LECTURE NOTES ON:

AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION AND AGRO-EQUIPMENT I

By

Mr. TADEFIE DJEUDJO J. Moses

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024-2025

I Introduction....................................................................................................................4

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II The Tractor – The source of Farm Power...................................................................5

II.1 Definition.....................................................................................................................5
II.2 Selection of tractor.......................................................................................................5
II.3 Estimating the cost of tractor power............................................................................6
II.4 Features of a modern tractor.........................................................................................6
II.5 Internal combustion engine and its systems.................................................................7
II.6 Hydraulic system........................................................................................................10
II.7 Transmission system..................................................................................................12
II.8 Tractor Power.............................................................................................................12
III Sources of Farm Power...............................................................................................13

III.1 Definition...................................................................................................................13
III.2 Human-Powered Tools and Machines.......................................................................13
IV Equipment for crop production..................................................................................20

IV.1 Hand-Tools for Land Preparation..............................................................................20

IV.2 Tillage Equipment......................................................................................................20
IV.2.1 Primary tillage implements (Ploughs)................................................................21
IV.2.2 Secondary tillage implements.............................................................................26
IV.2.3 The implements of superficial stages..................................................................28
IV.3 Planting Equipment....................................................................................................30
IV.4 Crop Maintenance Equipment....................................................................................32
IV.4.1 Types of equipment:...........................................................................................33
IV.4.2 Calibration of crop protection equipment...........................................................43
IV.4.3 Calibration of knapsack sprayers........................................................................44
IV.4.4 Modification of spray volume.............................................................................45
IV.4.5 Crop Irrigation....................................................................................................46
IV.4.6 Fertilizer/manure application..............................................................................47
IV.5 Harvesting Equipment................................................................................................48
IV.5.1 Harvesting equipment for crops..........................................................................48
a) Sickle:.........................................................................................................................48
b) Reaper or Paddy harvester:........................................................................................49
c) Combine harvester:....................................................................................................50
IV.5.2 Forage machines.................................................................................................51
a) Mowers.......................................................................................................................51
b) Hay conditioning........................................................................................................55

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 c) Silage making.............................................................................................................55
d) Windrowing................................................................................................................56
e) Hay packing................................................................................................................56
IV.6 Feed preparation equipment.......................................................................................56
a) Introduction....................................................................................................................56
IV.6.1 Machines for size reduction................................................................................58
IV.6.2 Mixers.................................................................................................................60
V Costs of Farm Machinery............................................................................................60

V.1 Components of Fixed Costs.......................................................................................60

V.2 Components of Variable Costs...................................................................................61

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I Introduction
Agricultural mechanization is the performance of operations in crop production,
livestock rearing and agricultural processing with the use of machines and other equipment to
improve productivity. It aims to apply the most efficient and productive techniques in
agriculture while reducing human drudgery. In developed countries, technologies applied in
agricultural mechanization have been evolving rapidly giving rise to additional benefits and
significant contributions to the mitigation of food crisis all over the world.
The objectives of agricultural mechanization include the following: -
 Ensure timeliness of agricultural operations
 Increase in work efficiency
 Reduce of human drudgery
 Encourage farmers to practice large scale farming
 Increase yield of agricultural produce
 Enhance quality of agricultural produce
 Bridge the gap between demand for and supply of good quality food
 Save labour through replacement with machines
 Encourage investment in agriculture
 Supply agro-based industries with adequate and good quality raw materials
 Facilitate establishment of small-scale processing units in rural areas
However, there are a number of drawbacks associated to agricultural mechanization which
justify the prevalence of extensive agriculture in some places and permanent research in
creating more sustainable technologies. These disadvantages include: -
 Deterioration of soil texture and formation of hardpan
 Atmospheric pollution due to release of greenhouse gases from fuel engines
 High initial cost which may not be accessible to small-scale farmers
 Increase risk of accidents on the field and therefore more skill is required
 Increase rate of chemical application with effect of environmental issues
 Increase vulnerability of ecosystems by accelerating deforestation
The choice of agro-equipment must be based on a careful analysis of the type of farm, its
characteristics and its needs. The work capacity or work rate should be considered as a
priority for choice of equipment. The equipment must be capable of performing the necessary
operations within the useful time available (hours): this is the most stringent constraint on the

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choice of equipment. Therefore, the farmer must choose from among the various machines
that meet this preliminary condition.
II The Tractor – The source of Farm Power
II.1 Definition
The view of tractor history depends on the definition of the agricultural tractor. The
agricultural tractor is a vehicle for off-road and on-road operation, being able to carry, guide,
pull and drive implements or machines – moving or stationary – and to pull trailers.
Tractors can be distinguished according to their uses, their features (rubber wheeled, crawler,
two-wheel drive, four- wheel drive, etc.), and the types of engines used or the types of fuel
used (diesel, petrol, alcohol, gas).
II.2 Selection of tractor
a) Land holding: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider
one horse power (hp) for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp
is suitable for 40 hectares farm.
b) Cropping pattern: Generally, 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate
irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So, a 30-35 hp tractor is
suitable for 40 hectares farm.
c) Soil condition: A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall
weight may work successfully in lighter soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth
in black light soil.
d) Climatic conditions: For very hot zone and desert area, air cooled engines are preferred
over water cooled engines. Similarly for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred
because water is liable to be frozen at higher altitude.
e) Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at
nearby place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of machine.
f) Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others
so that running cost may be less.
g) Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost should
not be very high, otherwise higher amount of interest will have to be paid.
h) Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be
consulted for guidance.

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II.3 Estimating the cost of tractor power
The cost of operation of tractor is divided under two heads known as Fixed cost and
Operating cost. Fixed cost includes: (1) Depreciation, (2) Interest on the capital, (3) Housing,
(4) Insurance and (5) Taxes. Operating cost includes: (1) Fuel, (2) Lubricants, (3) Repairs and
maintenance, and (4) Wages.
II.4 Features of a modern tractor
The Engine: The engine of a tractor converts heat produced by burning fuel (diesel or petrol)
into useful work. There are two major types of engines: the internal combustion and the
external combustion engine.
External combustion engines are not common any longer nowadays. The power the tractor by
using heat in the form of steam.
Internal combustion engines are destined to take power from fuel burnt within the cylinder.
They are comprised of: -
 A piston constrained within a cylinder
 A crankshaft
 A connecting rod
Internal combustion engines are of 2 types. Notably: - The petrol and the diesel engine
In a petrol engine, liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with air in correct proportions
before entering into the cylinder. Then the fuel is ignited in the cylinder by an electric spark.
While in a diesel engine, the fuel injected in the cylinder is ignited by heat produced when the
air is compressed within the cylinder.
Differences between the diesel and the petrol engine
Diesel engine Petrol engine
No carburetor, ignition coil and spark plug Has a carburetor, ignition coil and spark plug
Has a relatively high compression ratio (14:1 to Has a relatively low compression ratio (5:1 to
22:1) 8:1)
Uses diesel oil as fuel Uses petrol as fuel
Only air is sucked in the cylinder during the Mixture of air and fuel is sucked in the cylinder
suction stroke during the suction stroke
Has got fuel injection pump and injector Has got no fuel injection pump and injector. But
has got a carburetor and ignition coil
Heat is induced by compressed air Heat is induced by an electric spark
Engine weight per horse power is high Engine weight per horse power is low

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 Operating cost is low Operating cost is high
Temperature at compression stroke is about 500oC Temperature at compression stroke is about
260oC
Thermal efficiency is relatively high (32%-38%) Thermal efficiency is relatively high (25%-32%)

