LESSON 1.

16

Neurons: Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and
nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending
motor commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in
between.

Cell body

Also known as a soma, the cell body is the core section of the neuron. The cell body contains genetic
information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities.
Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles. It’s enclosed by a
membrane that both protects it and allows it to interact with its immediate surroundings.

Axon

An axon is a long, tail-like structure. It joins the cell body at a specialized junction called the axon hillock.
Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin. Myelin helps axons to conduct an
electrical signal.

Dendrites

Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body. Like antennae, dendrites receive and
process signals from the axons of other neurons. Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites,
known as dendritic trees.
How many they have generally depends on their role. For instance, Purkinje cells are a special type of
neuron found in a part of the brain called the cerebellum. These cells have highly developed dendritic
trees which allow them to receive thousands of signals.

Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of
another neuron
AXON HILLOCK

The axon hillock is located at the end of the soma and controls the firing of the neuron. If the total
strength of the signal exceeds the threshold limit of the axon hillock, the structure will fire a signal
(known as an action potential) down the axon.The axon hillock acts as something of a manager, summing
the total inhibitory and excitatory signals.

MYELIN SHEATH

The myelin surrounding the neurons protects the axon and aids in the speed of transmission.

NODES OF RANVIER

The myelin sheath is broken up by points known as the nodes of Ranvier or myelin sheath gaps. Electrical
impulses can jump from one node to the next, which plays a role in speeding up the transmission of the
signal.

GLIAL CELLS:There are three types of glial cells in the mature central nervous system: astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, and microglial cells. The major distinction is that glia do not participate directly in
synaptic interactions and electrical signaling, although their supportive functions help define synaptic
contacts and maintain the signaling abilities of neurons. Glia are more numerous than nerve cells in the
brain, outnumbering them by a ratio of perhaps 3 to 1. Although glial cells also have complex processes
extending from their cell bodies, they are generally smaller than neurons, and they lack axons and
dendrite.

-Astrocytes: The major function of astrocytes is to maintain, in a variety of ways, an appropriate chemical
environment for neuronal signaling.

Oligoendrocytes: Oligodendrocytes, which are also restricted to the central nervous system, lay down a
laminated, lipid-rich wrapping called myelin around some, but not all, axons.

TYPES OF NEURONS:

there are five major neuron forms. Each combines several elements of the basic neuron shape.

Multipolar neurons. These neurons have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites that extend from it.
This is the most common form of neuron in the central nervous system.

Unipolar neurons. Usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have a single axon.

Bipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body. At the end of one
side is the axon, and the dendrites are on the other side. These types of neurons are mostly found in the
retina of the eye. But they can also be found in parts of the nervous system that help the nose and ear
function.
Pyramidal neurons. These neurons have one axon but several dendrites to form a pyramid type shape.
These are the largest neuron cells and are mostly found in the cortex. The cortex is the part of the brain
responsible for conscious thoughts.

Purkinje neurons. Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the cell body. These
neurons are inhibitory neurons, meaning they release neurotransmitters that keep other neurons from
firing.

Neurons are classified based on the direction in which they carry nerve impulses.

• Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain. Sensory
neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment. Sound, touch, heat, and
light are physical inputs. Smell and taste are chemical inputs. Sensory neurons help
you:taste,SMELL.HEAR,SEE,FEEL

• Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Motor
neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements. These neurons allow
the brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the body.There are
two types of motor neurons: lower and upper. Lower motor neurons carry signals from the spinal cord to
the smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. Upper motor neurons carry signals between your brain and
spinal cord.

• Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor neurons.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that your body can't function
without. Their job is to carry chemical signals (“messages”) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next
target cell. The next target cell can be another nerve cell, a muscle cell or a gland.

A neurotransmitter influences a neuron in one of three ways: excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory.

