EnggTree.

com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.1 Study of MOSFET

• MOSFET is metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.

• MOSFET is a three terminal device. The three terminals are gate (G), drain
(D) andsource (S)
• MOSFET is a unipolar device as its operation depends on flow of majority
charge carriersonly.
• It is a voltage controlled device requiring a small input gate voltage.
• It has high input impedance.
• MOSFET is operated in two states viz., ON STATE and OFF STATE.

A power MOSFET is a special type of metal oxide semiconductor field effect

transistor. Itis specially designed to handle high-level powers. The power MOSFET’s are
constructed ina V configuration. Therefore, it is also called as V-MOSFET, VFET

Power MOSFETs are of two types

1. n- channel Enhancement MOSFETs

2. p- channel Enhancement MOSFETs

n-channel enhancement MOSFET is commonly used due to the higher

mobility of electrons.

MOSFET CONSTRUCTION

Power MOSFETs are based on vertical structure, the doping and the thickness of the
epitaxial layer decide the voltage rating while the channel width decides its current
rating. This is the reason because of which they can sustain high blocking voltage and
high current, making them suitable for low power switching applications.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The figure shows the planar diffused MOSFET structure for n-channel.

Fig 1.1.1 Structure of MOSFET

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 21]

On n+ substrate, high resistivity n- layer is epitaxial grown. The thickness of n- layer

decides the voltage blocking capability of the power Mosfets. The lightly doped n-type
semiconductor forms the main body of the device. Two heavily doped p-type regions
are there in the body separated by a certain distance L. Now there is a thin layer of
silicon dioxide (SiO2) on the top of the substrate which behaves as a dielectric. There is
an aluminum plate fitted on the top of this SiO2 dielectric layer.

Most importantly, here, the Source (S) terminal is placed over the Drain (D)
terminal forming a vertical structure. As a result, in VDMOS the current flows
beneath the gate area vertically between the source and the drain terminals through
numerous n+ sources conducting in-parallel. As a result, the resistance offered by
the device during its ON state RDS(ON) is much lower than that in the case of
normal MOSFETs which enablethem to handle high currents.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

OPERATION OF MOSFET

When gate circuit voltage is zero, and VDD is present, n- -p- junction is reverse
biased and no current flows from drain to source. When gate terminal is made positive
with respect to source, an electric field is established and electrons form an n channel.
With gate voltage increased, drain current also increases.The length of n channel can be
controlled.
If we apply a positive voltage at gate (G). This will create positive static potential at
the aluminum plate of the capacitor. Due to capacitive action, electrons gets
accumulated just below the dielectric layer Now if we further increase the positive
voltage at the gate terminal, after a certain voltage called threshold voltage, due to the
electrostatic force, covalent bonds of the crystal just below the SiO2 layer start
breaking. Consequently, electron-hole pairs get generated there. By applying the
positive voltage at gate, we can control the drain current.

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET

MOSFET can be in any of the in three operating regions viz.,

Fig 1.1.2 Characteristics of MOSFET

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 23]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Cut-Off Region
Cut-off region is a region in which the MOSFET will be OFF as there will be no
current flow through it. In this region, MOSFET behaves like an open switch and is thus
used when they are required to function as electronic switches.

Ohmic or Linear Region

Ohmic or linear region is a region where in the current IDS increases with
an increase in the value of VDS. When MOSFETs are made to operate in this region,
theycan be used as amplifiers.
Saturation Region
In saturation region, the MOSFETs have their IDS constant inspite of an increase
in VDS and occurs once VDS exceeds the value of pinch-off voltage VP. Under this
condition, the device will act like a closed switch through which a saturated value of
IDS flows. As a result, this operating region is chosen whenever MOSFETs are required
to perform switching operations.
From the transfer characteristics (drain-to-source current IDS versus gate-to-
source voltage VGS), it is evident that the current through the device will be zero until
the VGS exceeds the value of threshold voltage VT. This is because under this state, the
device will be void of channel which will be connecting the drain and the source
terminals. Under this condition, even an increase in VDS will result in no current flow as
indicated by the corresponding output characteristics (IDS versus VDS). As a result this
state represents nothing but the cut-off region of MOSFET’s operation.
Next, once VGS crosses VT, the current through the device increases with an
increase in IDS initially (Ohmic region) and then saturates to a value as determined
by the VGS (saturation region of operation) i.e. as VGS increases, even the saturation
current flowing through the device also increases. This is evident by Figure 1b where
IDSS2 is greater than IDSS1 as VGS2> VGS1, IDSS3 is greater than IDSS2 as VGS3 > VGS2,
so on and so forth. Further, Figure 1b also shows the locus of pinch-off voltage (black
discontinuous curve), from which VP is seen to increase with an increase in VGS.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER MOSFET

The switching characteristics or the turn-on & turn-off times of the MOSFET are
decidedby its internal capacitance and the internal impedance of the gate drive circuit.
Turn on time is defined as the sum of turn on delay time and rise time of the device.
Turn off time is the sum of turn off delay time and fall time

Turn ON Process:
A positive voltage is applied to the gate of MOSFET to turn e it on. When the gate
voltage is applied, the gate to source capacitance CGS starts charging. When the
voltage across CGS reached certain voltage level called Threshold voltage(VGST), the
drain current ID starts rising.The time required to charge CGS to the threshold
voltage level is known as turn on delay time (td).The time required for charging CGS
from threshold voltage to full gate voltage (VGSP). is called rise time (tr).During this
period, the drain current rises to its full value, ie ID.Thus the MOSFET is fully turned ON.
The total turn-on time of MOSFET is
TON = tdon+ tr

The turn-on time can be reduced by using low-impedance gate drive source.
Turn OFF Process:
• To turn off the MOSFET, the gate voltage is made negative or zero.

• Due to this, the gate to source voltage then reduces from VI to VGSP.

• As MOSFET is a majority carrier device, turn-off process is initiated soon

after removal of gate voltage at time t1.
• That is, CGS discharges from gate voltage V1 to VGSP. The time

required for thisdischarge is called turn-off delay time (td(off) )

• During this period, the drain current also starts reducing.

• The CGS keeps on discharging and its voltage becomes equal to

threshold voltage(VGST).

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

• The time required to discharge CGS from VGSP to VGST is called fall time

(tf). The drain current becomes zero when VGS < VGST. The MOSFET is
then said to be have turned-off.

• Thus the total turn-off time of MOSFET is TOFF = t(d(off)) + tf

•

Fig.1.1.3 turn on and off characteristics of MOSFET

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 23]

Applications of POWER MOSFET

Power MOSEFET technology is applicable to many types of circuit.

1. Linear power supplies

2. Switching power supplies

3. DC-DC converters

4. Low voltage motor control

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.2 Introduction to Snubber and Driver Circuits

A snubber circuit limits or stops (snubs) switching voltage amplitude

and its rate of rise, therefore reducing power dissipation. In its simplest form,
a snubber circuit basically consists of a resistor and capacitor connected
across the thyristor.

MOSFET DRIVE CIRCUIT

A driver circuit need to turn on the semiconducting devices. A MOSFET

usually needs a gate driver to do the on/off operation at the desired
frequency. For high frequencies, MOSFETs require a gate drive circuit to
translate the on/off signals from an analog or digital controller into the
power signals necessary to control the MOSFET. Since the MOSFET is a
voltage-driven device, no DC current flows into the gate.In order to turn on
a MOSFET, a voltage higher than the rated gate threshold voltage Vth must
be applied to the gate. While in a steady on or off state, the MOSFET gate
drive basically consumes no power. The gate-source capacitance of a
MOSFET seen by the driver output varies with its internal state.MOSFETs are
often used as switching devices at frequencies ranging from several kHz to
more than several hundreds of kHz. The low power consumption needed for
gate drive is an advantage of a MOSFET as a switching device. MOSFETs
designed for low-voltage drive are alsoavailable.
The basic requirements for a MOSFET drive circuit include an ability
to apply a voltage sufficiently higher than Vth to the gate and a drive
capability to sufficiently charge the input capacitance. This section describes

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
an example of a drive circuit for an N-channel MOSFET.

The below figure shows a basic MOSFET drive circuit. In practice, the
capacitance of a MOSFET to be driven and its usage conditions must be
considered in designing a drive circuit.