Power from the engine must be transmitted to the wheels or tracks for motion to
take place. The engine power may be transmitted by gears, drive belts, and by the
hydraulic system. The transmission system is made up of the clutch, gear system,
differential, final drive and their components.
The Clutch: The clutch transmits power from the engine to the moving parts of the system. In
most cases it transmits power to the gearbox. It also disconnects the engine from the gearbox
enabling the engine to run idle.
The Gear system: This system is made up of several gear ratios incorporated into the tractor
in order for it to develop sufficient pulling power, or torque to pull heavy loads. The gear
system enables the speed and pulling power of the tractor to be varied and its direction to be
changed (forward and reverse). The gear box contains 2 shafts with gears which when
selected in a particular manner can provide 3 or 4 forward speeds and one reverse speed.
The Differential: The differential drive is divided into 2 parts which are driven by a cluster
of gears. It permits one rear wheel to turn slower than the other on a turn or allows one wheel
to spin while the other may not. For example, when a tractor is ploughing, one wheel may be
on firm soil with good traction while the other may be on cultivated or loose soil with poor
traction. In the absence of a differential, the wheel on cultivated soil will be bogged down
while a major portion of the traction power may be delivered to the wheel with the least
resistance (i.e., on firm soil).
The Final drive: This is used on a tractor to reduce engine speed before it is applied to the
rear axle.

II.5 Internal combustion engine and its systems

Internal combustion engine:
 Internal combustion engines get their power from burning fuel such as petrol, diesel, or
alcohol.
 The combustion, electrical, lubricating, and cooling systems need to work together to
make the engine run smooth and deliver power efficiently to the tractor.

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 The basic functions and interactions of these engine systems are shown in the series of
slides ahead.
 Many modern engines have a fuel injection system instead of a carburetor.

a) Fuel injection system:

 The fuel-injection system replaces the carburetor in most modern engines to provide a
more efficient fuel delivery system.
 Electronic sensors respond to varying engine speeds and driving conditions by changing
the ratio of fuel to air.
 The sensors send a fine mist of fuel from the fuel supply through a fuel-injection nozzle
into a combustion chamber, where it is mixed with air.
 The mixture of fuel and air triggers ignition.
b) Combustion system
 The combustion system turns fuel into the power that propels the tractor.
 In this diagram, the fuel injector sprays fuel into the intake manifold, where it mixes with
air on its way into the cylinders.
 Inside the cylinders, the fuel-air mixture is compressed by the pistons as they pump
upward.
 Spark plugs ignite the compressed fuel in a small explosion, which drives the pistons
downward.
 Each piston connects to the crankshaft and as the pistons move up and down, the
crankshaft transfers this power to the transmission, which ultimately turns the axles and
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 wheels.
c) Cooling system
 The cooling system draw heat away from the engine block, which would otherwise be
deformed at the temperatures generated by combustion and friction.
 The water pump circulates engine coolant (a mixture of water and antifreeze or antirust)
through the non-moving parts of the engine to absorb heat.
 The coolant moves through tubes in the radiator, where heat passes through the tubes into
thin metal fins.
 A fan blows through the fins to increase the rate of cooling
d) Lubricating system
 The lubricating system reduces the friction produced by the engine’s moving parts, which
may rub against each other thousands of times per minute.
 The main lubricant in the engine is motor oil, which is held in an oil pan underneath the
engine.
 A pump circulates the oil through tubes called galleries to all the moving parts of the
engine.
 Before the oil circulates to the engine, it passes through an oil filter, which strains
particles from the oil.
e) Electrical and ignition systems
 The ignition of fuel is accomplished by different means in petrol and diesel engines.
 In the petrol engine, at the end of a compression stroke the fuel-and-air mixture is ignited
by a spark which combusts the mixture and moves the piston to generate power.
 In the diesel engine, however, the fuel is not ignited by a spark but is ignited when
sprayed into the hot compressed air.
 The electrical system manages the engine and provides the electricity necessary to keep
the engine running.
 A key turning in the ignition allows electricity to flow from the battery to the starter. The
starter includes a small motor that turns the crankshaft and sets the pistons in motion.
 As the crankshaft turns, it provides power to the alternator, which converts the turning
power to electricity.
 This electricity ignites the spark plugs, recharges the battery, operates the tractor’s lights
at night, and supplies to other electrical features.
 Most new tractors also use small computers called electronic control units to monitor and
regulate many of the tractor’s functions.

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II.6 Hydraulic system
In a way the tractor hydraulic system works like a hydraulic lift where, by pumping oil
through a non-return valve, it is possible to raise an object higher and higher.
When the desired height is reached, the valve opens and the object is let down because its
weight pushes the oil from the system (or the oil may be pumped out in the reverse direction).
A tractor hydraulic system should have:
 Reservoir or sump for hydraulic oil (I);
 Pump to force oil to the cylinder containing a piston (A);
 Non-return valve or lever (B);
 Safety or relief valves fitted at the pump and in the cylinder (F);
 Lowering plunger (C);
 By-pass Valve (D);
 Raising plunger (H);
 Ram cylinder (E);
 Piston (G); and
 Filter

Transmission system

Overview of the tractor hydraulic system

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Typical arrangement of hydraulic cylinders and related components of a tractor

 In a tractor the hydraulic cylinders and related components are usually built into the
tractor. A typical arrangement is shown above.
 The movement of the piston is usually linked to the implement through what is called a
three-point linkage.
The three-point linkage (one top and two lower control links)
 As the name suggest this consists of three links, termed the top link and the two lower
links.
 The top link has an adjustable arrangement which allows its length to be increased or
decreased. It is pivoted on the back housing of the tractor.
 The lower links are connected by means of a U-shaped yoke and a rocker arm to the
piston. One of the lower links is adjustable, whereas the other is fixed.

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  Each of the three links has a ball joint which fits onto the corresponding links on an
implement. Each make of tractor is pivoted with a particular type of three-point linkage
for an implement to fit.
II.7 Transmission system
 The engine power from a tractor is used to provide either an outlet for driving stationary
machines or forward motion of the engine itself, which in turn drives various field
machines.
 The system that is used to achieve this latter function is broadly termed the transmission
system.

The major components of the tractor transmission system are: -

 Clutch
 Gearbox
 Differential
 Final drive
 Wheel and tyres
 Other components are the Brakes, Power-Take-Off (PTO) shaft, Belt pulley system

II.8 Tractor Power

The power produced by the tractor engine is supplied in 3 different ways: -
a) Rotational power by the PTO (Power Take Off)
The PTO is a shaft passing backwards from the gear box. It provides rotary power

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for the tractor to drive farm machines. The PTO rotates at 540-1000 rpm (rotations
per minute). There are 2 types of PTOs. A simple type is disengaged when the
clutch is disengaged to change the gears while a live one is not affected by the
operation of the clutch.
b) Traction power by the Draw bar
The draw bar is a unit usually located on the rear axle for attaching implements that will be
pulled by the tractor. It has a vertical adjustment which enables the operator to choose the
proper height for attaching trailed implements.
c) Lifting power by the levers of the three-point linkage
It consists of 3 links. Two of which are located below the tractor back axle and on the top of
the back axle housing. The lower links are attached to the lifting arms by lifting rods and the
one on the right is adjustable. The upper link usually resists the roll over force of the
implement.
III Sources of Farm Power
III.1 Definition
Power is the rate of doing work and measured in units called watt (W). 1 watt (W) = 1
Newton meter (Nm) per second or Joule (J) per second. The watt replaces the old unit of
horse power. 1horse power = 746w.
The common sources of power available for use on the farm are:
 Human (manual) power
 Animal power
 Wind power
 Water power
 Solar power
 Electric power
 Internal combustion engine (farm tractor)

