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 SOIL SALINITY
MANAGEMENT IN
AGRICULTURE
Technological Advances and Applications
Innovations in Agricultural and Biological Engineering

SOIL SALINITY
MANAGEMENT IN
AGRICULTURE
Technological Advances and Applications

Edited by
S. K. Gupta, PhD, CE
Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE
Apple Academic Press Inc. Apple Academic Press Inc.
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©2017 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.
Exclusive worldwide distribution by CRC Press, a member of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-77188-443-3 (Hardcover)
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Soil salinity management in agriculture : technological advances and applications / edited by S. K. Gupta, PhD,
CE, Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE.
(Innovations in agricultural and biological engineering)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Issued in print and electronic formats.
ISBN 978-1-77188-443-3 (hardcover).--ISBN 978-1-315-36599-2 (PDF)
1. Soil salinization. 2. Soils, Salts in. 3. Soil management. 4. Reclamation of land. I. Gupta, S. K. (Suresh
Kumar), 1949-, author, editor II. Goyal, Megh Raj, editor III. Series: Innovations in agricultural and biological
engineering
S595.S64 2017 631.4'16 C2016-908100-1 C2016-908101-X

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gupta, S. K. (Suresh Kumar), 1949- editor. | Goyal, Megh Raj, editor.
Title: Soil salinity management in agriculture : technological advances and applications / editors: S.K. Gupta,
Megh R. Goyal.
Description: Waretown, NJ : Apple Academic Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016056054 (print) | LCCN 2016058331 (ebook) (print) | LCCN 2016058332 (ebook) | ISBN
9781771884433 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315365992 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Soils, Salts in. | Salinity.
Classification: LCC S595 .S642 2017 (print) | LCC S595 (ebook) | DDC 631.8/2--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016056054

Apple Academic Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic format. For information about Apple Academic Press products,
visit our website at www.appleacademicpress.com and the CRC Press website at www.crcpress.com
CONTENTS

List of Contributors .................................................................................... vii

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................... xi
Foreword by Gurbachan Singh ................................................................ xvii
Preface 1 by S. K. Gupta ........................................................................... xix
Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal .....................................................................xxv
Warning/Disclaimer .................................................................................xxix
Book Endorsement ...................................................................................xxx
Other Books on Agricultural and Biological Engineering by AAP..........xxxi
About the Editor .................................................................................... xxxiii
About the Senior Editor-in-Chief ............................................................ xxxv
Editorial ................................................................................................xxxvii

PART I: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND TRENDS

IN SALINITY MANAGEMENT .............................................................. 1
1. Emerging Trends in Salinity Research: An Indian Perspective ............. 3
D. K. Sharma and Anshuman Singh
2. Living with Salts in Irrigation Water ..................................................... 25
S. K. Gupta
3. Coastal Ecosystems: Risk Factors for Development
and Threats Due to Climate Change ...................................................... 63
H. S. Sen and Dipankar Ghorai
4. Ground Water Contamination: Recent Advances
in Identifying Sources .............................................................................. 97
Deepesh Machiwal and Madan Kumar Jha
vi Contents

PART II: TOLERANCE TO SOIL SALINITY ........................................... 135

5. Physiology of Salt Tolerance of Salvadora persica and
Halophytic Grasses in Saline Vertisols: A Review ............................... 137
G. Gururaja Rao, J. C. Dagar, Sanjay Arora, and
Anil R. Chinchmalatpure
6. Effect of Soil Salinization on Plant Growth and Physiology
of Plectranthus Species ........................................................................... 171
G. V. Ramana, Ch. Ramakrishna, Sk. Khasim Beebi,
and K. V. Chaitanya
7. Effect of Salinity Stress on Growth Parameters and Metabolites
of Medicinal Plants: A Review .............................................................. 197
Yogita Deshmukh and Puja Khare

PART III: SOIL SALINITY MANAGEMENT IN

CROP PRODUCTION .......................................................................... 235
8. Bacterial-Mediated Amelioration Processes to Plants Under
Salt Stress: A Review .............................................................................. 237
Amrita Kasotia, Ajit Varma, and Devendra Kumar Choudhary
9. Sustainable Reclamation and Management of Sodic Soils:
Farmers’ Participatory Approaches ..................................................... 289
Y. P. Singh
10. Pokkali Rice Cultivation in India: A Technique for Multi-Stress
Management ........................................................................................... 317
A. K. Sreelatha and K. S. Shylaraj
11. Prevention, Reclamation and Management of Acid and
Acid Sulfate Soils .................................................................................... 337
A. Krishna Chaitanya, Shrikant Badole, Arbind Kumar Gupta,
and Biplab Pal
12. Nutrient Management for Sustained Crop Productivity
in Sodic Soils: A Review ......................................................................... 365
N. P. S. Yaduvanshi
Index ......................................................................................................... 395
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sanjay Arora, PhD