Figure 1.2.1 MOSFET drive circuit

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 23]

There is a growing need for MOSFETs for switching applications (load

switches) to provide a conducting path in a circuit only when it is operated,
and thereby reduce the power consumption of electronic devices. At
present, MOSFETs are directly driven by a logic circuit or a microcontroller in
many applications. Figure 2.2 shows an example of a circuit for turning on and
off a power relay. Since turn-on and turn-off times may be as slow as a few
seconds for load switches, the MOSFET gate can be driven with a small
current.There are other ways of triggering MOSFET are using a high-voltage
device and a bootstrap circuit, Pulse transformer drive (insulated switching)

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
,using a photo coupler and a floating power supply.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.3 Switched Mode Regulators - BUCK REGULATOR

Switched Mode Regulators provide much greater power efficiency in

DC-to-DC conversion than linear regulators, which are simpler circuits that
lower voltages by dissipating power as heat, but do not step up output
current. Switched mode regulators consists of energy storage elements
along with dc-dc chopper circuits.To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of
capacitors (or capacitors in combination with inductors) are normally added
to such a converter's output (load-side filter)and input (supply-side filter.

Switched Mode Regulators are classified into Buck,Boost ,Buck-Boost

Regulators.

BUCK REGULATOR
A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter
which steps down voltage while stepping up current from its input
(supply) to its output (load).

Figure 1.3.1 BUCK REGULATOR

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 492]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

MODE I: SWITCH IS ON, DIODE IS OFF

The voltage across the capacitance in steady state is equal to the

output voltage. The switch is on for a time TON and is off for a time TOFF. We

define the time period, T, as T=Ton+Toff, and the switching frequency,

f= 1/T = chopping frequency

Figure 1.3.2 Buck converter- Mode II circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 492]

MODE II: SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Here, the energy stored in the inductor is released and is ultimately

dissipated inthe load resistance, and this helps to maintain the flow of

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
current through the load. But for analysis we keep the original conventions
to analyse the circuit using KVL.

Figure 1.3.3 Buck converter- Mode II circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 493]

Average load Voltage is given by

V0 = Ton/ (Ton +Toff) * Vs = (Ton/T) V = D Vs

Ton : on -time Toff : off- time

Thus the load voltage can be controlled by varying the duty cycle D

V0 = f. Ton .Vs

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.3.4 Buck converter Output Voltage and Current Waveforms

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 493]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

1.4 BOOST CONVERTER

Boost converter which increases the input DC voltage to a specified DC

output voltage. A typical Boost converter is shown below.

Step-up chopper works as a step-up transformer on DC current.

The working principle of a step up chopper can be explained from the

above diagram. In the circuit, a large inductor L is connected in series to
the supply voltage. Capacitor maintains the continuous output voltage to
the load. The diode prevents the flow of current from load to source.

Figure 1.4.1 Block diagram of Boost converter

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 279]

The input voltage source is connected to an inductor. The solid-state

device which operates as a switch is connected across the source. The
second switch used is a diode. The diode is connected to a capacitor, and
the load and the two are connected in parallel as shown in the figure
above.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The inductor connected to input source leads to a constant input

current, and thus the Boost converter is seen as the constant current
input source. And the load can be seen as a constant voltage source. The
controlled switch is turned on and off by using Pulse Width
Modulation(PWM). PWM can be time-based or frequency based.
Frequency-based modulation has disadvantages like a wide range of
frequencies to achieve the desired control of the switch which in turn will
give the desired output voltage. Time-based Modulation is mostly used
for DC-DC converters. It is simple to construct and use. The frequency
remains constant in this type of PWM modulation.

The Boost converter has two modes of operation.

The first mode is when the switch is on and conducting.

MODE I : SWITCH IS ON, DIODE IS OFF

Figure 1.4.2 Boost converter- Mode I circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 280]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally

offering zero resistance to the flow of current so when the switch is
ON all the current will flow through the switch and back to the DC
input source. Let us say the switch is on for a time TON and is off for a

time TOFF. We define the time period, T, as T=Ton + Toff.

When the chopper is turned ON the current through the inductance

L will increase from I1 to I2. As the chopper is on the source voltage
is applied to L that is vL = VS .

MODE II : SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Figure 1.4.3 Boost converter- Mode II circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 280]

When the chopper is OFF, the KVL can be

written as vL – V0+Vs =0 or vL =V0 –Vs

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
where vL is the voltage across L. Variation of source voltage vS , source

current IS , load voltage v0 and load current iO is sketched in the fig .

Let us assume that the variation of output current is linear, the energy
input to inductor from the source, during the time period Ton , is

Win= Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton

During the time Toff the chopper is off, so the energy released by

the inductor to the load is

Woff = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Toff

Let us assume that the system is lossless, then the two energies
say Win and Woff are equal.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Figure 1.4.4 Boost converter Waveforms

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 281]

Boost converter Output Voltage

So equating these two we will get

Vs (I1+I2/2) Ton = (V0-Vs)(I1+I2/2).Toff

Vs Ton = (V0-Vs) Toff

V0Toff = Vs (Toff + Ton) = Vs .T

V0 = VS (T/Toff) = VS (T/T-Ton) =VS (1/(1-D)

From the above equation , we can see that the average voltage across the
load can be stepped up by varying the duty cycle.

We know that D varies between 0 and 1. But as we can see from the
equation above that if D = 1 then the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
at steady state goes to infinity.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
1.5 BUCK - BOOST CONVERTER

Buck Boost converter which can operate as a DC-DC Step-Down

converter or a DC-DC Step-Up converter depending upon the duty cycle.

A typical Buck-Boost converter is shown below

Figure 1.5.1 Buck- Boost converter circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 282]

The input voltage source is connected to a solid state device. The second
switch used is a diode. The diode is connected, in reverse to the direction of
power flow from source, to a capacitor and the load and the two are
connected in parallel as shown in the figure above.

The controlled switch is turned on and off by using Pulse Width

Modulation (PWM). PWM can be time based or frequency based.
Frequency based modulation has disadvantages like a wide range of
frequencies to achieve the desired control of the switch which in turn will
give the desired output voltage. Time based Modulation is mostly used for
DC-DC converters. It is simple to construct and use. The frequency remains
constant in this type of PWM modulation.
EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The Buck Boost converter has two modes of operation.

MODE I : SWITCH IS ON, DIODE IS OFF

Figure 1.5.2 Buck- Boost converter- Mode I circuit

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 283]

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering

zero resistance to the flow of current so when the switch is ON all the
current will flow through the switch and the inductor and back to the
DC input source. The inductor stores charge during the time the switch is
ON and when the solid state switch is OFF the polarity of the Inductor
reverses so that current flows through the load and through the diode
and back to the inductor.

So the direction of current through the inductor remains the same.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
MODE II : SWITCH IS OFF, DIODE IS ON

Figure 1.5.3 Buck- Boost converter- Mode II circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 283]

In this mode the polarity of the inductor is reversed and the energy
stored in the inductor is released and is ultimately dissipated in the
load resistance and this helps to maintain the flow of current in the
same direction through the load and also step-up the output voltage as
the inductor is now also acting as a source in conjunction with the input
source.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Single Phase Inverter

The inverter is a power electronic converter that converts direct

power to alternating power.

❖ By using this inverter device, we can convert fixed dc into variable

ac power which as a variable frequency and voltage.

❖ Secondly from this inverter, we can vary the frequency i.e we will be
able to generate the 40HZ, 50HZ, 60HZ frequencies as of our
requirement.

❖ If the dc input is a voltage source then the inverter is known asVSI

(Voltage Source Inverter).

❖ The bridge inverters are of two types they are half-bridge inverter and
full-bridge inverter.

❖ The full bridge inverters need four switching devices whereas half-
bridge inverter needs two switching devices.

SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE INVERTER WITH R,RL and RLC LOAD

The circuit diagram of a single-phase half-bridge inverter with resistive

load is shown in the below figure.

Figure 2.1.1 Single-phase inverter

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 310]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
❖ Vs/2 is the voltage source, S1 and S2 are the two switches, i0 is the
current. Where each switch is connected to diodes D1 and D2
parallelly.

❖ In the above figure 4, the switches S1 and S2 are the self-commutating

switches.The switch S1 will conduct when the voltage is positive and
current is negative, switch S2 will conduct when the voltage is negative,
and the current is negative. The diode D1 will conduct when the
voltage is positive and current is negative, diode D2 will conduct when
the voltage is negative, and the current is positive.

Case 1 (when switch S1 is ON and S2 is OFF):

• When switch S1 is ON from a time period of 0 to T/2, the diode D1 and

D2 are in reverse bias condition and S2 switch is OFF.

