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Chapter Three
Data Communication and Networks
Introduction
Network
A network is a collection of related entities. There are different types of networks, such as
telephone network, which is a collection of telephone systems interconnected with each other.
Telegraph network, television network, radio network and computer network are some of them.

Computer Networking
Computer networking refers to two or more connected computers that can share a resource such
as data, a printer, an internet connection, applications, or a combination of these. A computer
network is a set of cooperative, interconnected autonomous computers. If we simply interconnect
two or more computers with the help of a wire, they are not said to be networked. In order for
the communication to take place, there should be a kind of cooperation between the
communicating systems. Network hardware will provide the necessary interconnection and
network software will provide the necessary cooperation. Computer network is created when
several computers and terminal devices are connected together by data communication system.
Each computer in a network can have its own processing capabilities and can share computer
hardware, programs, and software and data files. In general, it is a collection of computers and
peripheral devices connected by communication links that allow the network components to
work together.

Importance of Networking
1. Resource sharing ( To share hardware such as the server, to share computer CPU, to
share databases, to share application programs and hard disk, Data/information,
Memory(storage), Files, Printers etc)
2. To undertake parallel processing
3. High reliability by having alternative sources of supply
4. Money saving
5. Increase system performance
6. Powerful communication medium among widely separated people

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Terms used in computer networking

 Server: – is a dedicated computer that serves the client with huge storage capacity,
database, interconnections to other networks etc.
 Client: - Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
 Media: - The wires that make the physical connections.
 Shared data_ Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
 Shared printers and other peripherals: – Additional resources provided by the server.
 Resources: - Any service or device, such as files, printers or other items.
 Workstation computers: - computers in a peer –to- peer network architecture.
 Standalone computer a computer that is not connected in the network.
 Node: - is a computer, printers, or whatever, simply latch onto the cable at any position
between the two terminals in a topology.
Types of Networks
Based on geographical span of coverage, computer networks are broadly classified into
three major categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
 It is the basic building block of any computer network.
 It is confined in a limited geographical area.
 Physically limited.
 Inexpensive cable media (Co-axial or twisted pair cables).\
 Used for resource (data and hardware) sharing.
E.g. Lab, School, building, office, campus.
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Covers large geographic areas than LAN.
 Uses Fiber Optics cables.
E.g. Colleges, Universities, banks e.t.c…
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Computers in a network are situated in a wider geographical area.
 Communication is established through telephone lines, microwave links and
satellites e.t.c…
 It has no geographical limit.
 It is made up of a number of interconnected LANs.

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E.g. The internet (network of networks)

WANS differ from LANS in the following ways:
 WANs cover greater distance.
 WAN speeds are slower.
 WANs can be connected on demand or be permanently connected. LANs have
permanent connections between stations.
 WANs can use public or private network transports. LANs typically use private
transports.
 WANs can use either full- or half-duplex communications. LANs typically use half-
duplex communications.
Based on span of control, networks are divided into two broad categories:
1. Peer-to-peer Networks: - In peer-to-peer networks, all computers are equal - they are
peers. Each computer can be a client that requests resources and a server that provides
resources upon request.
Peer-to-peer networks are characterized by the following:
 Security is not centralized; each computer is responsible to check access rights for
its resources.
 Network is not scalable; it is good only for a few numbers of computers (10).
 Each user is responsible for local backup.
 Also called work groups.
 No specialized operating system is required;
2. Client/server networks: - In client/server networks, there exist dedicated servers,
which only provide resources/services when requested. Client/server network is
characterized by the following:
 It has centralized, tighter security. All user accounts are stored in the same database
on the server.
 The network is highly scalable; you can have tens of thousands of workstations in
the network.
 Backup is centralized and is done by a person responsible for the job (backup
operator).
 Needs dedicated server (acts only as a server, but not as a client)
 Requires at least one professional administrator.

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 Specialized networking operating systems are required, such as Windows NT 4.0

server, Windows 2000 server, Novell NetWare, etc.
Modes of data transmission circuits
1) Simple
 In simplex mode, transmission is possible in only one direction.
 The transmitting line has a transmitter on one end and a receiver on the other end.
 Simplex channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error or
control signals to the transmitting end.
 An example of a simplex channel in a computer system is the interface between
the keyboard and the computer, in that key codes need only be sent one way from
the keyboard to the computer system.
 Radio and television broadcasting are also examples of simplex transmission.
2) Half Duplex
 A half-duplex channel can send and receive but not at the same time. It is like a one-
lane bridge where two-way traffic must find ways in order to cross.
 Only one end transmits at a time and the other end receives.
 Transmission is possible in both directions, but not simultaneously.
3) Full Duplex
 Data can travel in both directions simultaneously.
 There is no need to switch from transmit to receive mode like in half duplex.
 It is like a two lane bridge on a high way.