III.2 Human-Powered Tools and Machines

To mechanize means to use machines to accomplish tasks or operations. A machine may be as
simple as a wedge or an inclined plane, or as complex as an airplane. Agricultural
mechanization, therefore, is the use of any machine to accomplish a task or operation
involved in agricultural production. It is clear from this definition that agriculture anywhere
has always been mechanized, employing a combination of three main sources of power:

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human, animal and mechanical/engine, giving rise to three broad levels of agricultural
mechanization technology classified as hand-tool technology (HTT), draft-animal technology
(DAT) and mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT).
Hand-tool technology is the most basic level of agricultural mechanization, where a human
being is the power source, using simple tools and implements such as hoes, machetes, sickles,
wooden diggers, etc. A farmer using hand-tool technology can cultivate only about one
hectare of land. He cannot do more than that because of certain scientifically established facts.
A variety of hand tools for land preparation includes: -
A-Hoes;
B-machetes;
C-Shovels, spades, forks and rakes.

Some examples of manual planting machines include: -

A-Hand-pushed centrifugal grain/fertilizer broadcaster;

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 B-Hand-pushed rotary injection planter;
C-Hand-pushed seed drill
D-A variety of jab planter.

Some Examples of Weeding Tools and Machines:

A - Weeding hoes;
B - Improved weeding hand hoe;
C - Hand-pushed rice weeder;
D - Wheeled hand-pushed weeder;
E - Hand-pushed ridge-profile weeder.

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Some examples of harvesting tools other than hoes and machetes include:
A-Different traditional sickle shapes;
B-Some Nigerian sickles;
C-Various harvesting hooks;
D – Scythe handles;
E - Different scythe blades;
F - Sickle dimensions;
G - Cassava lifter.

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Some examples of miscellaneous manual processing tools and machines:
A - Different types of hand tools for shelling corn;
B - Gari frying machine with manual operation arrangement;
C – Manual Bitter-leaf processing machine.

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Some Manual Processing Machines That Can Replace the Knife:
A - Roller root cutter;
B - Disk vegetable cutter/slicer;
C - Pedal-assisted manual cassava grater.

Some Manual Machines That Replace the Mortar and Pestle:

A - Groundnut shellers (hand-operated, hand- cranked and foot- operated types);

B - Disk coffee pulper;
C - Hand operated crusher;
D - Rice huller;
E - General purpose hand mills.

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World of knives and cutters for traditional crop processing:

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IV Equipment for crop production
Classification by Field Operations:
Field operations are tasks performed in the field at different phases of crop production.
The major operations include:
 land preparation,
 planting,
 Maintenance (weeding, spraying, fertilizing, etc.)
 harvesting.
Based on these operations, the tools/machines used are classified into:
 land preparation tools/machines;
 planting tools/machines;
 maintenance/cultivation tools/machines; and
 harvesting tools/machines.

IV.1 Hand-Tools for Land Preparation

The hoe is the tool used almost exclusively in land preparation of peasant agriculture, for
combined primary and secondary tillage, and for land-forming operations such as ridging,
bedding, mounding, bonding, ditching, etc.
Naturally, soil preparation is usually the first task in crop production, undertaken to achieve a
variety of basic interrelated objectives such as seedbed preparation, weed control, soil and
water conservation, soil compaction amelioration, etc.

IV.2 Tillage Equipment

Introduction
One of the major objectives of tillage is to create optimum environmental conditions for plant
growth. This is achieved by providing a good seedbed, which involves breaking, stirring,
turning or conditioning the soil surface to a certain depth.
Tillage is classified as either primary or secondary. The initial breaking up of the soil is
generally called primary tillage and subsequent operations carried out to break down the clods
and prepare the seedbed ready for planting is called secondary tillage.
Implements used for primary tillage comprise mainly ploughs of various types; those used for
secondary tillage usually comprise harrows and cultivators.

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It is not in every condition that primary tillage tools are first used. Secondary tillage
implement only can be used if the soil conditions are suitable, for example if the ground is not
very dry and hard.
IV.2.1 Primary tillage implements (Ploughs)
The plough is the most common and widely used tillage implement. It is used to dig the soil
up to a depth of 20cm in most cases.
The plough is mounted directly behind the tractor attached to three-point linkage. It is raised
and lowered hydraulically.
There are 2 basic plough designs:
 The moldboard plough and
 The disc plough
The moldboard can be either animal drawn or tractor mounted whereas disc ploughs are
usually only tractor mounted.
Both tractor mounted mouldboard and disc ploughs can be obtained from single to multi-
furrow sizes. Animal drawn mouldboard ploughs are usually for single furrow operation and
they are not as robust as their tractor mounted counterparts. There may be minor differences
from one make to another.
a) The Mouldboard Plough
A mouldboard plough is used in situations where it is desired to invert the soil in order to bury
crop residue. The plough is composed of the following parts:
 The working parts,
 The holding or supporting parts and
 The regulation parts.

Frame, beam Linkage point

Leg

Coulter

The Working Parts include: -

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  The coulter: constituted by a fixed knife or disc. Its role is to slice vertically the band of
earth that has to be turned over.
 The plough share: it is the first part of the plough to enter the soil and cut a furrow slice.
The plough share is a blade in a trapezoidal shape, presenting on its large side a sharp
profile which permits to cut up the earth horizontally at a determined depth by the
regulation of the plough. Its role is to cut horizontally the band of the earth and start its
overturning.
 The mouldboard: it permits to turn over the band of earth previously cut out by the
plough share.
 The skimmer: it is a miniature plough fixed rigidly to the beam in front of the knife or
just behind the disc. It is used to clean mud and residue on the plough share. It helps also
to bury organic matter and manure.
The Holding or Supporting Parts include: -
 The main frame or beam: the beam is the part to which the power is applied and the
other parts may be considered as attached directly or indirectly to it. The beam has to be
rigid and not deformable.
 The leg: the essential parts that actually do the work on the soil are, with the exception of
the coulter, carried on the ‘leg’ which is bolted to the beam.
The Regulation Parts:
To ensure a correct work, one must be able to adjust the dimension of the ploughing (the
width and depth).
The regulation of the depth is done by: -
 lowering and lifting of supporting wheel (depth wheel) in the case of a trailed or
pulled plough as seen in the above picture.
 the action of hydraulic lifting (3-point linkage) in the case of a carried plough as seen
in the picture on the right.

b) The Disc plough

 Disc ploughs consist of large revolving concave steel discs mounted on a frame. The
disc is set at an angle to the line of travel, and it turns a furrow slice to one side with a
scooping action. The usual size of the disc is about 61cm in diameter, and this will turn a
furrow 25–30cm wide.
 The number of mounted discs on a plough depends on the power available to pull the
plough.

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  They are well adapted to ploughing extremely hard soils and will work in sticky soils
and loose rubbish where mouldboard plough will not work satisfactorily.
Main components of a Disc plough include: -
• The scrapers: These are small plates attached right ahead of each disc as seen in the
picture on the right. The scrapers help to cover crop residues and prevent soil build-up
on the discs in sticky soils.
• The stabilizing or rear wheel: This wheel is placed at the back of the plough as seen on
the picture. It has a sharp edge and Its role is to minimize the tendency of the plough to
deviate from the ploughing.