• Where output voltage V0= Vs/2

• Where output current i0 = V0/R= Vs/2R

• In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = i0 =

Vs/2R, iS2 = 0 and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.

• Case 2 (when switch S2 is ON and S1 is OFF):

• When switch S2 is ON from a time period of T/2 to T, the diode D1

and D2 are in reverse bias condition and S1 switch is OFF.

• Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law)Vs/2+V0=0

• Where output voltage V0= -Vs/2

• Where output current i0 = V0/R= -Vs/2R

EE 8552- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

• In case of supply current or switch current, the current iS1 = 0,

iS2 = i0 = -Vs/2R and the diode current iD1 = iD2 = 0.

• The single-phase half-bridge inverter output voltage waveform is shown

in the below figure.

Figure 2.1.2 Single-phase inverter Waveform

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 310]

EE 8552- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
2.2 VOLTAGE CONTROL OF INVERTERS

The various methods for the control of output voltage of inverters can be
classified as:

(a) External control of ac output voltage

(b) External control of dc input voltage

(c) Internal control of the inverter.

External Control of ac Output Voltage

In this type of control as shown in Figure, an ac voltage controller is used to

control the output of inverter . Through the firing angle control of ac
voltage controller the voltage input to the ac load is regulated.

Fig 2.2.1. External Control of Output Voltage

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 347]

External Control of dc Input Voltage

When the available voltage souecr is ac then the dc voltage input to the
inverter can be controlled through fully controlled rectifier, uncontrolled
rectifier and chopper, ac voltage controller and uncontrolled rectifier as
shown in Figure .
EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Fig 2.2.2. External Control of Input Voltage

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 348]

Internal Control of Inverter

• The first method require the use of peripheral components

whereas the second method requires no external components.

• Output voltage from an inverter can also be adjusted by exercising a

control within the inverter itself. The most efficient method of doing
is by pulse- width modulation control used within an inverter. This
method is called the internal voltage control of the inverter.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.3 PWM CONTROL: Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)

Pulse width modulation is the most commonly used technique to control

the output voltage of inverter. In pulse Width Modulation method, a fixed dc
input voltage is given to the inverters and a controlled ac output voltage is
obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter components.
PWM is a technique that is used to reduce the overall harmonic distortion
THD in a load current. It uses a pulse wave in square form that results in a
variable average waveform value, after its pulse width has been modulated.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PWM CONTROL TECHNIQUE

1. Single pulse width modulation (Single PWM)

2. Multiple pulse width modulation (MPWM)

3. Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

4. Modified Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (MSPWM)

5. Phase displacement control

Multiple Pulse Width Modulation (MPWM)

The main drawback of single PWM technique is high harmonic content. In

order to reduce the harmonic content, the multiple PWM technique
is used, in which several pulses are given in each half cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signal is achieved by comparing the
reference signal of the amplitude (Ar) with a triangular carrier wave (Ac)
as shown Figure below.
EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2.3.1 Multiple pulse width modulation

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 352]

The output frequency (fo) is determined by the frequency of the

reference signal.The output voltage can be controlled by modulation
index.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

2.4 PWM CONTROL: Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)

In Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation triangular carrier signal is

compared with sine wave. Figure below explains the generation of a
sinusoidal PWM signal, which finds more applications in industries. The
gating signal can be generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference signal
with a triangular carrier wave and the width of each pulse varied
proportionally to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of
the same pulse. The output frequency (fo) of the inverter can be found by
using the frequency of the reference signal (fr). The rms output voltage (vo)
can be controlled by modulation index M and in turn modulation index is
controlled by peak amplitude (Ar). The voltage can be calculated by VO =Vs
(S1- S4) . The number of pulses per half cycle depends on the carrier
frequency. The gating signal can be produced by using the unidirectional
triangular carrier wave.

Figure 2.4.1. Multiple pulse width modulation

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 352]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The frequency of control signal or the modulating signal sets the

inverter output frequency (fo) and the peak magnitude of control signal
controls the modulation index ma which in turn controls the rms output
voltage. The area of each pulse corresponds approximately to the area
under the sine wave between the adjacent midpoints of off periods on the
gating signals. If ton is the width of nth pulse, the rms output voltage can be
determined by:

Pulse width modulation is the most commonly used technique to

control the output voltage of inverter. In pulse Width Modulation method, a
fixed dc input voltage is given to the inverters and a controlled ac output
voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and off periods of the inverter
components.

PWM is a technique that is used to reduce the overall harmonic

distortion THD in a load current. It uses a pulse wave in square form that
results in a variable average waveform value, after its pulse width has been
modulated.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
2.5 SINGLE-PHASE CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER

Figure 2.5.1 Single phase current source inverter (CSI)

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 364]

The circuit of a Single-phase Current Source Inverter (CSI) is shown in Fig.

The type of operation is termed as Auto-Sequential Commutated Inverter
(ASCI). A constant current source is assumed here, which may be
realized by using an inductance of suitable value, which must be high, in
series with the current limited dc voltage source. The thyristor pairs, Th1 &
Th3, and Th2 & Th4, are alternatively turned ON to obtain a nearly square
wave current waveform. Two commutating capacitors − C1 in the upper
half, and C2 in the lower half, are used. Four diodes, D1–D4 are
connected in series with each thyristor to prevent the commutating
capacitors from discharging into the load. The output frequency of the
inverter is controlled in the usual way, i.e., by varying the half time period,
(T/2), at which the thyristors in pair are triggered by pulses being fed to the
EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

respective gates by the control circuit, to turn them ON, as can be observed
from the waveforms. The inductance (L) is taken as the load in this case,
the reason(s) for which need not be stated, being well known. The
operation is explained by two modes.

Figure 2.5.2 wave forms of Single phase current source inverter

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 365]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Mode I: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. The following are the
assumptions. Starting from the instant ,t= 0 , the thyristor pair, Th 2 & Th4,
is conducting (ON), and the current (I) flows through the path, Th2, D2, load
(L), D4, Th4, and source, I. The commutating capacitors are initially
charged equally with the polarity as given, i.e., . This mans that both
capacitors have right hand plate positive and left hand plate negative. If
two capacitors are not charged initially, they have to pre-charged.

At time, t = 0, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3, is triggered by pulses at the gates.
The conducting thyristor pair, Th2 & Th4, is turned OFF by application
of reverse capacitor voltages. Now, thyristor pair, Th1 & Th3, conducts
current (I). The current path is through Th1, C1, D2, L, D4,C2, Th3, and
source, I. Both capacitors will now begin charging linearly from –Vco by the
constant current, I. The diodes, D2& D4, remain reverse biased initially. As
the capacitor gets charged, the voltage vD1 across D1, increases linearly. At
some time, say t1, the reverse bias across D1 becomes zero (0), the
diode, D1.starts conducting. This means that the voltages across C1 & C2,
varies linearly from –Vco to zero in time, t1. Mode I ends, whent=t1, and
vc= 0 . Note that t1 is the circuit turn-off time for the thyristors.

Mode II: The circuit for this mode is shown in Fig. 39.4a. Diodes, D2 &
D4, are already conducting, but at t = t1 , diodes, D1 & D3, get forward
biased, and start conducting. Thus, at the end of time t1, all four diodes,
D1–D4 conduct. As a result, the commutating capacitors now get connected
in parallel with the load (L).At the end of the process, constant current flows
in the path, Th1, D1, load (L), D3, Th3, and source, I. This continues till the

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
next commutation process is initiated by the triggering of the thyristor pair,
Th2 & Th4.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity to a degree

between that of a metal (such as copper) and that of an insulator (such as glass).
Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including transistors, solar
cells, light -emitting diodes (LEDs), quantum dots and digital and analog integrated
circuits.

DIODE

Diode – Di + ode

Di means two and ode means electrode. So physical contact of two electrodes is
known asdiode and its important function is alternative current to direct current.

REVIEW OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORSINTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR

An intrinsic semiconductor is one, which is pure enough that impurities do not

appreciably affect its electrical behaviour. In this case, all carriers are created due to
thermally or optically excited electrons from the full valence band into the empty
conduction band. Thus equal numbers of electrons and holes are present in an intrinsic
semiconductor. Electrons and holes flow in opposite directions in an electric field,
though they contribute to current in the same direction since they are oppositely
charged. Whole current and electron current are not necessarily equal in an intrinsic
semiconductor, however, because electrons and holes have different effective masses
(crystalline analogues to free inertial masses).