Types of signals
In communication system, data is transmitted from one point to another by means of
electrical signal. There are two types of signals that can travel over the various
transmission media.
1. Analog Signal: - Continuously varying electromagnetic waves that may be propagated
over a variety of media
E.g. Wire media, twisted pair and coaxial cable.
2. Digital Signals:
 Normally, it comprises only two states. It uses separate ON/OFF pulses that create
a square rather than a continuous wave.

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 Are considered as sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire
medium.
 Transmits data faster and more accurately than analog signals.
E.g., a constant positive voltage level may represent binary 1 and a constant negative
voltage level may represent binary 0.

Data Transmission Protocols

Two different methods are used for transmitting data, namely, asynchronous and
synchronous.
1. Asynchronous data transmission protocol
 Data is transmitted character by character.
 Data is transmitted at irregular time interval
 A start bit is transmitted directly before each character.
 To signify the end of the transmission, 1 or 2 stop bits are transmitted directly after
each character.
 The start bit and stop bit are always of opposite polarity.
 Usually, 0 is the start bit and 1 is the stop bit.
 Between the start bit and the stop bits, the data bits are transmitted at uniformly
spaced time interval.

2. Synchronous Data Transmission Protocol

 The transmission occurs at fixed intervals and fixed rates
 The need for start and stop bits is eliminated in synchronous transmission.
 Allows for continues sending of characters
 Each character is combined with others into a data packet.
 The data packet is prefixed with a header field, and suffixed with a trailer field.
Which includes a checksum value (used by the receiver to check for errors in
sending)
 The header field: used to address information (sender and receiver), packet type
and control data.
 The data field – contains checksum information

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Topologies
A topology describes the layout of the cables, computers and other network devices. It
describes the way in which the devices of the network are linked together. There are four
most common topologies: Bus, Ring, Star and Mesh.
1. The Bus Topology
 In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable.
 The cable is terminated at its ends to avoid signal bouncing.
 When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it places the data and
address of the recipient computer on the cable. Only the computer whose address
is included with the data accepts the data.
 If one node fails, the rest of the network can continue to function normally.
 It is easy to implement and with low cost.
 Cable fault affects all workstations.
Advantages
 Easy to implement
 Low cost
Disadvantages
 Limited cable length and workstation
 Difficult to isolate network fault
 Cable fault affects all workstations
2. The Star Topology
 Each computer in a star topology is connected to a central device (hub) by a
separate cable.
 When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it sends the data and
address of the recipient computer to the hub, which in turn, sends it to every
computer connected to it. Only the computer whose address is included with the
data accepts the data.
 Failure of one computer does not affect the network.
 Failure of the hub affects the network.

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Advantage
 Easy to add new workstations
 Centralized control
 Centralized network
 Easy to modify
Disadvantages
 Hubs are expensive
 Hub failure, fails the network
3. The Ring Topology
Each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the network.
 Data moves down a one-way path from one computer and if the next computer is the
recipient it accepts the data; otherwise it amplifies it and sends it to the next computer
down in the path
 Any break disrupts the entire network and hence the physical ring topology is seldom
used.
 No terminated end in this topology.
 Failure of one computer can have an impact on the entire network.
Logically, a ring topology is a circular arrangement of computers where the signals from
one node travel around the ring in clockwise direction .Because the signals pass through
each computer, the failure of one computer or a break in a cable could bring the entire
network failure.

4. The Mesh Topology

 Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.
 A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and connections increase
rapidly with the increase of computers to connect. For n computers, n (n-1)/2 cables
are required.

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 Today, the mesh topology is rarely used, and then only in a WAN environment and
only because the mesh topology is fault tolerant computers or network devices can
switch between these multiple, redundant connections if the need arises.
 On the con side, the mesh topology is expensive and quickly becomes too complex.