Adjustment of the disc plough is based on the Disc and Tilt angles
The disc angle (horizontal angle between plane of disc face and direction of travel) is
usually just under 45 degrees.
The angle that lies between the vertical and the plane of the disc face is called the tilt
angle. It is usually 15 - 25 degrees from the vertical and is easily adjustable.

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The points on which adjustment of the disc is carried on are: -
 The three-point linkage
 The position of working parts
Disc angle can influence the width of cut. The greater the disc angle the greater the width of
cut, but a greater pull will be required if the angle is too great.
Tilt angle affects the penetration of disc plough. Penetration is greater when the tilt angle is
closest to the vertical. Additional weights on the plough aid penetration.
The position of the three-point linkage determines penetration. The plough can be raised or
lowered by raising or lowering the three-point linkage. Lowering increases penetration of
plough into the soil and raising decreases the penetration.

c) Chisel ploughs and Subsoilers

In addition to the two basic plough designs (Mouldboard & Disc), there are chisel ploughs
and subsoilers. They are teeth implements which comprise of working parts with shares or
replaceable points of different forms.
The shares are mounted on rigid or flexible supports called legs which are directly fixed on
the beam. Usually, the working parts can be curved to penetrate the soil to a certain depth.
The chisel plough: This plough operates 20 to 30cm deep into the soil. The plough is like a
long harrow pointed teeth made of hardened steel. The plough is used as a primary tillage
implement and its main role is for pulling out deep-rooted weeds and the loosening and
increasing of the porosity of the soil.

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The Subsoilers:
A Subsoilers is an implement that is used to break up the hard soil pan (or compacted soil)
that can develop as a result of the continuous use of ploughs. The legs of the Subsoilers
shatter the hard pan, thus improving drainage and aeration, but it requires a highly-powered
tractor, usually of the crawler type, to pull it through the soil.

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IV.2.2 Secondary tillage implements
Mention has been made of the classification of tillage implements on the basis of primary
and secondary tillage operations. It was also stated that if the soil conditions allow, secondary
tillage implements may be the only type required for seedbed preparation.
Secondary tillage implements can be used either before or after the crop is planted. If they are
used before planting it may be either to prepare the seed bed, to mix fertilizer, to break the
soil crust, or to break clods left by a primary tillage implement, such as a plough. Secondary
tillage implements are used, after a crop is planted, for weeding and for minor earth-up
operations.
Some examples of secondary tillage implements are:
 Harrows;
 Cultivators;
 Rotary cultivators; and
 Rollers.
It should be noted that implements may be either mounted or trailed.
a) The Disc Harrow:
The disc harrow comprises 2,4, or more elements with discs having given diameter and
curvature as in the case of a disc plough.
The discs are mounted on an axle to constitute the element or a ‘gang’, and several gangs may
be mounted together to make a disc harrow.
Some gang arrangements commonly used are as shown in the figures above. The concavity of
the disc is inverted from one train.
Unlike the disc plough, the angle of the individual discs on the disc harrow is fixed but the
angle of the gang may be set in relation to the direction of travel. The greater the angle set, the
greater the pulverization of the soil.
There are 4 types of disc harrows: -
(1) The simple type or simple harrow with a “V” form: The simple harrow has two trains of
discs disposed symmetrically in the direction of travel. The 2 trains are disposed under a “V”
form.

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(2) The Tandem harrow with an “X” form: This type comprises 4 discs trains disposed in the
manner to designate the form of an “X”. The trains are also disposed symmetrically in relation
to the direction of travel. A heavy-duty tandem disc harrow can be hydraulically folded for
transport.

(3) The offset harrow or cover crop: The offset harrow comprises 2 trains of disc disposed one
behind another in an A-type disc form. This disposition permits to work the soil twice.

(4) The squadron harrow: The squadron harrow is one assemblage of 2 or 3 offset harrows.

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b) Cultivators:
These implements comprise basically a set of soil working tines or share, mounted on a robust
frame. There is not much difference between cultivators and harrows, but generally speaking,
cultivators are used for heavy work and clods.
The cultivator usually has 2 or 3 rows of tine which are staggered. The object of mounting
tines in 2 or more staggered rows is to provide a clearance between tines through which clods
and debris can freely pass.
Depending on the type of tine used, the cultivator can be classified either as:
 A spring-tine cultivator or
 A rigid-tine cultivator
The spring-tine cultivator has tines made of spring steel, thus enabling them to withstand
shocks when they hit an obstacle. The spring action also helps to break down any soil clod left
by the plough. However, this type of cultivator works at a shallower depth than the rigid type.
The rigid-tine cultivator has a strong tine with a cutting shovel or sweep.

Rigid-tine cultivator Spring-tine cultivator

28
IV.2.3 The implements of superficial stages
This type of implements does not work so deeply as the cultivator. The principal
characteristic is the absence of share on the teeth. Examples of implements of superficial
stages are:
 Specific harrows and
 Rollers
Harrows are employed for great variety of purposes such as:
 The preparation of seedbeds,
 The covering of seeds,
 The destruction of weeds and
 The aeration of pastures.
Many types and sizes are used for carrying out these widely differing functions:
a) Spike-tooth harrow: The most common and simple type is that with a zig-zag iron frame
and rigid teeth. The unit consists basically of a peg or spike, several of which are fixed on
to a bar and mounted on a frame. The spike angle, in relation to forward travel, is usually
adjustable and can set to achieve the required amount of soil breakdown. This type of
harrow is also useful for the collection of weeds.
b) Chain harrow: This type of harrow comprises basically a flexible chain link mat that is
pulled behind the tractor. It is very useful for weed collection and manure mixing.

Spike-tooth harrow

Chain harrow

c) Rollers

29
The main objectives of rolling are to break down soil clods that may not have been broken by
the cultivator or harrow, to smooth the soil surface and to consolidate the soil.
Consolidation is necessary on some soils to give plants a firm root-hold, to conserve soil
moisture and to ensure continuity between the top soil and subsoil.
The roller is designed to be drawn quite quickly behind the tractor so that the clods are broken
by impact rather than being buried or pushed down into the soil.

IV.3 Planting Equipment

There exist different kinds of planting equipment some of which are manual and others are
tractor operated. They include: -
A- centrifugal grain/fertilizer broadcaster;

30
The implement is used for spreading seeds where no row planting is required. It ensures the
proper and balanced distribution of fertilizers by sprinkling them on the soil adequately and
accurately.

B-Hand-pushed seed drill;

C-Seed and fertilizer drill

Functions of the Seed and fertilizer drill include the following: -

 Transportation of the seeds/fertilizer

31
The drills come with a seed hopper that serves as storage container for seeds. The machine is
responsible for carrying the seed from the storage location to the field. The seed hopper can
hold a significant quantity of seeds, allowing the machine to cover large areas without
frequent refilling.
 Metering the seeds
The machines have a seed metering mechanism that controls the rate of seed flow from the
seed hopper to the planting mechanism. The metering mechanism ensures that a consistent
and precise amount of seed is released at regular intervals as the machine moves through the
field. This helps achieve a uniform seed distribution, which is crucial for every seed
germination and plant growth.
 Opening the furrow to a regular depth
Seed drill machines are equipped with disc and coulters that create furrows and trenches in the
soil at regular depth. The depth is adjustable, allowing farmers to set the optimal planting
depth based on the type of seed and soil conditions. This feature ensures that the seeds are
placed at right depth, which is essential for successful germination and establishment of the
plants.
 Covering the seeds and compacting the earth around
After the seeds are dropped into the furrows, seed drill machines are designed to cover them
with soil.
 Placing the seed in the furrow in an acceptable arrangement
Seed drill machines are designed to ensure proper seed spacing and arrangement within the
furrows. The seed metering mechanism and the precise placement of the furrows help achieve
the desired seed spacing, preventing overcrowding and facilitating optimal plant growth.
Proper seed arrangement also allows for efficient use of resources and maximizes the yield
potential of the crop.