The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the temperature. At low

temperatures, the valence band is completely full making the material an insulator.
Increasing the temperature leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a
corresponding increase in conductivity.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valence
electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond- like
structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed
by the four atoms which are closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons
with its four immediate neighbours, so that each atom is involved in four covalent
bonds.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped with impurities to modifythe
number and type of free charge carriers. An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor
that has been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it
different electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.

Doping involves adding doping atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes

the electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal
equilibrium. Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as
either an n-type or p-type semiconductor.

A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons.

However these are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of
charge carriers can be achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor ina
controlled manner. The result is the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This
process is referred to as doping. There are basically two types of impurities: donor
impurities and acceptor impurities. Donor impurities are made up of atoms (arsenic for
example) which have five valence electrons. Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms
(gallium for example) which have three valence electrons.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The two types of extrinsic semiconductor are

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole

concentration are known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the
negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority
carriers and holes are the minority carriers.

N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with

donor impurities.In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than
that of the intrinsic semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the
valence band. Arsenic has 5 valence electrons, however, only 4 of them form part of
covalent bonds.The 5th electron is then free to take part in conduction. The electrons
are said to be themajority carriers and the holes are said to be the minority carriers.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole
concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the positive
charge of the hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and
electrons are the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi
energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi energy level.

The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than the conduction band in
a p- type semiconductor. Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4

covalent bonds to fill. The 4th bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole. The
holes are said to be the majority carriers and the electrons are said to be the minority
carriers.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PN JUNCTION DIODE

When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very
large density gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free
electrons from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed
junction to fill up the holes in the P- type material producing negative ions.

FORWARD BIAS CONDITION

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative
terminal to N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.
Operation

The applied potential in external battery acts in opposition to the internal

potential barrier which disturbs the equilibrium.

As soon as equilibrium is disturbed by the application of an external voltage, the

Fermi level is no longer continuous across the junction. Under the forward bias
condition the applied positive potential repels the holes in P type region so that the
holesmove towards the junction and the applied positive potential repels the electrons
in N type region so that the electrons move towards the junction.
When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the
depletion region and internal potential barrier disappear.

Figure: 1.1.1 PN Junctions under forward bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 110]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

V-I Characteristics
As the forward voltage increased for VF < Vo, the forward current IF almost zero
because the potential barrier prevents the holes from P region and electrons from N
region to flow across the depletion region in opposite direction.

Figure: 1.1.2 V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 111]

For VF > Vo, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence,
the holes cross the junction from P to N type and electrons cross the junction to
opposite direction, resulting large current flow in external circuit.

A feature noted here is the cut in voltage or threshold voltage VF below which
the current is very small. At this voltage the potential barrier is overcome and the
current through the junction starts to increase rapidly.
 Cut in voltage is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7 for silicon.

UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and
positiveterminal to N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias
condition.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Operation
The holes from the majority carriers of the P side move towards the negative
terminal of the battery and electrons which from the majority carrier of the N side are
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery.

Figure: 1.1.3 PN junctions under reverse bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 111]

Hence, the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge
carriers increases. Thus, the electric field produced by applied reverse bias, is in the
same direction as the electric field of the potential barrier. Hence the resultant
potential barrier is increased which prevents the flow of majority carriers in both
directions. Thedepletion width W is proportional to under reverse bias.

V-I characteristics

Theoretically no current flow in the external circuit. But in practice a very small
amount of current of the order of few microamperes flows under reverse bias.

Figure: 1.1.4 V-I characteristics under reverse bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 112]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Electrons forming covalent bonds of semiconductor atoms in the P and N type

regions may absorb sufficient energy from heat and light to cause breaking covalent
bonds. So electron hole pairs continuously produced.
Consequently the minority carriers electrons in the P region and holes in the N
region, wander over to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving
rise a small reverse current. This current is known as reverse saturation current Io.

The magnitude of this current is depends on the temperature because minority

carrier is thermally broken covalent bonds.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.2 RECTIFIERS

Rectifiers are classified according to the period of conduction. They are

 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier:

The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that rectifies only half cycle of the
waveform. This describes the half wave rectifier circuit working. The half rectifier
consist a step down transformer, a diode connected to the transformer and a load
resistance connected to the cathode end of the diode. The circuit diagram of half wave
transformer is shown below:

Figure: 1.3.1 Half wave Rectifier

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 252]

Figure: 1.3.2 Half wave Rectifier Wave Form

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 253]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

The main supply voltage is given to the transformer which will increase or decrease
the voltage and give to the diode. In most of the cases we will decrease the supply
voltage by using the step down transformer here also the output of the step down
transformer will be in AC. This decreased AC voltage is given to the diode which is
connected serial to the secondary winding of the transformer, diode is electronic
component which will allow only the forward bias current and will not allow the reverse
bias current. From the diode we will get the pulsating DC and give to the load resistance
RL.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier:

The input given to the rectifier will have both positive and negative cycles. The half
rectifier will allow only the positive half cycles and omit the negative half cycles. So
first we will see how half wave rectifier works in the positive half cycles.
Positive Half Cycle:

 In the positive half cycles when the input AC power is given to the
primary winding of the step down transformer, we will get the decreased
voltage at thesecondary winding which is given to the diode.
 The diode will allow current flowing in clock wise direction from anode
to cathode in the forward bias (diode conduction will take place in
forward bias)which will generate only the positive half cycle of the AC.
 The diode will eliminate the variations in the supply and give the pulsating
DCvoltage to the load resistance RL. We can get the pulsating DC at the
Load resistance.
Negative Half Cycle:
 In the negative half cycle the current will flow in the anti-clockwise
directionand the diode will go in to the reverse bias. In the reverse bias
the diode will not conduct so, no current in flown from anode to cathode,
and we cannot getany power at the load resistance.
 Only small amount of reverse current is flown from the diode but this
current is almost negligible.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier:

There are some characteristics to the half wave rectifier they are
 Efficiency: The efficiency is defined as the ratio of input AC to the
output DC.Efficiency, Ƞ = P dc / Pac
 DC power delivered to the load, Pdc = I2dc RL = ( Imax/pi ) 2 RL
AC power input to the transformer, Pac = Power dissipated in junction of
diode + Power
Dissipated in load resistance RL= I2rms RF + I2rms RL = {I2MAX/4} [RF + RL]
Rectification Efficiency, Ƞ = Pdc / Pac = {4/ 2} [RL/ (RF + RL)] = 0.406/{1+
RF/RL }
If RF is neglected, the efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.
 Ripple factor: It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output DC.
It nothingbut amount of AC noise in the output DC. Less the ripple factor,
performance of the rectifier is more. The ripple factor of half wave
rectifier is about 1.21 (full wave rectifier has about0.48). It can be
calculated as follows:
 The effective value of the load current I is given as sum of the rms values
of harmonic currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and DC current Idc.

 I2 =I2dc+I21+I22+I24 = I2dc +I2ac

 Ripple factor, is given as γ = I ac / Idc = (I2 – I2dc) / Idc = {( I rmdcs /I 2)-
1} = Kf2 – 1) Where Kf is the form factor of the input voltage. Form
factor is given as
Kf = Irms /Iavg = (Imax/2)/ (Imax/pi) = pi/2 = 1.57
So, ripple factor, γ = (1.572 – 1) = 1.21
 Peak Inverse Voltage: It is defined as the maximum voltage that a diode
can with standin reverse bias. During the reverse bias as the diode do not
conduct total voltage drops across the diode. Thus peak inverse voltage
is equal to the input voltage Vs.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The TUF is defined as the ratioof

DC poweris delivered to the load and the AC rating of the transformer
secondary. Half wave rectifier has around 0.287 and full wave rectifier has
around 0.693.
 Half wave rectifier is mainly used in the low power circuits. It has very low
performance when it is compared with the other rectifiers.

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com

ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.3.FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Full wave rectifier rectifies the full cycle in the waveform i.e. it rectifies both the
positive and negative cycles in the waveform. We have already seen the characteristics
and working of Half Wave Rectifier. This Full wave rectifier has an advantage over the half
wave i.e. it has average output higher than that of half wave rectifier. The number of AC
components in the output is less than that of the input.

The full wave rectifier can be further divided mainly into following types.

 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

We have already discussed the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, which uses four diodes,
arranged as a bridge, to convert the input alternating current (AC) in both half cycles to
direct current (DC).
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are
connected to the opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in
the figure below. The centre-tap is usually considered as the ground point or the zero
voltage reference point.