An excitatory transmitter promotes the generation an action potential in the receiving neuron, while an
inhibitory transmitter prevents it.
Modulatory Neurotransmitters can transmit messages to several cells simultaneously and also help to
communicate with chemical transmitters.
Types of neurotransmitters:

There are over 50 known types of neurotransmitters. Some of the main classifications are listed below in
categories:

Amino Acids: GABA, Glutamate(El glutamato monosódico es un potenciador del sabor que a menudo se
añade a la comida de restaurantes, las verduras enlatadas, las sopas, las carnes procesadas y otros
alimentos.).

Peptides: Endorphins(Una de las varias sustancias que elabora el cuerpo que pueden aliviar el dolor y dar
sensación de bienestar.), Oxytocin(La oxitocina es la hormona del amor, de la calma y el contacto).

Monoamines: Dopamine(Influye en nuestro estado de ánimo, nuestro comportamiento y es esencial

para regular nuestro metabolismo. Entre estas cosas, también se considera como el neurotransmisor del
placer, es clave para promover los procesos de seducción, la sexualidad y el deseo.), Adrenalin,
Serotonin, Histamine, Norepinephrine.

Purines: Adenosine triphosphate, Adenosine.

Gasotransmitters: Carbon monoxide, Nitric oxide.

Acetylcholine: Acetylcholine.

LESSON 1.17

During the resting state, the sodium-potassium pump maintains a difference in charge across the cell
membrane (see Figure 1.33). It uses energy in ATP to pump positive sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and
potassium ions (K+) into the cell. As a result, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to
the extracellular fluid surrounding the neuron. This is due to many more positively charged ions outside
the cell compared to inside the cell. This difference in electrical charge is called the resting potential. A
nerve impulse is a sudden reversal of the electrical charge across the membrane of a resting neuron. The
reversal of charge is called an action potential.

RESTING POTENTIAL

The imbalance of electrical charge that exists between the interior of electrically excitable neurons
(nerve cells) and their surroundings. The resting potential of electrically excitable cells lies in the range of
−60 to −95 millivolts. If the inside of a cell becomes more electronegative (i.e., if the potential is made
greater than the resting potential), the membrane or the cell is said to be hyperpolarized. If the inside of
the cell becomes less negative (i.e., the potential decreases below the resting potential), the process is
called depolarization.

ACTION POTENTIAL

An action potential is a rapid rise and subsequent fall in voltage or membrane potential across a cellular
membrane with a characteristic pattern. An action potential occurs when the membrane potential of
a specific cell location rapidly rises and falls
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

¿Cuáles son las dos divisiones del sistema nervioso según sus funciones? (motor división of the
peripheral nervous system)

- El sistema nervioso somático: is a subdivision of your peripheral nervous system, which is all of your
nervous system except your brain and spinal cord. Your somatic nervous system allows you to move and
control muscles throughout your body. It also feeds information from four of your senses — smell,
sound, taste and touch — into your brain. Your somatic nervous system has two main jobs:

Sensory input. All but one of your senses travel through your somatic nervous system to reach your brain
(sight is the exception because your retina and optic nerve connect directly to your brain). The other
senses on your head — sound, smell, taste and touch — all use your somatic nervous system to reach
your brain. Your sense of touch below your neck uses your somatic nervous system to reach your spinal
cord, which then relays signals to your brain.

Movement control. Your body’s muscles rely on signals that give them instructions to help you move
around. The signals from your brain must pass through your somatic nervous system to reach those
muscles and make them move.

- El sistema nervioso autónomo: The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral
nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal. It contains three anatomically distinct divisions: sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric.

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is the
body’s processing centre. The brain controls most of the functions of the body, including awareness,
movement, thinking, speech, and the 5 senses of seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling.The spinal
cord is an extension of the brain. It carries messages to and from the brain via the network of peripheral
nerves connected to it.

BRAIN: The brain is the most complex organ of the human body and the control center of the nervous
system. It contains an astonishing 100 billion neurons! The brain controls such mental processes as
reasoning, imagination, memory, and language.
Parts:
-Cerebrum: Also known as the cerebral cortex, the cerebrum is the largest part of the
human brain, and it is associated with higher brain function such as thought and action.
Nerve cells make up the gray Surface and divided into lobes.

Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes, or sections, which are all connected.
-The frontal lobes control movement, speech and some of the functions of the mind like behaviour,
mood, memory and organisation.
-The temporal lobes play an important part in memory, hearing, speech and language.
-The parietal lobes play an important part in taste, touch, temperature and pain, and also in the
understanding of numbers, awareness of the body and feeling of space.
-The occipital lobes are vital for being able to see clear

Midbrain
The midbrain is located below the cerebral cortex, and above the hindbrain placing it
near the center of the brain. It is comprised of the tectum, tegmentum, cerebral
aqueduct, cerebral peduncles and several nuclei and fasciculi. The primary role of the
midbrain is to act as a sort of relay station for our visual and auditory systems. Portions
of the midbrain called the red nucleus and the substantia nigra are involved in the
control of body movement, and contain a large number of dopamine-producing neurons.
The degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra is associated with Parkinson’s
disease. The midbrain is the smallest region of the brain, and is located most centrally
within the cranial cavity.

Limbic System – the limbic system is often referred to as our “emotional brain”, or
‘childish brain’. It is found buried within the cerebrum and contains the thalamus,
hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus.
Thalamus – the primary role of the thalamus is to relay sensory information from other
parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus – the primary role of the hypothalamus is to regulate various functions of
the pituitary gland and endocrine activity, as well as somatic functions e.g.body
temperature, sleep, appetite.
Amygdala – the primary role of the amygdala is to be a critical processor for the senses.
Connected to the hippocampus, it plays a role in emotionally laden memories and
contains a huge number of opiate receptor sites that are implicated in rage, fear and
sexual feelings.
Hippocampus – the primary role of the hippocampus is memory forming, organizing and
storing information. It is particularly important in forming new memories, and
connecting emotions and senses, such as smell and sound, to memories.
Pituitary Gland – the primary role of the pituitary gland is an important link between the
nervous system and the endocrine system. It releases many hormones which affect
growth, metabolism, sexual development and the reproduction system. It is connected
to the hypothalamus and is about the size of a pea. It is located in the center of the
skull, just behind the bridge of the nose.
Hindbrain
The Cerebellum – The cerebellum, or “little brain”, is similar to the cerebrum with its
two hemispheres and highly folded surface. It is associated with regulation and
coordination of movement, posture, balance and cardiac, respiratory and vasomotor
centers.
Brain Stem – The brain stem is located beneath the limbic system. It is responsible for
vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. The brain stem is
made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
Pons – The primary role of the pons is to serve as a bridge between various parts of the
nervous system, including the cerebellum and cerebrum. Many important nerves that
originate in the pons, such as the trigeminal nerve, responsible for feeling in the face,
as well as controlling the muscles that are responsible for biting, chewing, and
swallowing. It also contains the abducens nerve, which allows us to look from side to
side and the vestibularcochlear nerve, which allows to hear. As part of the brainstem, a
section of the lower pons stimulates and controls the intensity of breathing, while a
section of the upper pons decreases the depth and frequency of breaths. The pons is
also associated with the control of sleep cycles, and controls respiration and reflexes. It
is located above the medulla, below the midbrain, and just in front of the cerebellum.
Medulla – The primary role of the medulla is regulating our involuntary life sustaining
functions such as breathing, swallowing and heart rate. As part of the brain stem, it also
helps transfer neural messages to and from the brain and spinal cord. It is located at the
junction of the spinal cord and brain.

LESSON 1.19

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central
nervous system. . Like the nervous system as a whole, the peripheral nervous system also has two
divisions: the sensory division and the motor division.

• The sensory division of the PNS carries sensory information from the body to the central nervous
system.

• The motor division of the PNS carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and
glands throughout the body. The nerve impulses stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete
hormones.