IV.4 Crop Maintenance Equipment

Pesticides application:
Crops are protected from harmful organisms or pests using chemicals called pesticides.
Classification of pesticides are therefore based on the nature or type of harmful organisms.
 Weeds or herbs-Weedicides or herbicide
 Insects-Insecticides
 Nematodes-nematicides
 Fungi-Fungicides

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Pesticides can be applied in various ways as follows: -
For Liquids: -
 Spraying
 Moistening
 Injecting (into the soil)
 Evaporating (e.g., in the green house)

For solids: -
 Dusting (powder)
 Broadcasting (granules)
 Smoking (burning to produce smoke e.g., moon tiger)
 Evaporating (e.g., in the green house)
IV.4.1 Types of equipment:
They include: - Hand held equipment, Backpacks, Dry formulation equipment, Tractor and
wheeled equipment, Aircraft.
A. Hand held equipment:
i. Sprayers
ii. Aerosol booms and pressure cans

They are preformulated and disposed (thrown after first use)

 They are used to make spot treatment and can be used indoors or outdoors, very
expensive
Examples include: -
 Moon tiger
 Shelt tox
 Timor

33
 Pistol sprayers

 They are held and squeezed like pistons

 They are used for limited spaces
 They can be refilled with the spraying solution

 Hand pump atomizer

There are of two types: -

 The intermittent sprayer
 The continuous sprayer

 Side pump or trombone sprayer

34
  This bucket mounted sprayer has a plunger and cylinder that moves with a trombone-
like action and requires the use of both hands.
 It cannot be used for large scale operations

 Spinning disc sprayers (or rotary atomizers)

 They are designed for pesticide and fungicide applications at ultralow volumes (ULV)
of 1-5l /ha.
 They use 1.5 volts battery
 They discharge the chemicals with small droplets sizes of 200-300 micrometres (µm)
in diameters.

 Dusters
Different types of dusters include the following: -

Shaker can

35
  It has a minute hold at the end of bottom through which a pesticide is dispersed. It is
used for restricted spaces.
 It is easy to use because the pesticide is applied by simply shaking
 The disadvantage is the easy exposure of the operator to the product

Bulb duster

 It is used for careful placement of dust

 It is operated by hand pressure on the bulb

Plunger duster

36
It is as important to dust as the compress air sprayer (hand pump atomizer) is important to
spray.

B. Backpack
 Backpack sprayers are carried on the operator’s back.
 The reservoir capacity varies from 16l-20l
 The capacity of the backpack is up to 20l
 Pressure is maintained by a hand lever
They are mostly operated at low pressure 1-4 bar, and there are 2 types: -

i. Compressed air or tank sprayer

 The sprayer should be filled with a liquid of about 75% of the tank volume, leaving
the space above the liquid to pump in and pressurize the air.
 The sprayer is pumped before the spraying starts.
 The advantage is that the operator pays more attention to directing the nozzle at the
target because there is no pumping during spraying.
37
  The disadvantage is that the pressure and volume drop as the liquid is pumped

ii. Knapsack sprayer (piston type pump)

 Consists of a tank of 10-20l capacity,

 Consists of a hand operated pump
 A hose and a spray lance, valve and nozzles
 The pressure is maintained by a hand operated lever
 It produces sprays at constant volume when pumping during application
 The operator easily gets tired as both hands are buoy during spraying

iii. The mist blower (motorized)

 Consists of a small gasoline engine which operates a radial fan and discharges air
through a nozzle
 The air pressure forces the chemical to exit through the valve

38
  Some models are mist and dust blowers and can be used for liquids and dust.
 They use air and water to deliver the pesticide to the target
 The droplets produced may be carried 3-12m depending on the fan speed
 They are particularly used to treat trees
 Used to spray hand-to-reach areas e.g., dense canopies
 They are applied in large areas in little operating time
 They are less tiring to operate than hydraulic pumps, sprayers (no pumping during
spraying)
 They are relatively expensive
 Problem of wind drift since droplets are so fine therefore, they must be operated
during calm weather.

iv. Fogging machines

There are several types of fogging equipment. All consist of the following parts: -
 A fuel tank
 A pesticide tank
 A piston (hand operated)
 Spark plugs
 Carburettor
 Long exhaust pipe
They break pesticide formulation into very small droplets that are discharged as fog or in the
form of smoke. That is why they are called fogging machines.
 Droplets are so small that they would not stick to surfaces
 They can be used for flying insects (it is difficult for the pest to escape since they
cover a large area)
 Droplets can penetrate dense canopies
 There is little residual control since most of the droplet do not stick on surfaces
 As soon as the fog moves out of an area, pest can move back in
 Problems of drift of the droplet
 Application is weather dependent
 They require special pesticide formulation i.e., those that can mix with fog

C. Dry formulation equipment

39
 i. Dusters
 They are similar in design as for sprayers
 They blow particles of pesticides dust to the target surface
 Dusters are light weight
 Relatively cheap
 Do not require water
 They drift easily and are difficult to control
 They are highly visible

ii. Granule spreaders

 They are designed to apply coarse dry particles to soil, water and in some case foliage.
 They are used in several forms (seeders, fertilizer spreaders, soil injectors etc)
 They are light and relatively simple
 Do not use water
 Seeders and fertilizer spreaders can be used to apply pesticide granules without
modification
 They have a limited number of uses
 They can poison wild life

D. Tractor/wheeled equipment
 They are usually mounted on tractors or trucks
 They usually deliver pesticide at low volumes of 100-400 l/ha and applied at 2-4 bars
 The pesticide is applied in swaths

40
The parts consist of a pump, tank and agitator, flow control and the boom which are attached
to the tractor engine by the P.T.O
 They cover a large area
 Good coverage with adequate water volume and proper nozzle arrangement
 There is less drift during operation
 Require a particular topography
 Problem of soil compaction
 Do not penetrate dense canopies because of low pressure
 They are used for applying insecticides, fungicides and herbicides.

E. Aircraft equipment
They exist: -
 A fixed wing-airplane
 A mobile wing-helicopter, drone
 They are used in treating banana in Cameroon (SBM, PHP, Delmonte)
 They are equipped with booms and nozzles or micron air rotary atomizers
 No soil compaction
 Covers a large area in a short time
 Operator does not need to handle the equipment
 Very suitable for disease for casting system where quick action is required
41
  Expensive
 Needs a skilled labour
 Application is weather dependent
 Problem of drift

Spray nozzles:
Spray nozzles are the most important in pesticide application as they give the pattern of spray
on the target. The choice of the nozzle depends on the: -
 Kind of protection needed. Big droplets must be applied for weeds while smaller ones
for diseases.