Figure: 1.4.1 Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 268]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Working of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

As shown in the figure, an ac input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer.
This input makes the secondary ends P1 and P2 become positive and negative
alternately.
For the positive half of the ac signal, the secondary point D1 is positive, GND point
will have zero volt and P2 will be negative.
At this instant diode D1 will be forward biased and diode D2 will be reverse biased.
As explained in the Theory behind P-N Junction and Characteristics of P-N
JunctionDiode, the diode D1 will conduct and D2 will not conduct during the positive
half cycle. Thus the current flow will be in the direction P1-D1-C-A-B-GND. Thus, the
positive half cycle appears across the load resistance RLOAD.
During the negative half cycle, the secondary ends P1 becomes negative and P2
becomes positive. At this instant, the diode D1 will be negative and D2 will be positive
with the zero reference point being the ground, GND. Thus, the diode D2 will be
forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased. The diode D2 will conduct and D1 will
not conduct during the negative half cycle. The current flow will be in the directionP2-
D2-C-A-B-GND.

Figure: 1.4.2 Centre-tap Full-wave Rectifier-Waveform

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 268]

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

When comparing the current flow in the positive and negative half cycles, we can
conclude that the direction of the current flow is the same (through load resistance
RLOAD). When compared to the Half-Wave Rectifier, both the half cycles are used to
produce the corresponding output.

The frequency of the rectified output voltage is twice the input frequency. The
output that is rectified, consists of a dc component and a lot of ac components of
minute amplitudes.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

PIV is the maximum possible voltage across a diode during its reverse biased period.
Let us analyze the PIV of the Centre-tapped rectifier from the circuit diagram. During
the first half or the positive half of the input ac supply, the diode D1 is positive and thus
conducts and provided no resistance at all. Thus, the whole of voltage Vs developed in
the upper-half of the ac supply is provided to the load resistance RLOAD.

 Peak Current

The instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier can be written as
Vs = Vsm Sinwt
Assuming that the diode has a forward resistance of RFWD ohms and a reverse
resistance equal to infinity, the current flowing through the load resistance RLOAD
isgiven as
Im = Vsm / (RF + RLoad)
 Output Current

Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of
the ac cycle, magnitude of dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac
current, can be obtained by integrating the current i1 between 0 and pi or current
i2 between pi

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝜋 𝜋
Idc = 1/ ∫ i1 𝑑(w𝑡) = 1/𝜋 ∫ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝗑 sin w𝑡 𝑑(w𝑡) = 2𝐼𝑚/ 𝜋
0 0

Output current of Centre Tap rectifier

 DC Output Voltage

Average or dc value of voltage across the load is given as

Idc = 1/ ∫ i1 d(wt) = 1/ ∫ Imax wt d(wt) = 2Im/

0 0

DC Output Voltage of center Tap Rectifier

 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current

RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance RL is givenas
I2rms = 1/ ∫ i d( wt) = I2 m/2 or Irms = Im/√2
0

EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.comROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.4 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half cycles of
input alternating current (AC) and convert them to direct current (DC). In our tutorial on
half wave rectifiers, we have seen that a half wave rectifier makes use of only one half
cycle of the input alternating current. Thus a full wave rectifier is much more efficient
(double+) than a half wave rectifier. This process of converting both half cycles of the
input supply (alternating current) to direct current (DC) is termed full wave rectification.
Full wave rectifier can be constructed in 2 ways. The first method makes use of a center
tapped transformer and 2 diodes. This arrangement is known as Center Tapped Full
Wave Rectifier. The second method uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes arranged
as abridge. This arrangement is known as a Bridge Rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier Theory

To understand full wave bridge rectifier theory perfectly, you need to learn half
wave rectifier first. In the tutorial of half wave rectifier we have clearly explained the basic
working of a rectifier. In addition we have also explained the theory behind a p n junction
and the characteristics of a p n junction diode.
Full Wave Rectifier Working & Operation
The working & operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The circuit
diagrams and wave forms we have given below will help you understand the operation of
a bridge rectifier perfectly. In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a
bridge. The transformer secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite points of
the bridge at points A & C. The load resistance RL is connected to bridge through points
B and D.

During the first half cycle

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer
secondary winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half
cycle diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the
load resistance RL, and returns back flowing through arm DC.

Downloaded From EnggTree.com EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

 EnggTree.comROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased and
current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is indicated by solid
arrows in the figure above. We have developed another diagram below to help you
understand the current flow quickly. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The
red arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus
completing the circuit.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output Wave Forms

Figure: 3.4.1 Flow of current in Bridge Rectifier

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 271]

Downloaded From EnggTree.com EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

 EnggTree.comROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

During the second half cycle:

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer
secondary winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D 2 and D4
become forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance R L,
and returns back to the source flowing through arm DA. Flow of current has been shown
by dotted arrows in the figure. Thus the direction of flow of current through the load
resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage. See
the diagram below – the green arrows indicate beginning of current flow from source
(transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red arrows indicate return path of
current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the circuit.

Figure: 3.4.2 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 271]

Downloaded From EnggTree.com EE 3501- POWER ELECTRONICS

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

3.5 ACTIVE FILTERS

An electric filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a
specified band of frequencies and blocks or alternates signal and frequencies
outside this band. Filters may be classified as
 Analog or digital.
 Active or passive
 Audio (AF) or Radio Frequency (RF)
1. Analog or digital filters:
Analog filters are designed to process analog signals, while digital filters
process analog signals using digital technique.
2. Active or Passive:
Depending on the type of elements used in their construction, filter may
beclassified as passive or Active elements used in passive filters are Resistors,
capacitors, inductors. Elements used in active filters are transistor, or op-amp.
ACTIVE FILTERS OFFER THE FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES OVERPASSIVE FILTERS
1. Gain and Frequency adjustment flexibility:
Since the op-amp is capable of providing gain, the i/p signal is not
attenuated as it is in a passive filter. [Active filter is easier to tune or adjust].
2. No loading problem:
Because of the high input resistance and low o/p resistance of the op-
amp,the active filter does not cause loading of the source or load.
3. Cost:
Active filters are more economical than passive filter. This is because of
the variety of cheaper op-amps and the absence of inductors.
The most commonly used filters are these:
1. Low pass Filters
2. High pass Filters
3. Band pass filters
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4. Band –reject filters

Frequency response of the active filters:

Figure 2.9.1 a).Frequency response of LPF and HPF

[source: https://www.brainkart.com/subject/Linear-Integrated-Circuits_220/]

Figure 2.9.1 b) Frequency response of BPF and Band reject filter

[source: https://www.brainkart.com/subject/Linear-Integrated-Circuits_220/]

LOW PASS FILTERS

 It has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cutoff frequency f1.
 At fH the gain in down by 3db.
 The frequency between 0 Hz and fH are known as the pass band frequencies
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

where as the range of frequencies those beyond f H, that are attenuated

includes the stop band frequencies.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

HIGH PASS FILTER

High pass filter with a stop band 0 <f< f L and a pass band f> f L
fL -> low cut off frequencyf
-> operating frequency.
BAND PASS FILTER
It has a pass band between 2 cut off frequencies fH and fL where fH > fL and
two, stop bands: 0<f< fL and f > fH between the band pass filter (equal to f H - fL).
Band –reject filter: (Band stop or Band elimination). It performs exactly opposite
to the band pass.It has a band stop between 2 cut-off frequency fL and fH and 2
pass bands: 0<f< fL and f> fH fC -> center frequency.
FIRST ORDER LPF BUTTERWORTH FILTER
First order LPF that uses an RC for filtering op-amp shown in figure 2.9.2a)is
used in the non-inverting configuration. Figure 2.9.2 b) shows the frequency
response of first order LPF. Resistor R 1 & Rf determine the gain of the filter.
According to the voltage –divider rule, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal
(across capacitor) C is,

Figure 2.9.2 a) First order low pass filter figure 2.9.2 b)frequency response
[source:https://www.tutorialspoint.com/linear_integrated_circuits_applications
/linear_integr ated_circuits_applications_active_filters.htm]
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Gain A= (1+Rf/R1)
Voltage across capacitor V1= Vi / (1+j2πfRC)

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Output voltage V0 for non inverting amplifier =A V1