According to its rostrocaudal location the spinal cord can be divided into four parts: cervical, thoracic,
lumbar and sacral, two of these are marked by an upper (cervical) and a lower (lumbar) enlargement.

The grey matter can be divided into the dorsal horn, intermediate grey, ventral horn and a centromedial
region surrounding the central canal (central grey matter) The white matter gradually ceases towards the
end of the spinal cord and the grey matter blends into a single mass (conus terminalis) where parallel
spinal roots form the so-called cauda equina.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central
nervous system. It is shown in yellow in Figure 1.40. It is connected to the central nervous system by
nerves. A nerve is a cable-like bundle of axons

Somatic Nervous System The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls mainly voluntary activities that are
under conscious control. It is made up of nerves that are connected to skeletal muscles.

LESSON 1.21
A drug is any chemical that affects the body’s structure or function. Many drugs, including both legal and
illegal drugs, are psychoactive drugs. Psychoactive drugs are substances that, when taken in or
administered into one's system, affect mental processes, e.g. perception, consciousness, cognition or
mood and emotions.

Types of drugs:
(1) Central Nervous System (CNS) Depressants

CNS depressants slow down the operations of the brain and the body. Examples of CNS depressants
include alcohol, barbiturates, anti-anxiety tranquilizers (e.g., Valium, Librium, Xanax, Prozac, and
Thorazine), GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate), Rohypnol, and many other anti-depressants (e.g., Zoloft,
Paxil).

(2) CNS Stimulants

CNS stimulants accelerate the heart rate and elevate the blood pressure and "speed-up," or over-
stimulate, the body. Examples of CNS stimulants include cocaine, "crack" cocaine, amphetamines, and
methamphetamine ("crank").

(3) Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens cause the user to perceive things differently than they actually are. Examples include LSD,
peyote, psilocybin and MDMA (Ecstasy).

(4) Dissociative Anesthetics

Dissociative anesthetics include drugs that inhibit pain by cutting off or dissociating the brain's
perception of the pain. PCP, its analogs, and dextromethoraphan are examples of dissociative
anesthetics.

(5) Narcotic Analgesics

Narcotic analgesics relieve pain, induce euphoria, and create mood changes in the user. Examples of
narcotic analgesics include opium, codeine, heroin, demerol, darvon, morphine, methadone, Vicodin,
and oxycontin.

(6) Inhalants

Inhalants include a wide variety of breathable substances that produce mind-altering results and effects.
Examples of inhalants include Toluene, plastic cement, paint, gasoline, paint thinners, hair sprays, and
various anesthetic gases.
(7) Cannabis

Cannabis is the scientific name for marijuana. The active ingredient in cannabis is delta-9
tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. This category includes cannabinoids and synthetics like Dronabinol.

THE EYE
Light is reflected when you focus on an object and enters the eye through the cornea. As
the light passes through, the dome-shaped nature of the cornea bends light, enabling the
eye to focus on fine details.
The eye sits in a protective bony socket called the orbit. Six extraocular muscles in the orbit
are attached to the eye. These muscles move the eye up and down, side to side, and rotate
the eye.
The extraocular muscles are attached to the white part of the eye called the sclera. This is a
strong layer of tissue that covers nearly the entire surface of the eyeball.
The surface of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids are covered with a clear
membrane called the conjunctiva.

Tears lubricate the eye and are made up of three layers. These three layers together are
called the tear film. The mucous layer is made by the conjunctiva. The watery part of the
tears is made by the lacrimal gland. The eye’s lacrimal gland sits under the outside edge of
the eyebrow (away from the nose) in the orbit. The meibomian gland makes the oil that
becomes another part of the tear film. Tears drain from the eye through the tear duct.

Parts of the eye:

1. Conjunctiva
The conjunctiva is the membrane covering the sclera (white portion of your eye). The
conjunctiva also covers the interior of your eyelids.
Conjunctivitis, often known as pink eye, occurs when this thin membrane becomes inflamed
or swollen.