Senior Scientist, ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Lucknow
– 226002, Uttar Pradesh, India. Mobile: +91-7376277190; E-mail: [email protected]

Shrikant Badole, PhD

Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture,
Golegaon, VNMKV, Parbhani – 431705, Maharashtra, India. Mobile: +91-9604777431, E-mail:
[email protected]

A. Krishna Chaitanya
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia – 741252, West Bengal, India. Mobile: +91-8697414173,
E-mail: [email protected]

K. V. Chaitanya, PhD
Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam – 530045,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Mobile: +91-8912840246, E-mail: [email protected]

Anil R. Chinchmalatpure, PhD

Principal Scientist and Head, ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research
Station, Bharuch 392012, Gujarat, India. E-mail: [email protected]; Mobile: +91-2642225673

Devendra Kumar Choudhary, PhD

Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Microbial Technology (AIMT), Block E-3, 4th Floor, Amity
University Campus, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Sector-125, Noida – 201313, UP, India, Mobile: +91-
120-2431182, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

J. C. Dagar, PhD
Ex Assistant Director General (ICAR), ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132
001, Haryana, India, Mobile: +919416301661, E-mail: [email protected].

Yogita Deshmukh
PhD Research Scholar, Agronomy and Soil Science Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants, Lucknow – 226015, India, Mobile: +91-7408857399, E-mail: yogita.deshmukh2@
gmail.com

Dipankar Ghorai, PhD

Subject Matter Specialist (I/C), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR – Central Research Institute of Jute and
Allied Fibers (ICAR), Burdwan – 713403, West Bengal, India, Mobile: +91-9433122515, E-mail:
[email protected]

Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE

Retired Professor in Agricultural and Biomedical Engineering, University of Puerto Rico – Mayaguez
Campus; and Senior Technical Editor-in-Chief in Agriculture Sciences and Biomedical Engineering,
Apple Academic Press Inc., PO Box 86, Rincon – PR – 00677, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
viii List of Contributors

Arbind Kumar Gupta

PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia – 741252, West Bengal, India. Mobile: +91-7044112393,
E-mail: [email protected]
S. K. Gupta, PhD
INAE Distinguished Professor, ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (Zarifa Farm), Karnal
– 132001, Haryana, India. Mobile: +91-9416081613; E-mail: [email protected]

Madan Kumar Jha, PhD

Professor, AgFE Department, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur – 721302, West Bengal, India. Tel: +91-
3222-283116(O), E-mail: [email protected]

Amrita Kasotia, PhD

UGC-RGNF Senior Research Fellow, Department of Science, Faculty of Arts, Science and Commerce,
Mody University of Science and Technology, Lakshmangarh, Sikar – 332311, Rajasthan, India,
Mobile: +91-1573-225001, E-mail: [email protected]

Puja Khare, PhD

Scientist, Agronomy and Soil Science Division, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants, Lucknow – 226015, India, Mobile: +918004923033, E-mail: [email protected]

Sk. Khasim Beebi, PhD

Associate Professor, Department of Biotechnology, GITAM University Visakhapatnam – 530045,
Andhra Pradesh, India, Mobile, +91 8912840246, E-mail: [email protected]

Deepesh Machiwal, PhD

Senior Scientist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Regional Research Station, Kukma –
370105, Bhuj, Gujarat, India; Tel.: +91-2832–271238(O); E-mail: [email protected]

Biplab Pal
PhD Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia – 741252, West Bengal, India. Mobile: +91-9474371998,
E-mail: [email protected]

Ch. Ramakrishna, PhD

Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, GITAM Institute of Sciences, GITAM University,
Visakhapatnam – 530045, Andhra Pradesh, India Mobile: +91-8912840451, E-mail:[email protected]

G. V. Ramana, PhD
Senior Research Fellow, Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Technology, GITAM
University, Visakhapatnam – 530045, Andhra Pradesh, India. Mobile: +91-8912840246, E-mail:
[email protected]

H. S. Sen, PhD
Former Director, ICAR – Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibers, Barrackpore – 700120,
West Bengal, India. Present address: 2/74 Naktala, Kolkata – 700047, West Bengal, India, Mobile:
+91-987418962, E-mail: [email protected]