Selecting the Right Topology

The type of network you choose to implement depends on:-
i. Size of the organization
ii. Level of security required
iii. Level of administrative support available
iv. Amount of network traffic
v. Needs of the networks us
vi. Network budget
vii. Ease of installation
viii. Ease of maintenance
ix. Cable fault tolerance
Note:-
Creating a simple network for a handful of computers in a single room is usually done
most efficiently using a bus topology because it is simple and easy to install. Larger
environments are usually wired in a star because moves, adds, and changes to the network
are more efficient with a physical star than with any of the other topologies.

Physical Media
Although it is possible to use several forms of wireless networking, such as radio and
infrared, most networks communicate via some sort of cable. In this section, we will look
at three types of cables:
 Coaxial

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 Twisted-pair
 Fiber-optics

1. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) contains a centered conductor, made of copper, surrounded by a
plastic jacket, with a braided shield over the jacket. There are two types of coaxial cables:
 Thick Ethernet cable or ThickNet. It is also called 10Base5. The 10 refers to the
data transfer speed, which is 10 Mbps, and the 5 refers to the maximum length of
a single cable, which is 500m.
 Thin Ethernet cable or Thinnet. It is also called 10Base2. The 10 refers to the
data transfer speed, which is 10 Mbps, and the 2 refers to the maximum length of
a single cable, which is 185m (200m). ThinNet is connected to the computer
through BNC connectors.
With coaxial cable, the signal travels up and down the entire length of the wire. When the
signal reaches the end of the wire, it bounces back down the wire. This creates an echo.
These additional signals on the wire make communication impossible. To prevent this,
terminators are placed on each end of the wire to absorb the unwanted echo. One
terminator is also connected to a ground.

2. Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable consists of multiple, individually insulated wires that are twisted
together in pairs. There are two types of twisted pair cables:
1. Shielded twisted-pair (STP):-A metallic shield is placed around the twisted pairs.
2. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP):-Cable with no outer shielding.
Note; - UTP is commonly used in 10BaseT, star-wired networks.

When electromagnetic signals are conducted on copper wires that are in close proximity
(such as inside a cable), some electromagnetic interference occurs. This interference is
called crosstalk. Twisting two wires together as a pair minimizes such interference and
provides some protection against interference from outside sources. This cable type is the
most common today. It is popular for several reasons:
 It is cheaper than other types of cabling.
 It is easy to work with.

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 It permits transmission rates considered impossible ten years ago.

Common UTP categories include Categories 3, 5 and 6:

 Category 3 (Cat 3) has four twisted-pair (eight wires), with three twists per foot.
is acceptable for 10Mbps.
 Category 5 (Cat 5) has four twisted-pair (eight wires) and is rated for 100Mbps.
 Category 6 (Cat 6) has four twisted-pair (eight wires) and is rated for 1000Mbps.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable
Because fiber-optic cable transmits digital signals using light pulses, it is immune to EMI
(electromagnetic Interference). Light is carried on either a glass or a plastic core. Glass
can carry the signal a greater distance, but plastic costs less.
Fiber-optic cable is suited for data running large distances and without electronics
regenerating the signal or for an installation requiring high security. Fiber-optic is now
being used in such applications as gigabit Internet backbones. However, it is difficult to
install and is expensive.

Common Network Devices

1) Modem- Modulator/Demodulator
 It lets computers exchange information though telephone lines
 When transmitting information, the modulator changes the computers digital signal to
analog signal.
 When receiving information, the demodulator translates the analog signal back to a
digital signal.
Modulator – Digital to Analog
Demodulator – Analog to Digital

2) The Network Interface Card (NIC)

The Network Interface Card (NIC) is the expansion card you install in your computer to
connect (interface) your computer to the network. This device provides the physical,
electrical, and electronic connections to the network media. NICs either are an expansion
card (the most popular implementation) or built in to the motherboard of the computer.
 An expansion card physically connects a computer to the network.

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 Each computer in the network must have a network card.

 It takes the data from the computer’s internal bus and converts it into standard packets
of information that it then sends along the cable.
 It takes the data from the computer and adds header.
 When receiving data, it looks at each packet and checks the destination address in the
header.
 If it recognizes its own address, it checks that it has no errors and signals the CPU that
there is data to be processed.
Each type of NIC is specific to a topology and a connection type. To determine a NIC's
type, review the documentation and examine the NIC. Even though two NICs look alike,
one may be a Token Ring NIC and the other an Ethernet NIC.