42
  Mode of action of the chemical. Systemic pesticides must be applied on precise parts
of the target (leaves) while contact types require total application.
Characteristics of spray nozzles such as spray angle, nozzle height and swath width depend on
nozzle types which include: -
 Cone nozzle
 Fan nozzle
 Deflector nozzle
Assignment: Write a short essay on types of nozzles including diagrams (a page)

Spray volume:
The trend of spray volume has been decreased with advent of modern technologies. Thus, the
cost of carrying diluent (usually water) and time required for application. The spray volume
depends on: -

 Vegetation of crop
 Target organism
 Equipment
 Droplet size
Types of spray volumes:
Volume type Dosage (l/ha) Carried or propelled by
Trees/Bushes Crops
High Volume (HV) >1000 >600 Mass of water
Medium Volume (MV) 500-1000 200-600 Air/water
Low Volume (LV) 200-500 50-200 Air
Very Low Volume (VLV) 50-200 5-50 Air
Ultra-Low Volume (ULV) ≤50 ≤5 Air or centrifugal energy

IV.4.2 Calibration of crop protection equipment

Calibration of equipment is highly necessary. Improper use or management of chemical
products and spraying equipment can result to the following problems: -
For excessive amounts of pesticides
 Phytotoxicity of the product
 Environmental degradation (excessive residues)
 High cost of treatment

43
  Development of resistance
 Inadequate mixture in the tank
 Nozzle blocking
For inadequate amount of pesticide
 Sub-standard pest control (inefficiency of product)
 Higher cost of pest control
 Development of pest resistance
 Poor judgement of pesticide efficiency
Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to apply pesticide at recommended rates.
A sprayer must be calibrated to determine the amount of spraying delivered or its discharge
rate per minute.
The quantity of spray applied per unit area is determined based on the following factors: -

 Size of nozzle orifice

 Spray pressure
 Walking speed of the operator
 Swath width

IV.4.3 Calibration of knapsack sprayers

Determine the nozzle discharge as follows: -
 Fill the sprayer with water and pump to working pressure
 Dip nozzle into bucket or jar and spray water into the container for an amount of time
(1 minute)
 Measure the quantity of water collected (ml)
 Repeat three times to get average nozzle discharge per minute
Volume of water sprayed(ml )
Discharge=
time(minutes)
Determine the walking speed of the operator as follows: -
 Mark the starting point in the field
 Carry sprayer and operate by pumping while directing the nozzle at the target
 Walk for 1 minute (while someone else reads the time on the clock) at a constant
speed
 Mark the stopping point and measure the distance between both points (m)
 Repeat three times to get an average

44
 Distance covered (m)
walking speed=
time(minutes)
Determine the swath width as follows: -
 Carry the sprayer and operate by pumping while directing the nozzle at the target.
 Spray over a short distance and on a dry path
 Measure the width of the path before the spray dies down
Calculate the area sprayed in a minute as; Area sprayed in a minute (m²/min) =Swath width
(m)×walking speed(m/mins)
Calculate the application rate for any given area as;

Nozzle discharge(l/min)× Area(m ²)

Vol of spray area(l)=
Areasprayed per minute(m2 /min)
Example
If the nozzle discharge is 0.4 l/min, the area sprayed in a minute is 20 m²/min, then the
volume of spray per 4000 m² (0.4ha) is determined as follows: -
0.4 l/min × 4000 m²
2
¿=80l
20 m /min ¿
A quicker method does not involve measuring the time
 Select the area of field to treat
 Place a known amount of liquid in tank
 Establish the swath width
 Spray the liquid in the area selected at a constant pressure and speed
 Calculate the application rate
Area sprayed (ha) = swath width× Distance covered
Volume sprayed (l)
Applicationrate=
Area sprayed( ha)
Example:
Volume discharged=5l
Swath width=4m
Distance covered=40m
Area sprayed=160m²=0.016ha
Application rate=5l/0.016ha=313l/ha

45
IV.4.4 Modification of spray volume
The spray volume depends on 3 parameters: -
 Pressure of the pump
 Nozzle type
 Walking speed
To increase spray volume;
 Increase the pressure
 Increase the number of nozzles for a boom
 Use nozzles with big openings
 Decrease walking speed
To decrease the spray volume;
 Decrease the pressure
 Decrease nozzle opening
 Decrease number of nozzles
 Increase walking speed

IV.4.5 Crop Irrigation

Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to plants for their growth and
development. The water is supplied to supplement the water available from rainfall and soil
moisture from ground water. The methods of irrigation include: -
i. Surface irrigation
ii. Sub-surface irrigation
iii. Sprinkler irrigation
iv. Drip irrigation
Surface irrigation: Water is distributed or supplied over the soil surface by gravity. Surface
irrigation includes flooding, furrow, basin, contour and strip methods.
Sub-surface irrigation: Subterranean perforated pipes supply water which gradually wets the
root zone by capillary movement.
Sprinkler irrigation: Also known as overhead irrigation as the application of water is similar
to natural rainfall. Water is spray in the air through sprinklers.
Components of a sprinkler irrigation system includes: -
 Pumping unit
 Sub main and laterals
46
  Sprinkler head
 Nozzle
 Valves
 Risers
Drip irrigation: Also known as trickle irrigation. Water supplied through emitters diffuses
through the soil or root zone due to capillary action.
Components of a drip irrigation system include: -
 Pump station
 Control valves
 Filtration system
 Mainlines, sub mains and laterals

IV.4.6 Fertilizer/manure application

In the same way that chemical pesticides are applied on crop plantations in the form of
granules or liquids, a variety of equipment are used for fertilizer application either during
planting or afterwards. The equipment include: -
i. Seed and fertilizer drill (refer to planting equipment)
ii. Centrifugal seed/fertilizer broadcaster (refer to planting equipment)
iii. Manure spreader or broadcaster

iv. Liquid ammonia applicator

47
IV.5 Harvesting Equipment
Introduction
It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these
operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the
useful part or fruits from plants. Harvesting action can be done by four ways:
1) Slicing action with a sharp tool.
2) Tearing action with a rough serrated edge
3) High velocity single element impact with sharp or dull edge.
4) Two element scissors type action.
Manual harvesting involves slicing and tearing action. Harvesting can be done by:
(i) Manually operated tool
(ii) Animal drawn machine
(iii) Mechanically operated machine.
There are a few related terms in connection with harvesting, which are as below:
Mower: It is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath.
Reaper: It is a machine to cut grain crops.
Reaper binder: It is a reaper, which cuts the crops and ties them into neat and uniform
sheaves.

48
Swath: It is the material as left by the harvesting machine.
Sickle: It is a curved steel blade having a handgrip and used for manual harvesting.
Windrow: It is a row of material formed by combining two or more swaths.
Windrower: It is a machine to cut crops and deliver them in a uniform manner in a row.

IV.5.1 Harvesting equipment for crops

a) Sickle:
Sickle is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting other vegetations.
It essentially consists of a metallic blade and a wooden handle. Sickles are classified into two
classes: (i) Plain and (ii) Serrated. Blade is the main metallic part of the sickle. It is desirable
to make the blade made of carbon steel. The blade is made in a curved shape. The teeth of
serrated sickle are made sharp for efficient working in the field. The handle of the sickle is
made of well-seasoned wood. The forged end of the blade for fixing the handle is called tang.
The plain or serrated edge in the inner side of the blade is called cutting edge. Protective
metallic bush fitted at the junction of the blade and the handle to keep the tang tight in the
handle is called ferrule. Harvesting by sickle is a very slow and labour consuming device.

b) Reaper or Paddy harvester:

There are three types of paddy harvesters based on the operational design.
a-Self-propelled vertical conveyor reaper: It is mostly used for harvesting paddy and wheat.
The reaper is front mounted at the tractor, which can be lowered and raised by the hydraulic
control. It is powered by the PTO of the tractor. Crop is guided by the star wheel to the cutter
bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is conveyed to the side by the
conveyer belt. Its capacity may be 0.4-0.6 ha/h.