D. K. Sharma, PhD
Director, ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal – 132001, Haryana, India. Tel.: +91-
184-2290501, E-mail: [email protected]

K. S. Shylaraj, PhD
Professor, Plant Breeding and Genetics, Rice Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Vyttila,
Kochi – 682019, Kerala, India. Mobile: +91-9846789150; E-mail: [email protected]
List of Contributors ix

Anshuman Singh, PhD

Scientist (Horticulture), ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal – 132001, Haryana,
India. Tel.: +91-184-2290501, E-mail: [email protected]

Y. P. Singh, PhD
Principal Scientist, ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station,
Lucknow – 226005, Uttar Pradesh, India, Mobile: +91-7309563010, E-mail: [email protected]

A. K. Sreelatha, PhD
Assistant Professor, Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Rice Research Station, Kerala
Agricultural University, Vyttila, Kochi – 682019, India, Mobile: +91-9446328761, E-mail: sreelatha.
[email protected]; [email protected]

Ajit Varma, PhD

Distinguished Scientist & Professor of Eminence, Amity Institute of Microbial Technology (AIMT),
Block E-3, 4th Floor, Amity University Campus, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Sector-125, Noida – 201313,
UP, India, Tel.: +91-120-2431182, E-mail: [email protected]

N. P. S. Yaduvanshi, PhD
Principal Scientist, Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi – 110012, India. Mobile: +91-9582380066, E-mail: [email protected]
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABA abscisic acid

ACC aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
acdS ACC deaminase structural gene
ACO ACC oxidase
ACS ACC synthase
AESR agro-ecological Sub Regions
ALA 5-aminolevulinic acid
AMT ACC-N-malonyl transferase
ANN artificial neural network
ANOVA analysis of variance
APX ascorbate peroxidase
ATAF arabdopsis transcription activator factor
B:C ratio benefit:cost ratio
BAW best available water
BS basic slag
bZIP basic leucine zipper
CA correspondence analysis
CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism
CAT catalase
CBF C-repeat binding factors
CBLs calmodulin and calcineurin B-like proteins
CCA canonical correlation analysis
CCE calcium carbonate equivalent
CCSHAU Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University
CDPKs Ca2+-dependent protein kinases
CDPKs calcium dependant protein kinases
CEC cation exchange capacity
Chl chlorophyll
COR cold-regulated genes
CRRI Central Rice Research Institute
CSSRI Central Soil Salinity Research Institute
CUC cup-shaped cotyledons
xii List of Abbreviations

DA discriminant analysis
DAP diammonium phosphate
DAPG 2,4-diacetylphlorogucinol
DAS days after sowing
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DREB dehydration responsive element binding
DREB2 dehydration responsive element-binding factor
DTPA diethyline-triamine-penta-acetic acid
EC electrical conductivity
ECe electrical conductivity of saturation extract
ECiw electrical conductivity of irrigation water
ECt threshold electrical conductivity
EL electrolyte leakage
EMS ethyl methanesulfonate
ePGPR extracellular-PGPR
epm equivalents per million
EPS exopolysaccharide
ESP exchangeable sodium percentage
ETC electron transport chain
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FAO-AGL Food and Agricultural Organization-The Land and Water
Development Division
fw fresh weight
FYM farmyard manure
GACC γ-glutamyl-ACC
GAs Gibberellins
GDP gross domestic product
GGT γ-glutamyl-transpeptidase
GHGs greenhouse gases
GI geographical indication
GIS geographical information system
GITAM Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management
GOI Government of India
GR gypsum requirement
GWQI ground water quality index
List of Abbreviations xiii

ha hectare
HCA hierarchical cluster analysis
HCN hydrogen cyanide
HKT high affinity K+ transporter
HR hypersensitive reaction
IAA indole-3-acetic acid
IAM indole-3-acetamide
IAN indole-3-acetonitrile
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
INR Indian Rupees
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
iPGPR intracellular-PGPR
IPyA indole-3-pyruvate pathway
ISR induced systemic resistance
IST induced systemic tolerance
ITK indian traditional knowledge
JA jasmonic acid
JA-ACC jasmonyl-ACC
JAR1 jasmonic acid resistance 1
K potassium
Kcal kilo calories
KSPB Kerala State Planning Board
KVK Krishi Vigayan Kendra
LC50 50% of the lethal concentration
LD50 50% of the lethal dose
LEA late embryogenesis abundant
LEW leaf epicuticular waxes
LF leaching fraction
LR leaching requirement
LR lime requirement
M ha million hectare
M-t metric ton
MACC 1-malonyl-ACC
MAPKs mitogen-activated protein kinases
MDA malonaldehyde
xiv List of Abbreviations