= (1+Rf/R1) Vi/(1+j2πfRC)
Overall gain V0/Vi = (1+Rf/R1) Vi/(1+j2πfRC) Transfer
function H(s) =A/(jf/fh+1)
if fh =1/2πRC
H (jω) = A/( jωRC+1) = A/( jωRC+1).
The gain magnitude and phase angle of the equation of the LPF can be
obtainedby converting eqn. (1) b into its equivalent polar form as follows.
1. At very lowω)|frequency, f < fH
|H (jω) =A
2. At f =fH

|H (jω)| =A/√2=0.707A
3. At f> fH

|H (jω)|<<A ≅ 0
When the frequency increases by tenfold (one decade), the volt gain is divided by
10. The gain falls by 20 dB (=20log10) each time the frequency is reduces by 10.
Hence the rate at which the gain rolls off f H = 20 dB or 6dB/octave (twofold R in
frequency). The frequency f = fH is called the cut off frequency because the gain
of the filter at this frequency is down by 3 dB (=20 log 0.707).
SECOND ORDER LP BUTTERWORTH FILTER
A second order LPF having a gain 40dB/decade in stop band. A First order LPF
can be converted into a II order type simply by using an additional RC network
shown in figure 2.9.3
• An improved filter response can be obtained by using a second order active
filter.
• A second order active filter consists of two RC pairs & has roll off rate of
-40db/decade.
• The op-amp is connected as non-inverting amplifier hence
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑅
𝑉 = (1 + 𝑓)𝑉 =A V
𝑜 𝑅1 𝐵 o B
𝑅𝑓
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑜 = (1 + )
𝑅1

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐵 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐵

Figure 2.9.3.Second order low pass butterworth filter

[source: https://www.eeeguide.com/second-order-low-pass-butterworth-
filter/]
Let us consider the General prototype second order filter circuit as in figure 2.9.4.

Figure 2.9.4 General prototype second order filter circuit

[source: https://www.eeeguide.com/second-order-low-pass-butterworth-
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

filter/]
KCL at node A,
(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍1 + (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍3 + (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍2 = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑍1 + 𝑉𝑜𝑍3 + 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) = 0
𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝑜𝑍3

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑉𝑜
=
𝐴𝑜 𝑉 𝐵
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐵 =
𝐴𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝐴(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑉𝐵𝑍2 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑍3-----(1)
𝐴𝑜

𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐵 ,
(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴)𝑍2 + 𝑉𝐵𝑍4 = 0

𝑉𝐴𝑍2 = 𝑉𝐵(𝑍4 + 𝑍2)

𝑉𝐴𝑍2 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑍4 + 𝑍2)------(2)

𝐴𝑜

𝑉𝑜 (𝑍2 + 𝑍4)
𝑉=
𝐴 𝐴 𝑍2
𝑜

𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑉𝐴 (2) 𝑖𝑛 (1)

𝑉𝑜
𝑉 𝑍 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑍2 + 𝑍4) (𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍 )−𝑉 𝑍 − 𝑍

𝑖 1 𝐴𝑜 𝑍2 1 2 𝐵
3 2 𝐴𝑜 3

(𝑍2 + 𝑍4)(𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍3) − 𝑍3(𝐴𝑜𝑍2) − 𝑍22

𝑉𝑖𝑍1 = 𝑉𝑜( )
𝐴𝑜𝑍2

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜𝑍1𝑍2
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑍1𝑍2 + 𝑍22 + 𝑍2𝑍3 + 𝑍1𝑍4 + 𝑍2𝑍4 + 𝑍3𝑍4 − 𝐴𝑜𝑍2𝑍3 − 𝑍 22
𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜𝑍1𝑍2 − −(3)
=
𝑉𝑖 𝑍1𝑍2+𝑍4(𝑍1+𝑍2+𝑍 3)+𝑍2𝑍3(1−𝐴0)
𝑇𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 , 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑍1 = 𝑍 2 = 1
And 𝑍3 = 𝑍4 =
𝑅

𝑆𝐶 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (3), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻(𝑠)𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠
𝐴𝑜
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝐻(𝑆) = 𝑅2
1 1 1 𝑆𝐶
( + 𝑆𝐶 ( + + 𝑆𝐶) + (1 − 𝐴𝑜))
𝑅2 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝐻(𝑆) = 𝐴𝑜 -----(4)
𝑆2𝐶2𝑅2+𝑆𝐶𝑅(3−
𝐴𝑜)+1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (4),
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑜, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = 0
𝐻(𝑠) = ∞ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = ∞

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠
𝐴 ɷ2
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑜 𝑛
-------(5)
𝑆2+𝛼ɷ𝑛𝑆+ɷ2𝑛

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑜 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

ɷ𝑛 → 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec
𝛼 → 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢 (4)&(5)
1
ɷ𝑛 = ,𝛼 = (3 − 𝐴𝑜)
𝑅𝐶

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝛼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝐶 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛
𝑆𝑢𝑏 𝑆 = 𝑗ɷ 𝑖𝑛 (5)
𝐴 ɷ2
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) = 𝑜 𝑛

(𝑗ɷ)2+𝛼ɷ𝑛𝑗ɷ+ɷ2𝑛
𝐴𝑜
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) = ɷ
𝑗ɷ 2 + 𝑗𝛼 +1
(
ɷ𝑛) ɷ𝑛

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠

𝐴𝑜
𝐻(𝑗ɷ) =
𝑆2 + 𝛼𝑆 + 1
𝑛 𝑛
ɷ
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑗( )
ɷ𝑛
𝑆𝑛

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠

20 𝑙𝑜𝑔|𝐻(𝑗ɷ)| = 20 𝑙0𝑔( 𝐴𝑜
1+𝑗𝛼( ɷ )+( 𝑗ɷ )2
)
ɷ ɷ𝑛
𝑛
= 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ɷ2 𝐴𝑜 ɷ 2 )
(1− )2+(𝛼 )
2
ɷ𝑛 ɷ𝑛

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FIRST ORDER HP BUTTERWORTH FILTER

High pass filters are often formed simply by interchanging frequency-
determining resistors and capacitors in low-pass filters. (i.e) I order HPF is
formed from a I order LPF by interchanging components R & C as shown in figure
2.9.5. Similarly, II order HPF is formed from a II order LPF by interchanging R &
C.

Figure 2.9.5.first order high pass filter and its frequency response
[source: https://www.brainkart.com/subject/Linear-Integrated-Circuits_220/]

Here I order HPF with a low cut off frequency of fL. This is the frequency at which
the magnitude of the gain is 0.707 times its passband value.
Here all the frequencies higher than fL are passband
frequencies.The output voltage V0 of the first order active high
pass filter is

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 At high frequencies f>fL gain = A.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 At f= fL gain = 0.707 A.
 At f < fL the gain decreases at a rate of -20 db /decade. The frequency
belowcutoff
frequency is stop band.
SECOND – ORDER HIGH PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER
I order Filter, II order HPF can be formed from a II order LPF by interchanging
the frequency

Figure 2.9.6 second order high pass filter and its frequency response
[source: https://www.brainkart.com/subject/Linear-Integrated-Circuits_220/]

BAND PASS FILTERS

 Filters that pass band of frequencies and attenuates others. Its high cutoff
frequency and low cutoff frequency are related as f H >fL and maximum
gain at resonant frequency
fr= √ fHfL
 Figure of merit Q= fr/ (fH- fL) = fr/B where B= bandwidth.
 2 types of filters are Narrow band pass and wide band pass filters

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

WIDE BAND PASS FILTER

It is connection of a low pass filter and a high pass filter in cascade as in
figure 2.9.7.The fH of low pass filter and fL of high pass filter are related as fH > fL

Figure 2.9.7 a)wide band pass filter b) its frequency response

[source: https://www.brainkart.com/subject/Linear-Integrated-Circuits_220/]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.1 Two Transistor Analogy of SCR

The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest
way to understand the working of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two
transistors. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base of the other
transistor.

The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest
way to understand the working of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two
transistors as shown in figure. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base
of the other transistor.

Assume that load resistance is connected between the anode and cathode
terminals and a small voltage is applied at the gate and cathode terminals. When there
is no gate voltage, the transistor 2 is in cut-off mode due to zero base current.
Therefore, no current flows through the collector and hence the base of transistor T1.
Hence, both transistors are open circuited and thereby no current flows through the
load.And hence the base current at the transistor T1 drives the transistor into
saturationvmode. and thus load current will flow from anode to

Figure 4.1.1 Two Transistor Model

[Source: “Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications” by M.H. Rashid, Page: 12]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

From the above figure the base current of transistor T2 becomes the collector
current of transistor T1 and vice-versa.

Hence

Ib2 = Ic1 and Ic2 = Ib1

Also current through the cathode terminal, Ik = Ig + Ia ……(1)

For a transistor,

Ib1 = Ie1 – Ic1 ……(2)

and Ic1 = α1Ie1 + Ico1……(3)

Where Ico1 is the leakage current.