49
b-Power-tiller operated reaper: It can be used for harvesting wheat and paddy. The reaper is
front mounted on the power tiller. Power is transmitted from the engine fly wheel to the
reaper either through V belt or by providing gear box and propeller shafts. Crop is guided by
the star wheels to the cutter bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is
conveyed to the side by the conveyor belt Cutter bar length may be 100-160 cm. The capacity
may be 0.25-0.35 ha/h.
c-Tractor Mounted Vertical Conveyor Reaper: It is used for harvesting of wheat and paddy.
The machine consists of reciprocating cutter bar assembly, seven crop row dividers, two
vertical conveyor belts fitted with lugs, pressures springs, pulleys and gearbox for the power
transmission system. The crop row dividers are fitted in front of the cutter bar assembly and
the star wheels are mounted over the crop row dividers. The machine is mounted in front of
the tractor and the power to the machine is given from tractor PTO

c) Combine harvester:
It is a machine designed for harvesting, threshing, separating, cleaning and collecting grains
while moving through standing crops. Bagging arrangement may be provided with a pick-up
attachment. The main functions of a combine are:
(i) Cutting the standing crops
(ii) Feeding the cut crops to threshing unit
(iii) Threshing the crops
(iv) Cleaning the grains from straw
(v) Collecting the grains in a container.

50
The reel pushes the standing crops towards the cutting unit and prevents the straw from
accumulating on the cutting platform. It is made of wooden slats which help in feeding the
crops to the platform. The header auger is used to gather the straw and deliver it to the
threshing cylinder. Harvesting is done by a cutting unit, which uses a cutter bar similar to that
of a mower. The knife has got a serrated edge to prevent the straw from slipping while in
operation.
The conveyor feeds the crop to the cylinder and concave unit where the threshing takes place.
As soon as the crops are threshed, the threshed materials move to a straw walker which
separates the grains as it oscillating.
The cleaning unit consists of a number of sieves and a fan which helps in cleaning the grains.
The unthreshed grains pass through the tailing conveyor and go for re-threshing. The clean
grains pass through grain elevator and finally go to packing unit. Grains are collected in a
hopper provided at suitable place. A combine may be: -
(i) Self-propelled type
(ii) (ii) P T O driven type.

51
IV.5.2 Forage machines
a) Mowers
Mower is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath. Apart from the
conventional type, there exist different designs such as the cylinder mower, horizontal rotary
mower, gang mower and flail mower.
i. Conventional type of mower
The conventional mower mainly consists of a frame, power transmitting unit, cutter bar,
shoes, ledger plate, wearing plate, knife, grass board and pitman.
 Frame
The frame provides space for gears, clutch and bearings. The lever for lifting the cutting bar is
attached to the frame. A flywheel is used to store energy to provide steady speed to the cutting
mechanism.
 Power transmitting unit
The power-transmitting unit consists of axle, gears, crank wheel, crankshaft. Tractor drawn
semi-mounted or mounted type mowers are operated by P.T.O. shaft. In this case, the cutting
mechanism is driven independently of the forward speed of the mower. A shaft is connected
with the P.T.O. shaft which drives a pulley with the help of a universal joint. This V pulley
rotates another smaller pulley on the crankshaft of the machine and reciprocating motion is
transmitted to the cutter bar.
 Cutter bar
It is an assembly comprising of fingers, knife guides, on wearing plates and shoes. It is used
for cutting grasses and forage. It is made of high-grade steel. It works like a knife. The knife
is a metal bar, on which triangular sections are mounted. The knife section makes
reciprocating motion and cuts the plants. There are knife guards, provided on the cutter bar.
The knife stops at the centre of the guard on each stroke. There are ledger plates provided
with the knife guard, on which the knife moves. Knife clips hold the sections down against
the ledger plates. Knife clips are placed with wearing plates spaced 20 to 30 cm apart.

52
Shoe - A shoe on each end of the cutter bar is always provided to regulate the height of cut
above the ground. The inner shoe is larger in section and is placed at the inner end of the
cutter bar. The outer shoe is placed at the outer end and is smaller in section.
Ledger plate - It is a hardened metal inserted in a guard (finger) over which knife sections
move to give a scissor like cutting action.
Wearing plate - It is a hardened steel plate attached to the finger bar to form a bearing surface
for the back of the knife.
Knife - It is the reciprocating part of the cutter bar, comprising of knife head, knife back and
knife sections.
Knife section - It is a flat steel plate (triangular shape) with two cutting edges.
Knife head - It is the portion of the knife which is connected to the pitman.
Knife back - It is the strip of steel to which knife sections are riveted and the knife head is
attached.

53
Grass board - Grass board is provided at the cutter end of the mower which causes the cut
plants to fall towards the cut material. Shoes are provided for easy and smooth sliding of the
cutter bar.
Pitman - Pitman is a type of connecting rod which is pinned to the crankshaft with the help of
a pin. It transmits reciprocating motion to a knife head. Wooden pitman is commonly used for
the mowers.

ii. Other types of mowers

Cylinder mower: It has rotating helical blades arranged in horizontal cylindrical form. With
the rotation of blades, forage or grasses are cut continuously.

Horizontal rotary mower: It is a mower with high-speed knife rotating in the horizontal
plane. Due to rotation of knife, the grasses and forage are cut in uniform way.

Gang mower: It is an assembly of two or more ground driven cylinder mowers.

54
Flail mower: It is a mower with high-speed swinging knives, operating either in a horizontal
plane or around a horizontal cylinder.

b) Hay conditioning
Hay is dry forage formed after wilting, sun drying, turning and packaging of the dry forage
material. The packaging process can be done either with a baling machine or manually using
hand. It has the following advantages over silage:
 It is easier and faster to make compared to silage
 It has high dry matter content
 It requires less labour than silage
 It is cheaper than silage.
 It can be done anywhere provided the farmer is experienced
 It provides bulkiness in the rumen which aid the rumen micro-organisms

55
c) Silage making
Silage is fermented forage used for supplementing livestock either throughout the year or
during the period of feed scarcity. It requires high technical man power and is more expensive
than hay, especially in intensively managed farms. However, it has the following advantages:
 It is more qualitative than hay
 It has high acceptability by livestock than hay provided it is well prepared
 It is independent of weather
 It can be integrated with other farm operations such as mowing and grazing
 It can easily be degraded by rumen microbes

d) Windrowing
Hay is gathered or arranged in row patterns during mowing in such a way that picking,
loading or baling can be carried out easily. The operation is termed as windrowing in
reference to the row patterns of straw that appear on a field after a strong wind blow. The
equipment used in carrying out the operation is a windrower.

e) Hay packing
Proper handling and storage of hay is necessary to avoid wastage, spoilage and quality
deterioration. Packing or baling is one of the operations which ensure a good quality hay and
it is done using a baler. There are two types of balers used in hay packing namely: -
 A Rotor or roller baler.
 A Conventional ram type baler or rectangular baler.
The rotor baler (illustrated) is very common owing to its high efficiency and simplicity of
operation. However, rectangular balers are preferrable where optimal utilisation of storage
space is cannot be tolerated.