MDHAR monodehydroascorbate reductase

meq L–1 milliequivalent per liter
mg L–1 milligrams per liter
MIA modified index of agreement
mM molar mass
mmol L–1 millimole per liter
MNNG methyl-N’-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine
MNSE modified nash-sutcliffe efficiency
MOU memorandum of understanding
MYB myeloblastosis
MYC myelocytomatosis
N nitrogen
NAAS National Academy of Agricultural Sciences
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NAD nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NAM no apical meristem
NO nitric oxide
NPK nitrogen, phosphorus and potash
NT no tillage
NV neutralizing value
OC organic carbon
P phosphorus
PAU Punjab Agricultural University
PC(s) principle component(s)
PCA phenazine-1-carboxylic acid
PCA principal component analysis
PFCs polyfluorinated compounds
PG phospho-gypsum
PGPB plant growth promoting bacteria
PGPR plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
pHs soil reaction of saturation extract
Pi inorganic-phosphate
PLD phospholipid
PLDA Pokkali Land Development Agency
PLS partial least squares
PM poultry manure
List of Abbreviations xv

POD peroxidase
ppm parts per million
ppt parts per thousand
PSB phosphate solubilizing bacteria
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
PVS participatory varietal selection
Px peroxidase
QTL quantitative trait locus
QTLs quantitative trait locii
R correlation coefficient
R&D Research and Development
R2 coefficient of determination
RDF recommended dose of fertilizers
RMSE root mean square error
ROS reactive oxygen species
RS remote sensing
RSAC Remote Sensing Application Centre
RSC residual sodium carbonate
RSCiw residual sodium carbonate of irrigation water
RWC relative water content
SA salicylic acid
SAM S-adenosyl-methionine
SAR sodium adsorption ratio
SAR systemic acquired resistance
SARiw sodium adsorption ratio of irrigation water
SAS salt affected soils
SERB Science and Engineering Research Board
SIC site implementation committee
SIP site implementation plan
SMHE Salvia miltiorrhiza hydrophilic extract
SOD superoxide dismutase
SOS salt overly sensitive
SPM sulphitation press mud
SSD subsurface drainage
SW saline water
TAM trypamine
xvi List of Abbreviations

TDS total dissolved solids

TSO tryptophan side-chain oxidase
TSS total soluble salts
UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UPBSN UP Bhumi Sudhar Nigam
US United States
USA United States of America
USAID United State Agency for International Development
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USSL United States Salinity Laboratory
UV ultraviolet
WHO World Health Organization
WQI water quality index
WRI World Resources Institute
WUC water uptake capacity
WUG water users groups
ZF-HD zinc-finger homeodomain
FOREWORD BY GURBACHAN SINGH

Salinity is a global problem extending across all the continents in more

than 100 countries of the world. As per an assessment of the FAO – Land
and Plant Nutrition Management Service, more than 6% of the world’s
land is affected by either salinity or sodicity. It is a major threat to irrigated
agriculture as 20% of the irrigated lands are afflicted with water logging
and/or soil salinity, commonly designated as twin problems. The primary
and secondary salinization is adversely impacting on-farm agricultural
production that gets upscaled to regional and national levels having impli-
cation on food security, environmental health, and economic welfare. With
most of the good quality lands already committed, these otherwise deso-
late looking lands could provide an opportunity to increase food produc-
tion by restoring their productivity. It could go a long way in meeting the
foreseen 57% increase in global food production by the year 2050 to feed
the growing world population at the current levels of per capita food sup-
ply. Besides, the data generated globally has proved that costs of preven-
tion or land reclamation are much less than the costs to the society if land
degradation continues.
The prevention and/or reclamation of salt affected soils require team
effort by groups of experts from various disciplines such as soil science,
agronomy, plant physiology, hydrology, agro-forestry, plant breeding,
genetic engineering, computer sciences, water sciences, environmental
sciences including modelers in various disciplines. My own experience
show that a changed land use to manage and live with salts is a low cost
alternate to land reclamation and may be the only option in cases where
amelioration is impractical or too expensive. Translation of such inte-
grated scientific interventions and technologies to field practices must be
supported by pertinent policies, well-designed salinity management plans
and supportive institutions. Besides, stakeholder’s participation being cru-
cial, skilling human resource, capacity development of farmers and rely-
ing on local resources and indigenous knowledge would play an important
role in any such endeavor.
xviii Foreword by Gurbachan Singh