Other eye disorders that affect the conjunctiva include:

Pinguecula (accumulation of protein and fat deposits in the conjunctiva)

Pterygium (a noncancerous growth that develops on the conjunctiva)
Subconjunctival hemorrhages (broken blood vessels)
By generating mucus and tears, the conjunctiva helps lubricate the eyes. It also aids in
immunological monitoring and prevents microorganisms from entering the eye.

2. Sclera
The sclera is sometimes known as the "whites" of the eye. It covers more than 80% of the
eyeball's surface.2

On the exterior, the sclera is smooth and white, but on the inside, it is brown and has
grooves that help properly attach the eye tendons. The sclera provides stability and
protection for the eye's inner workings but is also flexible. This allows the eye to move as
needed to see different objects.

The episclera is a thin layer of tissue on top of the sclera. The episclera has tiny blood
vessels that supply the sclera with nutrients.

When the sclera gets inflamed, the condition is referred to as scleritis.3 If the episclera is
inflamed, the resulting condition is known as episcleritis. These conditions can cause
redness, eye pain, blurry vision, and lid swelling.
3. lris
The iris is the colored part of the eye and is unique to each person. This structure is located
in the front of the eye, between the cornea on the outside and the lens on the inside.

The iris primarily regulates how much light reaches the retina by controlling the size of the
eye's "window," or pupil.

As a result, it exhibits what is known as a "pupillary light reflex," in which it narrows in bright
light while opening up in low light.

The iris also performs what is known as the "accommodation reflex." This is the eye's
instinctive ability to shift focus from nearby to distant objects.

This action requires adjusting the pupil's aperture (opening), the shape of the lens, and
convergence (the ability of the eyes to work together).

4. Pupils
The pupil is seen as a black dot in the center of the iris.

The pupil is essentially a hole that allows the eye to focus on the things in front of it. They
open and close to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye.

Light enters the eye via the lens, which focuses light rays through the pupils into the retina.
The difference between the centers of your pupils is called your pupillary distance.

When it's dark, our pupils dilate or expand wider to let in more light. This increases the
scope of our view. Our pupils contract to a small diameter in bright light to protect our
retina's delicate photoreceptors.

5. Cornea
The cornea is the clear and protective outer layer of your eye. Together with the sclera (the
white of your eye), the cornea acts as a barrier against dirt, infectious microorganisms, and
other substances that can damage the eye.
In addition to protection, the cornea also plays a significant role in vision. Considering the
dome shaped surface of the cornea, this structure refracts (bends) light as it passes through
the eye. This enables it to focus on objects effectively.

The cornea can filter out the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) light. This prevents some UV light
from reaching other structures inside the eye. However, to prevent damage to the cornea
and other parts of the eye, you should wear sunglasses.

Chronic exposure to UV light may lead to inflammation and other complications, including
cancer.4

6. Uvea
The uvea is the eye's middle layer. It is located underneath the white part of the eye (the
sclera) and is composed of three parts:

The iris
Ciliary body
Choroid
These structures control some eye functions, such as adapting to varying levels of light or
object distances.

If any structures become inflamed, the resulting condition is called uveitis.

7. Choroid
This vascular layer is located between the sclera and retina of your eye. It delivers
nourishment (through blood and oxygen supply) to the retina's outer layers.

In short, the choroid is the source of life that keeps the retina functioning effectively.

The choroid reflects light, which causes the red-eye effect in photographs.

8. Retina
The retina is a sensitive membrane that covers your eye's rear surface. Images are
transmitted to the retina when your eye picks up the images.

The retina converts these images into impulses, which are sent to your brain through the
optic nerve. This enables you to see and interpret what you see.

Some of the ocular conditions that affect the retina include:

Diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes complication caused by damaged blood vessels.

Retinal detachment. When the retina detaches from its normal position.5
Retinitis pigmentosa. Deterioration of special light-sensitive cells in the retina.
Retinoblastoma. Formation of cancer cells in the retinal tissues.
9. Eye Muscles
The eye has six muscles. These muscles arise from the eye socket (orbit) and work to
move the eye up and down, side to side, or in a circular motion.

