Course Introduction

Course Name: Operating Systems

Credit Hours: 3 +1

Reference Materials: (or use any other standard and latest books)
1. Operating Systems Concepts, 10th edition by Abraham Silberschatz
2. Modern Operating Systems, 4th edition by Andrew S. Tanenbaum
3. Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles, 9th edition by William
Stallings

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Course Learning Outcomes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security
Kernel Data Structures
Computing Environments
Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives
To describe the basic organization of computer systems

To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating systems

To give an overview of the many types of computing environments

To explore several open-source operating systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What is an Operating System?
An operating system manages a computer’s hardware.
It also provides a basis for application programs and acts
as an intermediary between the computer user and the
computer hardware

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What is an Operating System?

An operating system is large and complex, it must be

created piece by piece.

Each of these pieces should be a well-delineated portion

of the system, with carefully defined inputs, outputs, and
functions.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:

1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources

CPU

Memory

I/O devices

2. Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Structure
3. Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
– Word processors
– Compilers
– web browsers
– Database systems
– Video games
4. Users
People, machines, other computers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What Operating Systems Do: User View

On Personal Computer (PC) Users want

convenience, ease of use
Don’t care about resource utilization

But shared computer such as mainframe or

minicomputer must keep all users happy. The
operating system in such cases is designed to
maximize resource utilization

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 What Operating Systems Do: User View

Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have

dedicated resources but frequently use shared resources
from servers. Therefore, their operating system is
designed to compromise between individual usability and
resource utilization.

Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for

usability and battery life

Some computers have little or no user interface, such as

embedded computers in devices and automobiles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition: System View

OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use

OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating

system” is good approximation
But varies wildly

“The one program running at all times on the computer”

is the kernel. Everything else is either a system program
(ships with the operating system) or an application
program.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer Startup

bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing
for memory cycles

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Operation

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular

device type

Each device controller has a local buffer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Operation

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local

buffers

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its

operation by causing an interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Common Functions of Interrupts

n Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains
the addresses of all the service routines

n Interrupt architecture must save the address of the

interrupted instruction

n A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt

caused either by an error or a user request

n An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Interrupt Handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU

by storing registers and the program counter

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

polling
vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action

should be taken for each type of interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Structure

After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon

I/O completion

Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt

Wait loop (contention for memory access)

At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no

simultaneous I/O processing

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion

System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait

for I/O completion

Device-status table contains entry for each I/O

device indicating its type, address, and state

OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device

status and to modify table entry to include interrupt

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
Computer storage is generally measured and manipulated
in bytes and collections of bytes.

1. a kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes

2. a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
3. a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
4. a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
5. a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1.
All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits. Given enough bits, it is
amazing how many things a computer can represent: numbers, letters, images, movies,
sounds, documents, and programs, to name a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers
it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an
instruction to move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or
more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory
addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many operations in its
native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured and
manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1
million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception
to this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks move data a bit at a time).

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Metric Units

The metric prefixes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.25 25

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit

information at close to memory speeds

Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer

storage directly to main memory without CPU intervention

Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the

one interrupt per byte

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly
Random access
Typically volatile

Secondary storage – extension of main memory that

provides large nonvolatile storage capacity

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Structure

Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered

with magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer

Solid-state disks – faster than magnetic disks,

nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Hierarchy

Storage systems organized in hierarchy

Speed
Cost
Volatility

Caching – copying information into faster storage

system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage

Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O

Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a
computer (in hardware, operating system, software)

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage

temporarily

Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if

information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there

Cache smaller than storage being cached

Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Most systems have special-purpose processors as well. Such as

disk, keyboard, and graphics controllers;

The operating system cannot communicate with these

(special-purpose) processors; they do their jobs
autonomously

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture
Multiprocessors: Such systems have two or more
processors in close communication, sharing the computer
bus and sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral
devices

Multiprocessor systems first appeared prominently

appeared in servers and have since migrated to
1. Desktop
2. Laptop systems
3. Mobile devices
4. Smartphones and Tablet computers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault
tolerance
The ability to continue providing service proportional to the
level of surviving hardware is called graceful
degradation. Some systems go beyond graceful
degradation and are called fault tolerant, because they
can suffer a failure of any single component and still
continue operation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture
Multiprocessing systems are of two types:

1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing: the relationship

between multicore processors (heterogeneous or
homogeneous) of asymmetric multiprocessing is a
master-slave relationship

2. Symmetric Multiprocessing: All processors of

same type (may be either heterogeneous or
homogeneous) of symmetric multiprocessing are
peers;

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Computer-System Architecture
More specifically, each CPU in symmetric multiprocessing
runs the same copy of the OS, while in asymmetric
multiprocessing, they split responsibilities typically,
therefore each may have specialized (different) software
and roles.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

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 Multi-chip and Multicore Architecture

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A Dual-Core Design

Uniform memory access (UMA) is a shared

memory architecture used in parallel computers.

All the processors in the UMA model share the physical

memory uniformly.

In a UMA architecture, access time to a memory location

is independent of which processor makes the request or
which memory chip contains the transferred data.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A Dual-Core Design

Non-uniform memory access (NUMA) is a computer

memory design used in multiprocessing, where the
memory access time depends on the memory location
relative to the processor.

Under NUMA, a processor can access its own local

memory faster than non-local memory (memory local to
another processor or memory shared between
processors).

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A Dual-Core Design

UMA

NUMA

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 A Dual-Core Design

Systems containing all chips vs. blade servers

Chassis containing multiple separate systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Clustered Systems
They are composed of two or more individual systems—or
nodes—joined together.

Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working

together
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)

Provides a high-availability service which survives failures

Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)

Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting

operations

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Clustered Systems

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming is needed for efficiency.

Multiprogramming is also the ability of an operating

system to execute more than one program on a single
processor machine.

More than one task/program/job/process can reside into

the main memory at one point of time.

A computer running excel and firefox browser

simultaneously is an example of multiprogramming.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Structure
Timesharing (multitasking) is the ability of an
operating system to execute more than one task
simultaneously on a single processor machine.

Though we say so but in reality no two tasks on a

single processor machine can be executed at the
same time.

Actually CPU switches from one task to the next task

so quickly that appears as if all the tasks are
executing at the same time.

More than one task/program/job/process can reside

into the same CPU at one point of time.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating System Structure
Multiprocessing is the ability of an operating system
to execute more than one process simultaneously on
a multi processor machine. In this, a computer uses
more than one CPU at a time.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating-System Operations

Interrupt driven by hardware

Software error or request creates exception or trap

Division by zero, request for operating system
service, infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and

other system components

User mode and kernel mode

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating-System Operations

Mode bit provided by hardware

Provides ability to distinguish when system is

running user code or kernel code

Some instructions designated as privileged,

only executable in kernel mode

System call changes mode to kernel, return from

call resets it to user

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.

Process needs resources to accomplish its task

CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data

Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable

resources

Single-threaded process has one program counter

specifying location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management

Multi-threaded process has one program counter per

thread

Typically system has many processes, some user,

some operating system running concurrently on one or
more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following

activities in connection with process management:

1. Creating and deleting both user and system processes

2. Suspending and resuming processes
3. Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
4. Providing mechanisms for process communication
5. Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Management

All data in memory before and after processing

All instructions in memory in order to execute

Memory management determines what is in memory

when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to
users

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Memory Management

Memory management activities

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently

being used and by whom

Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data

to move into and out of memory

Allocating and deallocating memory space as

needed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Storage Management
File-System management

Files usually organized into directories

Access control on most systems to determine who can

access what

OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories

Primitives to manipulate files and dirs

Mapping files onto secondary storage

Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no

matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache

Distributed environment situation even more complex

Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the
user

I/O subsystem responsible for

Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data
in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output
of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Protection and Security

Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of

processes or users to resources defined by the OS

Security – defense of the system against internal and

external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms,
viruses, identity theft, theft of service

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Homework
Write answers to exercise question from 1.1 to 1.11

Only handwritten neat and clean homework will be

accepted.

Page size and page quality through out the

course should remain the same.

Throughout this course, homework should be

submitted to CR in next class after the class
attendance.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 1.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013