Substituting equation 3 in equation 2 we get

Ib1 = Ie1 (1 – α1) – Ico1 …….(4)

From the figure anode current is the emitter current of transistor T1,

Ia = Ie1

Then Ib1 = Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1

And also for transistor T2

Ic2 = α2Ie2 + Ico2

But Ik = Ie2

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Therefore Ic2 = α2Ik + Ico2

Ic2 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2 …..(5)

But Ib1 = Ic2 …..(6)

Substituting the equations 4 and 5 in equation 6 we get

Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2

Ia = [α2 Ig + Ico1 + Ico2] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

By assuming the leakage currents are negligible in both transistors we get

Ia = [α2 Ig] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

where α1 and α2 are the respective gains of the two transistors.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
4.2 Two Pulse Converter

FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER

Figure 4.2.1 SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 191]

CONSTRUCTION

The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge

converter is shown in the figure with a highly inductive load and a dc
source in the load circuit so that the load current is continuous and
ripple free (constant load current operation). The fully controlled
bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1, T2,T3 and T4 connected in
the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each
thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns
off when a reverse voltage appears across it.

During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the
transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
lower end the thyristors T1and T2are forward biased during the time interval
ωt = 0 to π. The thyristors T1and T2are triggered simultaneously ωt =α; (0
≤α≤π) , the load is connected to the input supply through the conducting
thyristors T1and T2.. Due to the inductive load T1 and T2will continue to
conduct beyond ωt =π, even though the input voltage becomes negative.
T1 and T2 conduct together during the time period α to (π+α) , for a time

duration of π radians (conduction angle of each thyristor = 1800 ).

Figure 4.2.2 FULL CONVERTER WAVEFORM

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 192)

During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for ωt =π to

2π the thyristors T3and T4are forward biased. T3 and T4are triggered at
ωt = (π+α) . As soon as the thyristors 3 T and 4 T are triggered a reverse
voltage appears across the thyristors T1and T2and they naturally turn-
off and the load current is transferred from T1and T2to the thyristors
T3and T4. In the next positive half cycle when T1and T2 are triggered,
T3and T4are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure shows the
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the
constant load current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.

During the time period ωt =α to π, the input supply voltage VS

and the input supply current is both positive and the power flows from the
supply to the load. The converter operates in the rectification mode during
ωt =α to π.

During the time period ωt =π to (π+α) , the input supply voltage

Vs is negative and the input supply current is positive and there will be
reverse power flow from the load circuit to the input supply. The converter
operates in the inversion mode during the time period ωt =π to (π+α) and
the load energy is fed back to the input source.

The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial

applications up to about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of
trigger angle α, the average output voltage may be either positive or
negative and two quadrant operation is possible.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
4.3 Three Pulse Converter

INTRODUCTION TO 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used
to convert ac input power supply into dc output power across the load.

FEATURES OF 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ARE

❖ Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.

❖ They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.

❖ Higher output voltage ripple frequency.

❖ Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load

voltage and load current.Three phase controlled rectifiers are
extensively used in high power variable speed industrial dc drives.

3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER WITH R LOAD (Three Pulse Converter)

Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to
form a three phase half-wave converter as shown in the figure.

Figure 4.3.1 Three pulse converter circuit diagram

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 214]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 4.3.2 Three pulse converter Waveforms

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 11]

The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half
wave controlled rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The
thyristor T1 in series with one of the supply phase windings ' a - n '
acts as one half wave controlled rectifier. The second thyristor T2 in series
with the supply phase winding,'b - n ' acts as the second half wave
controlled rectifier. The third thyristor T3 rectifier in series with the supply
phase winding ' c - n ' acts as the third half wave controlled.

The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected

supply transformer as shown in the figure. The common neutral point of the
supply is connected to one end of the load while the other end of the load
connected to the common cathode point.When the thyristor T 1 is triggered
the load current flows through the supply phase winding ‘a - n ' and through
thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

When thyristor T 2 is conducts the phase voltage Vbn appears

across the load until the thyristor T3 is triggered . When the thyristor T3 is
triggered the phase voltage Vcn appears across the load.

For a purely resistive load where the load inductance ‘L = 0’ and the
current appears as discontinuous.

The frequency of output ripple frequency for a 3-phase half

wave converter is 3fs , where fs is the input supply frequency.

The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical

converter systems because of the disadvantage that the supply current
waveforms contain dc components.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
4.4 Six Pulse Converter

THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled

rectifier using six thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge
configuration. All the six thyristors are controlled switches which are turned
on at a appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger signals.

FEATURES OF 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ARE

❖ They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power.

❖ Higher output voltage ripple frequency.

❖ Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high

power variable speed industrial dc drives.

Three phase fully controlled bridge converter

The three phase fully controlled bridge converter has been probably
the most widely used power electronic converter in the medium to high
power applications. Three phase circuits are preferable when large power
is involved. The controlled rectifier can provide controllable out put dc
voltage in a single unit instead of a three phase autotransformer and a
diode bridge rectifier. The controlled rectifier is obtained by replacing the
diodes of the uncontrolled rectifier with thyristors. Control over the output
dc voltage is obtained by controlling the conduction interval of each
thyristor. This method is known as phase control and converters are also

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
called “phase controlled converters”. Since thyristors can block voltage
in both directions it is possible to reverse the polarity of the output dc

voltage and hence feed power back to the ac supply from the dc side.
Under such condition the converter is said to be operating in the “inverting
mode”. The thyristors in the converter circuit are commutated with the
help of the supply voltage in the rectifying mode of operation and are
known as “Line commutated converter”. The same circuit while operating
in the inverter mode requires load side counter emf. for commutation and
are referred to as the “Load commutated inverter”.

A three phase fully controlled converter is obtained by replacing all the six
diodes of an uncontrolled converter by six thyristors as shown in Fig.

Figure 4.4.1 Six pulse converter

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 210]

➢ The three thyristors (T1 ,T3 andT5 ) will not work together at the same
time or two of them also will not work together at the same time.
EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
➢ The three thyristors (T2 ,T4 andT6 ) will not work together at the same
time or two of them also will not work together at the same time.

➢ (T1 and T4 ), (T3 and T6 ) or (T5 and T2 ) will not work together at the same
time.

➢ Each thyristor is triggered at an interval of 2pi / 3.

➢ Each thyristors pair ((T6&T1 ), (T1&T2 ), (T2&T3 ), (T3&T4 ), (T4&T5 ),

(T5&T6 )) is triggered at an interval of pi / 3.

➢ The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6fS.

Figure 4.4.2 Six pulse converter Waveforms

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 211]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
➢ If T1 is triggered at (30 + α), T3 will be triggered at (30 + α+120)
and T5 will be triggered at (30 +α+240). T4 will be triggered at (30 +
α+180), T6 will be triggered at (30 + α+120+180) and T2 will be
triggered at (30 +α +240+180).

Firing T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Angle
0˚ 30˚ 90˚ 150˚ 210˚ 270˚ 330˚

30˚ 60˚ 120˚ 180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 360˚

60˚ 90˚ 150˚ 210˚ 270˚ 330˚ 390˚

90˚ 120˚ 180˚ 240˚ 300˚ 360˚ 420˚

Three phase full converter – triggering angles of thyristor

At ωt = 30˚+α, thyristor T6 is already conducting when the thyristor T 1is

turned on by applying the gating signal to the gate of T 1. During the time
period to ωt =30+α to 90˚+α thyristors T 1and T 6 conduct together and
the line to line supply voltage Vab appears across the load. At ωt = 90 ˚+α ,
the thyristor T2 is triggered and T6 is reverse biased immediately and
T6 turns off due to natural commutation. During the time period
ωt = 90˚+α to 150˚+α , thyristor T1 and T2 conduct together and the line
to line supply voltage V ac appears across the load. The thyristors are
numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order in which they
are triggered.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

4.5 EFFECT OF SOURCE INDUCTANCE

In actual practice, the converter is connected to ac mains through a

transformer.

In a converter,because of source inductance, the current in the

outgoing thyristor cannot change from full value to zero instantaneously and
the current through the incoming thyristor cannot increase from zero to full
value instantaneously. Therefore after the triggering gate pulse is applied to
a thyristor, the current of the outgoing thyristor decreases from full value to
zero over a time ωt = µ. During this time interval the current through
incoming thyristor rises from zero to full value. During this period µ known as
commutating period, both the outgoing and incoming thyristors are
conducting. µ is also known as overlap angle. The overlapping of currents
causes a reductionin output voltage. During this commutation period, the
output voltage is equal to 0 .

