimum size of hole
Minimum clearance ( C min = LOWER LIMIT OF HOLE -
)= UPPER LIMIT OF SHAFT
D min – d max MAXIMUM INTERFERENCE

Maximum clearance = ( I max ) = D min – d max

Tolerance zone on hole +

Tolerance zone on shaft
+
minimum clearance