The six eye muscles are as follows:

The superior rectus. Attaches to the top of the eye and moves the eye upwards.
The inferior rectus. Attaches to the bottom of the eye and allows downward eye movement.
The medial rectus. Attaches to the side of the eye adjacent to the nose and helps the eyes
to shift inwards towards the nose.
The lateral rectus. Attaches to the outer side of the eyes and moves the eyes toward the
temples.
The superior oblique. It originates from the back of the eye socket and attaches to the top of
the eye. It rotates the eye inwards (front to back) and downwards.
The inferior oblique. It arises from the front of the socket near the nose and travels inwards,
attaching to the bottom surface of the eyeball. It rotates the eye outwards (front to back) and
upwards.
10. Macula Lutea
Light rays are focused on the macula lutea when an eye looks directly at an object.

The macula lutea is a yellow oval area in the retina's center (back of the eye). The center of
the macula is known as the fovea.

The section of the retina is in charge of sharp, detailed central vision (also called visual
acuity).

The macula lutea has a high concentration of cones. These are the light-sensitive retinal
cells that provide high visual acuity.
11. Eye Lens
The lens of the eye (or crystalline lens) is the transparent lentil-shaped structure inside your
eye. This is the natural lens.

It is located behind the iris and to the front of the vitreous humor (vitreous body). The
vitreous humor is a clear, colorless, gelatinous mass that fills the gap between the lens and
the retina in the eye.

The lens is held in place by a fibrous membrane known as zonule of Zinn or the lens
suspensory ligaments.6 The lens changes its thickness and curvature, allowing the eye to
focus on objects from varying distances.

If your lens has an irregular curvature, you're more prone to develop astigmatism. Cataracts
are another lens-related visual disorder in which the lens becomes opaque or hazy,
impairing vision.

If your natural lenses have an irregular curvature, your eye doctor may prescribe artificial
lenses, such as prescription glasses or contact lenses, to correct vision.

12. Aqueous Humor

Aqueous humor is a fluid substance that fills the eye. It's divided into two chambers. The
anterior chamber is in front of the iris, whereas the posterior chamber is right behind it.

These layers enable the eye to keep its shape. This liquid is evacuated via the Schlemm
canal to eliminate any accumulation in the eye.

Glaucoma may develop if a person's aqueous fluid does not drain adequately.

13. Ciliary Body

The ciliary body is a ring-shaped tissue found behind the iris. It attaches to the lens through
the zonular fibers (fibers of Zinn).
The ciliary body holds and regulates the eye lens's movement, keeping the lens shape
intact.

This structure is also involved in the production of aqueous humor.

14. Optic Nerve

The optic nerve is a bundle of about 1.2 million nerve fibers that transmit visual information
to the central nervous system (brain).7

There is one nerve per eye connecting each eye to the brain. Vision loss may occur if any of
the nerves are damaged.

However, the consequences of optic nerve damage depend on the extent of the damage.

15. Optic Disc

The optic disc is where the axons of retinal ganglion cells join together and mark the
beginning of the optic nerve (second cranial nerve).

The optic disc also serves as the entrance site for major blood vessels that nourish the
retina.

In the average person, the optic disc carries about 1.2 million nerve fibers from the retina to
the brain.
16. Fovea Centralis
The fovea Centralis (central fovea) is a tiny depression in the retina that houses cones that
help with proper vision. It is located within the macula.

Approximately 80-90% of the optic nerve fibers convey visual information from the fovea,
while the other portion conveys information from the peripheral retina.

If there are any issues with the fovea of the cones, you may experience blurry vision.

CONES AND RODS

Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do not mediate
color vision, and have a low spatial acuity. Cones are active at higher light levels (photopic
vision), are capable of color vision and are responsible for high spatial acuity. The central
fovea is populated exclusively by cones.