Figure 4.5.1 Single Phase Converter with Source Inductance

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 222]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure shows a single phase fully controlled bridge convereter with

source inductance Ls. The load is assumed to be highly inductive so that

load current can be assumed to be constant and equal to I0. Let i1 and i2

be the currents through Th1, Th2 combination and Th3, Th4 combination
respectively.

During overlap period µ one of these currents decays to zero and the
other builds up from zero to full value. Four thyristors conduct together as
shown in Fig

Figure 4.5.2 Effect of Source Inductance

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 223]

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.1 Introduction - AC voltage controllers

AC voltage controllers are thyristor based devices which convert

fixed alternating voltage directly to variable alternating voltage without
a change in the frequency. Some of the main applications of ac voltage
controllers are for domestic and industrial heating, transformer tap
changing, lighting control, speed control of single phase and three phase ac
drives and starting of induction motors.

Figure 5.1.1 Block diagram of AC voltage controller

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 392]

TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the
type of input ac supply applied to the circuit.

Single Phase AC Controllers.

Three Phase AC Controllers.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply

voltage of 230V RMS at 50Hz in our country.

Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V

RMS at 50Hz supply frequency.

APPLICATIONS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

Lighting / Illumination control in ac

power circuits. Induction heating.

Industrial heating & Domestic heating.

Transformers tap changing (on load transformer tap changing).

Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac

induction motor control).

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.2 SINGLE-PHASE HALF-WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

• It consists of one thyristor in antiparalIel with one diode.

• Then SCR is forward biased during positive half cycle, it is turned on at

firing angle α.

• Load voltage at once jumps to Vm sinωt, likewise load current becomes

Vm sinα.

• Thyristor get turned off at ωt = ∏ for R load. After ωt = ∏, negative

half cycle forward biases diode Dl, therefore Dl conducts from ωt = ∏ to
2∏.

• Only positive half cycle onduction can be controlled, by varying

firing angle. negative half cycle cannot be controlled. So single-phase
half wave voltage controller is also called single phase unidirectional
voltage controller. From the Figure it is understood that positive half
cycle is not identical with negative half- cycle for both voltage and current
waveforms. As a result, dc component is introduced in the supply and
load circuits which is undesirable.

Figure 5.2.1 Single Phase AC voltage controller

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 396]

Downloaded From EnggTree.com

 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE UNIDIRECTIONAL

VOLTAGE CONTROLLER:

AVERAGE VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

It consists of two SCRs connected in antiparallel.

During positive halfcycle T1 is triggered at firing angle , it conducts from wt

= α to ∏ for R load.

During negative half cycle,T2 is triggered at wt = ∏ + α, it conducts from rot

=∏

Figure 5.2.2 Single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 397]

It has been stated above that ac voltage controllers are phase-controlled

converters, the phase relationship between the start of load current
and the supply voltage is controlled by varying the firing angle. These are
called phase- controlled ac voltage controllers or ac voltage controllers.
Single phase full-wave ac voltage controller is also called single phase
bidirectional voltage-controller.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.3 THREE PHASE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

To control the current and voltage of three phase loads, Three Phase
AC Voltage Controller are required. The single phase controller described
previously can be introduced singly in each phase or line, to form a three
phase controller. There exist a variety of connections for Three Phase AC
Voltage Controller.

Figure 5.3.1 Block diagram of Three Phase AC voltage controller

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 398]

A three phase four wire controller is shown in Fig 5.6. The load
neutral and supply neutral are connected together. Each of the three
controllers can be independently controlled to feed the load impedance.
Each phase has the same relations as a single phase controller. The neutral
and line currents contain triplet harmonics along with other odd
harmonics.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

A Three Phase AC Voltage Controller has symmetrical control if both

the back to back connected thyristors have the same firing angle. It has
asymmetrical control if the firing angles differ or if one of the thyristors is
replaced by a diode, or if the controllers are placed in only two of the three
lines.

We now discuss the features of a symmetrically controlled three phase,

three wire, star-connected controller for both ohmic and inductive loads.

5.3.2 Three phase ac voltage controller feeding a resistive load

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 399]

The schematic of a three phase, three wire voltage controller feeding a

three phase, star-connected balanced resistance is shown in Fig. 5.10. Phase
control of the thyristors is employed. The phase and line voltages of
the three phase system are shown in Fig. 5.10. For a controller, the control
pulse is of a long duration, equal to the conduction period of the thyristor.
This is to make sure that the firing pulse is available at the gate whenever
the thyristor is forward biased, so that the thyristor can go into conduction.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

It also ensures the firing of the thyristor whenever a forward current is

expected. If, because of some circuit condition, the current goes to zero the
thyristor turns off. A lengthy pulse can bring it into conduction. Further,
slow building up of current in the load circuit when the thyristor is fired
(to give maximum load voltage) may cause the thyristor to go to an off
state if it is not fully turned on.

For current to flow it is necessary to trigger at least two

thyristors at a time. If we define the instantaneous input phase
voltages as:

van= Vm sin ωt

vbn= Vm sin (ωt - 2π / 3)

vcn= Vm sin (ωt - 4π / 3)

The instantaneous input line voltages are

vab = 3 van = 3 vm sin (ωt + π/6)

vbc = 3 vbn = 3 vm sin (ωt - π/2)

vca = 3 vcn = 3 vm sin (ωt - 7π/6)

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.4 AC VOLTAGE CONTROL STRATEGY

There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control
the flow ac power

1. Phase control

2.On-Off control

PHASE CONTROL TECHNIQUE

In phase control, the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the

load circuit to the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the
ac supply voltage is chopped using thyristors during a part of each input
cycle. The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that
input supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the
remaining part of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the
load. By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle ‘α’ (delay angle),
the output RMS voltage across the load can be controlled.

INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL

Integral cycle control consists of switching on the supply to load for an

integral number of cycles and then switching off the supply for a further
number of integral cycles.

The principle of integral cycle control can be explained by referring to

the above Figure for a single phase voltage controller with resistive load.
Gate pulses ig1 turn on the thyristors Tl, T2 respectively at zero-voltage
crossing of the supply voltage.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 5.4.1 Integral cycle control

[Source: “Power Electronics” by P.S.Bimbra, Khanna Publishers Page: 393]

The source energises the load for n (= 3) cycles. When gate pulses are
withdrawn, load remains off for m (= 2) cycles. In this manner, process of
turn on and turn off is repeated for the control of load power. By varying
the number of n and m cycles, power delivered to load can be regulated as
desired.

For n = 3 and m = 2. Power is delivered to load for n cycles. No

power is delivered to load for m cycles. It is the average power in the load
that is controlled.

Integral cycle control is also known as on-off control, burst firing,

zero- voltage switching, cycle selection cycle syncopation.

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

5.5 TRIAC BASED PHASE CONTROLLERS

A TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device which can control the flow of
the current and thus its name is TRIAC it has a similar operation to two thyristors
connected in reverse parallel with a common gate connection. Thus it has the ability to
be triggered into conduction.

TRIACS are used in power control to give full wave control and it could control
the voltage between zero and full power Many industries face problems like voltage
sags and extended under voltage and thus it could cause a negative impact on
productivity for this we need to install voltage controllers to control the voltage TRIAC
provides a wide range of control in AC circuit without the need for external
components. flow from anode

Figure 5.5.1 TRIAC BASED PHASE CONTROLLERS

[Source: “Power Electronics Circuits, Devices and Applications” by M.H. Rashid, Page: 212]

A lamp load is connected with the circuit. By varying the variable resistor see the
variation of light. There will be voltage and current reading at different steps of the
load lamp or induction load would be there optionally. The wave observes form the

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com
 EnggTree.com
ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

CRO and divide it by 10 and check the gate of TRIAC. Variation of phase angle could be
seen while varying the potentiometer

The AC voltage controllers are of two types it is classified according to the type of
input supply applied to the circuit

• Single phase AC controllers

• Three phase AC controllers

Single phase controllers operate with single phase supply voltage 230v at 50Hz In the
case of three phase, it will be 400v at 50hz DIAC will have a break over voltage at the
range of 30 volts and if a voltage less than this is applied to the polarity it would
remain in high resistance with a flow of small leakage current

Application of AC voltage controller :

• Illumination control in AC circuits

• Industrial heating, induction heating, and domestic heating

• Tap changing of a transformer

• Induction motor speed control

• Control of AC magnets

EE 3591- POWER ELECTRONICS

Downloaded From EnggTree.com