3) The Repeater
A repeater amplifies (or repeats) network signals to extend the
maximum reach of a network. Repeaters receive network signals
on one port, amplify them, and repeat them out on the other port.
Repeaters can interconnect different media types but cannot
convert protocols.

4) The Hub
A hub is the central device in a star topology. Most
hubs are simple multiport repeaters. That is, they
receive a signal on one port and repeat it to all other
ports.

5) The Bridge
A bridge is a network device that logically separates a single network into two segments.
The primary use for a bridge is to keep traffic meant for stations on one segment on that
side of the bridge and not let that traffic pass to the other side. Bridges can improve
network performance because traffic is not propagated unnecessarily on all network
segments.

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6) The Ethernet Switch

These are in essence high-performance multi-interface bridges. Like bridges, switches
subdivide larger networks and prevent the unnecessary flow of network traffic from one
segment to another, or in the case of cross-segment traffic, switches direct the frames only
across the segments containing the source and destination hosts.

7) The Router
A router is a network device that connects multiple, often dissimilar, network segments
into an internet work. The router, once connected, can make intelligent decisions about
how best to get network data to its destination.
A router is more like a special-purpose computer than a simple electronic device. The
classic definition of a router is a device that reads the source and destination address of a
packet and forwards it based on the information it gathers about the network. Routers can
make intelligent decisions about the best way to forward packets.

Network Connectors
The type of connector you use depends on the type of network and the type of cable (copper
or fiber-optic).
 D-type Connectors: - The first type of networking connector was the D-type
connector. A D-type connector is characterized by its shape. The Attachment Unit
Interface (AUI) connector is a D-type connector used to connect your computer to
Thick Net coaxial cable.
 BNC Connectors: - Most commonly used with ThinNet coaxial cable, BNC
connectors are tube-shaped. A twist-lock mechanism prevents the cable from
disconnecting. You must push the cable's connector onto the connector on the NIC
and then twist the connector on the cable to lock it in place. BNC connectors are most
commonly found in 10Base2 Ethernet networks, as well as in ARCNet.
 RJ Connectors: - RJ-45 connectors are most commonly found on both 10BaseT and
Token Ring networks, but they can be found on any network that uses four-pair, UTP
cable. An RJ-11 connector is smaller than an RJ-45 connector, and RJ-11 uses four
(or six) wires; the RJ-45 has eight wires housed in its case.


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Media Access
With many stations on the same piece of network media, there has to be a way of vie for
time on the cable. This process is called media access, and two of the most popular
methods are discussed below.

Carrier Sense/Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) - this media

access technology, used in Ethernet networks, is probably the most common.
When a protocol that uses CSMA/CD has data to transmit, it first senses if a signal is
already on the wire (a carrier), indicating that someone is transmitting currently. If no one
else is transmitting, it attempts a transmission and then listens to hear if someone else tried
to transmit at the same time.
If someone else transmits at the exact same time, a condition known as a collision occurs.
Both senders "back off" and don't transmit until some random period of time has passed.
They then both retry.

Token passing – this media access method uses a special packet called a token. The first
computer turned on creates the token. It then passes the token on to the next computer.
The token passes around the network until a computer that has data to send takes the token
off the network, modifies it, and puts it back on the network along with the data it has to
send.
Each station between the sender and the receiver along the network reads the destination
address in the token. If the destination address does not match its own, the station simply
sends the package on its way.
When the destination station recognizes its address in the destination address of the token,
the NIC copies the data into the station's memory and modifies the token, indicating it has
received the data.
The token continues around the network until the original sender receives the token back
again. If the original sender has more data to send, the process repeats itself. If not, the
sender modifies the token to indicate that the token is "free" for anyone else to use.
With this method, there are no collisions (as in CSMA/CD networks) because everyone
has to have "permission" to transmit (via the token).