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IV.6 Feed preparation equipment
a) Introduction
One of the important processes in feed preparation involving non-chemical changes is the size
reduction of the crop. If the size reduction process is carried out to the fullest extent, that is
reducing the harvested crop to a flour, then the process is known generally as milling.
b) Purpose of milling
i. Most cereal grains are milled for either animal feed or human consumption. The term
milling refers to both removal of the husk (or hull) and to the complete disintegration
of the grain.
ii. For human food, bread for example, the outer layers are removed to leave the starch
granules which go to make the flour.
iii. Maize is eaten with and without the husk and either coarsely or finely ground,
according to preference.
iv. Rice on the other hand is invariably milled by stripping off the outer hull, followed by
a polishing process to remove a dark layer of bran. The germ is also removed.
v. These outer layers contain much of the nutrient value and so are never removed for
animal feed.
c) Grinding and crushing mills
Size reduction is achieved either by a rubbing (shearing) action or an impact action.
d) Traditional tools
The grinding or rubbing stone (2500 BC – Present) and the pestle and mortar are most
common. Pounding using mortar and pestle is an ancient practice use very widely for milling

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and hulling of maize, rice, millet and sorghum. The Quern is a traditional tool is used in
grinding grain by manually rotating one stone over the other.

e) Water-Powered Mill
Early manufacturing employed water-powered machinery. Water turned the paddles of a
wheel, which in turn moved grinding stones or other mechanical devices. Modern water
wheels, called water turbines, drive generators that produce electricity. Today on farm
processing operations like milling of cassava, maize, and palm nuts are done using water
powered mills.

f) Windmill
A windmill is a machine which translates linear motion of wind to rotational motion by means
of adjustable vanes and sails. Windmills can provide power for driving grinding mills, water
pumps, and power for lighting and for other electrical power uses on the farm.

IV.6.1 Machines for size reduction

a) A hammer mill:

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The hammer mill uses a crushing action to break down the size of the crop and this is
achieved by steel hammers mounted on a shaft which rotates at high speed.
The material is supplied by feed hopper and the hammer pulverizes the material by repeatedly
striking it against a strong housing. At one end of the housing there is a screen so that when
the material has been reduced sufficiently in size it passes out through the screen. Fineness is
controlled by the size of screen chosen.

b) A burr (or plate) mill

The main principle here is the crushing of the crop between two plates (or stones) that are
rubbed together. The plates (or stones) have grooves (burrs) cut on one or both faces.

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While one of the plates revolves over the other, the grain is fed in at the centre of the two
plates and is crushed as it moves out towards the periphery.
The fineness of grinding is controlled by the size and quantity of burrs on the plate and the
clearance between the two plates. One plate is usually attached to a hand wheel which can be
used to set the distance between the plates.
Both dry and wet grinding may be done for a variety of crops like sorghum, millet, maize,
wheat, etc.

c) A roller Crushing mill

Usually, a crushing mill consists of two cylindrical rollers between which the grain or crop
(for instance, sugarcane) is rolled. One of the rollers can be moved to get the desired spacing
between the two rollers.
A roller crusher is sometimes used to crush large crops such as maize before being ground
between the burr plates of a burr mill.

IV.6.2 Mixers
Some times after the size of the food material or ingredient has been reduced, it is mixed with
other feed or ingredients. This operation may be carried out by a machine called a mixer.
The mixer usually consists of a steel cylinder which ends with a conical hopper at the bottom.
A large auger located in the centre rotates and carries material from the bottom of the hopper
and drops it over the surface. The figure on the right shows a typical mixer for farm materials
with arrows indicating the movement of feed ingredient during mixing.

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V Costs of Farm Machinery
The costs of owning and using farm machinery are grouped into Fixed costs and Variable
costs.
V.1 Components of Fixed Costs
It is necessary to know that Fixed Costs are independent of machine use, and occur whether
the machine is used or not. Fixed costs are also referred to as the cost of owning the machine.
They include: -
 Depreciation
 Interest on investment
 Taxes
 Shelter or Housing
 Insurance
Depreciation is the loss in value of a machine with passage of time, whether used or not.
Thus, depreciation is the same thing as the amount of money that should be saved each year
as a machine is used so that, at the end of its useful life, this money along with the remaining
value of a machine could be used to replace it. Depreciation can be estimated by several
methods.

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One of them is the straight-line method. It is as follows: Annual Depreciation = Purchase
cost of machine – salvage value /Assumed life of machine
Note: 10% of the new machine cost is usually regarded as the salvage value.

Interest on Investment: Interest is part of a machine cost because the money that is tied up in
buying equipment is not available for investment elsewhere, where it could be earning an
investment return. Inflation reduces the real cost of investing capital in farm machinery.

Purchase Price+Salvage Value

Interest= Interest Rate ×
2
Taxes: Any sales taxes paid on equipment. In Cameroon, the use of agricultural machinery is
tax exempted.
Shelter: The cost of housing the equipment should be borne by the equipment. Insurance and
housing are altogether considered as 6% of the purchase price of the equipment.
Insurance: Provision should be made for insurance charges on equipment. Machinery is
normally insured against loss or other hazards. A local survey of banks and insurance
companies estimate an insurance rate of 3-5% the initial of any machine.

V.2 Components of Variable Costs

Variable costs are associated with the operation of a machine and takes place only when the
machine is in operation. Variable costs are made up of the following:
 Repairs and maintenance
 Fuel
 Lubricant oil
 Labor
Repairs and maintenance costs of machinery could be very high and are taken into
consideration in the operating cost. Fuel and Oil are used very frequently to keep the engine in
good working conditions. Labor costs are the wages paid to the operators of the machine.
Past records in the United States have shown that average R&M costs can be expressed as a
percentage of the purchase price of the new machine for the different machine classes. Sample
annual R&M costs for several classes are shown here as percentages of the purchase price, P:
Tractors, 0.007%
Tillers, 0.035%
Seeders, 0.050%
Harvesters, 0.02–0.05%
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Forage machines, 0.02–0.08%
Chemical applicators, 0.05%

Fuel costs can be estimated if fuel consumption (l/ha) for all the field operations is known.
The figures can be multiplied by fuel cost per litre to obtain average fuel cost per hectare.
Then the hourly work rate of the machine in ha/hour can be used to calculate the fuel cost per
hour as follows: -
Fuel cost per hour= (fuel cost per ha)/ (hourly rate per ha)
For example, if average fuel required to harvest corn is 10l of diesel fuel per hectare and fuel
cost is 600 frs per litre.
Average fuel cost per hectare = 10l/ha * 600frs per litre = 6000 frs per ha
If 1.2 ha of crop are harvested per hour, average fuel cost, average fuel cost per hour =
6000frs/ha*1.2ha per hour = 7200 frs per hour
The average fuel consumption for farm tractor on a year-round basis without reference to any
specific implement can also be estimated using the equations below: -
i. Average gasoline; gallons per hour = 0.06 * max PTO hp
ii. Average gasoline; litres/hour = 0.306 * max PTO kilowatt
iii. Average diesel; gallons/hour = 0.044 * max PTO hp

Lubrication oils and grease costs: surveys indicate that total lubrication costs average about
15% of fuel costs.
Labor costs vary from farm to farm and from one location to another. Its costs also depend
on the type of operation performed.
Because of the time required to lubricate and service machines before starting work as well as
time delays in getting to and from place of work, actual hours of labor usually exceed field
machine time by 10-20%.
Consequently, labor costs can be estimated by multiplying labor wage by 110-120 % of
machine hours used for a particular operation.

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