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Internet
What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global connection of computers. These computers are connected via a
huge network of telecommunications links. The Internet allows you to access to a whole
resource of data and information stored at different sites (called hosts or servers) and
locations all around the world.
The communication links that interconnect each host computer use a common method of
transmission, known as TCP/IP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
Each computer connected to the Internet (by the way, it is always spelt with a capital I)
can act as a host. A host computer provides information for other people to access and
retrieve.
The Internet (also known as the Net) is a worldwide system of computer networks. A
network of networks where users of any one computer can access information from any
other computer provided that they have permission to access the information (e.g. having
the correct password).
The Internet is a public, co-operative and self-sustaining facility giving access to hundreds
of millions of users worldwide. Everything that you want to know about can usually be
found on the Internet.
To access the Internet a user must subscribe to an Internet Service Provider (ISP) that
allows the user to connect to the Internet via the ISP’s server, usually using a modem
connection. The ISP’s server is then connected to all the other computers on the Internet.
In Ethiopia users will use the Ethiopian Telecommunication ISP server.

Browser
Browser, which is a piece of software that acts as an interface between the user and the
inner-workings of the Internet, specifically the World Wide Web. Browsers are also
referred to as web clients, or Universal Clients, because in the client/server model, the
browser functions as the client program.
The MS-IE Environment: - The MS-IE acts on behalf of the user. It is a browser which
 Contacts a web server and sends a request for information
 Receives the information and then displays it on the user’s computer.

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The MS-IE is a graphical based browser, which allows the user to see more of what the
WWW has to offer such as graphics, photographs and multimedia. It allows the user to
view images on their computer, “point-and-click” with a mouse to select hypertext links,
and uses drop-down menus and toolbar buttons to navigate and access resources on the
Internet.

URLs (Uniform Resource Locator)

To visit a location on the Internet, a unique addressing scheme called a URL (Universal
Resource Locator) is used. URL’s are also known as Website addresses or domain names.
The Ethiopian Telecommunication URL is Uniform Resource Locator is the address you
type in, bookmark, or click on to get to a place on the Internet. This is similar to your home
address and is where a page or site resides on the World Wide Web. Unfortunately, people
sometimes move their pages or change their email addresses without letting you know. It
is just like someone moving and not giving you a forwarding address. URLs are sensitive
to correct spelling, additional spaces, and upper or lower case letters.

 Extension: to indicate the type of organization who has published the Website
 .com International business/commercial
 .org Non-commercial organization
 .net Network and Internet specialist
 .edu Educational Institution
 .mil Military

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 .ws website
 .tv television
 .pro business (also .biz, .info)

 Country code for country specific Websites

 .et Ethiopia
 .uk United Kingdom
 .de Germany
 .us United States
Example: https://www.aku.edu.et
https://www.aksumuniversity.org
Services of Internet
1) Electronic mail
Electronic mail (email) is a method of sending and receiving messages from or to a computer
using the Internet. Sending and receiving email is extremely cost effective and is very quick. All
that is needed to use the email is that you and the receiver need to have email addresses, and then
the email can be accessed from any computer that has access to the Internet.
Free email address can be obtained from organizations such as Yahoo, Hotmail and Google.
www.yahoo.com
www.hotmail.com
www.gmail.com

You do not need to subscribe to an ISP, or even own a computer; all you need to do is have access
to a computer that is connected to the Internet to have an email address.

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2) Web browsing
Internet browsing or ‘net surfing’, as it is often called, is the process of visiting different web
sites on the Internet hosted by various companies, organizations, educational institutions,
magazines, individuals, etc. The Internet contains a wealth of information that can help your
business. Armed with a good Internet browser, we can easily get around to the websites,
gathering competitive information, conduction market research, reading publications, and
staying in touch with what’s happening at business associations.

Example Browsers:
 Internet Explorer  Google chrome
 Opera  MS-Internet explorer
 Mozilla Firefox

3) World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) is all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The Web was designed by Tim Berners-Lee who said
“The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of
human knowledge.”

4) Search Engines
To find information on the Internet there are a number of Websites designed to help you find
other Websites containing the information. The user will typically specify a keyword(s) (e.g.
Ethiopia) and a list of the relevant Websites will be given that can then be accessed. These
Websites are known as Search Engines
Most popular search engines
http://www.google.com
http://www.bing.com
http://www.search.yahoo.com.
http://www.ask.com
Search engine information is collected and ranked by software programs (sometimes called
spiders).
 FTP – file transfer protocol
 Chat – online chatting (real-time communication)

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 Teleconferencing – video communication via online.

Internet Protocol (IP)
It is a number that uniquely identifies each computer or device connected to Internet. Each
computer (known as a host) on the internet has at least one IP address that uniquely identifies it
from all other computers on the internet.

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