I am happy to note that technical solutions, policy tools, and the inte-
grated catchment management approaches adopted by various Govern-
ments have made significant headway in addressing the salinization of
land and water resources. However, the integrated approach amongst the
various stakeholders is either lacking or people from one discipline are
unaware of what is being attempted in the other disciplines.
I am happy to note that editors of the current volume have compiled
comprehensive chapters contributed by experts across many disciplines.
This volume covers many important issues in the field of soil salinity
management in agriculture. These chapters have been categorized in well-
defined sections. I congratulate the duo for their efforts in bringing out
this publication covering a very topical subject that might have serious
economic and social consequences, if left unattended.
I am sure that the publications of this nature would help in sensitizing
the world communities in taking effective and integrated remedial actions
as per local needs so as to eradicate the menace of land and water salinity.
I believe that this publication will be quite handy to researchers, policy
planners, students and field practitioners alike and must be in their shelves
for ready reference.

Gurbachan Singh, PhD

Chairman, Agricultural Scientists Recruitment
Board, Formerly Agricultural Commissioner,
Government of India, Assistant Director General
(Agronomy and Agro-Forestry), ICAR, Krishi
Anusandhan Bhavan – 1, New Delhi, India.
Former Director, Central Soil Salinity Research
Institute, Karnal, India.
PREFACE 1 BY S. K. GUPTA

Soil salinity, an incipient problem, comes to the fore only when some
damage has already been done. Besides adverse impacts on agricultural
productivity, the consequences of soil salinization can be quite damaging.
Civilizations in southern Mesopotamia and in several parts of the Tigris–
Euphrates valley were wiped out in the past because of water logging and
soil salinity. Damages in the Aral Sea Basin are the living example of how
things can go wrong with improper land and water management practices.
There are other basins in Australia, China, India, Pakistan, and the United
States that are grappling with salt related land and water degradation.
Soil and water salinity adversely affect on-farm, regional and national
interests having a major impact on food security, land, and water qual-
ity and environment resulting in serious economic and social problems in
rural and urban communities. There are wide variations in the figures of the
extent of the area affected by soil salinity from one assessment to another
yet the sizable area in different continents especially in irrigated lands
is causing concerns in more than 100 countries around the globe. With
many intersecting challenges such as climate change, deforestation, and
fresh water shortages resulting in the exploitation of saline water in agri-
culture, soil salinity is posing unprecedented dangers to the sustainability
of agricultural systems and the environment. Learning from what went
wrong coupled with scientific innovations, understanding of the natural
and anthropogenic causes, and prevention and reclamation of salt affected
lands has hugely improved. Catastrophic losses experienced in the past
can easily be avoided if the current knowledge on the subject gets trans-
lated into scientifically proven field practices. Advancements in researches
as well as application of research results in this multi-disciplinary arena
require an inter-disciplinary approach drawing knowledge and experi-
ences of the experts from soil science, agronomy, engineering, hydrology,
other water sciences, plant sciences, environmental sciences, modelers,
xx Preface 1 by S. K. Gupta

and computer sciences. Equally crucial would be the stakeholder partici-

pation in the field applications of these technologies.
The current volume Soil Salinity Management in Agriculture: Techno-
logical Advances and Applications under Innovations in Agricultural and
Biological Engineering has been designed keeping all these issues in view
to provide readers a comprehensive picture of the saline environment and
plant interactions. The chapters in the current volume have been written by
experts in their respective sphere, and cover major issues related to salinity
management in agriculture. The editors for the sake of convenience have
grouped these chapters into three sections namely:
I. Emerging Trends and Technologies in Salinity Management
II. Mechanisms of Salt Tolerance
III. Soil Salinity Management in Crop Production
Part I with four chapters dwells upon emerging trends and technolo-
gies in salinity management in soils or water covering arid, semi-arid and
coastal eco-regions. While the first chapter by Sharma and Singh deals
with the emerging trends of salinity research in India. The included tech-
nologies and practices have the replication potential in many developing
and developed countries as many cost-cutting techniques including use
of industrial wastes in land reclamation programs are included. The sec-
ond chapter specifically deals with similar issues related to use of saline
water in agriculture. It advocates living with salts which may be the only
option when reclamation is either expensive or impractical to adopt. The
coastal ecosystem have the high potentiality of production of a large num-
ber of goods and services valued at about US$ 12–14 trillion annually,
and is confronted with high risk of soil salinization due to the multiple
issues including the climate change—is the theme of discussion by Sen
and Ghorai. In recent times, ground water salinity and its pollution has
assumed serious overtones around the globe because of its use across
many economic sectors. Unlike surface waters, to pinpoint the sources of
contamination of ground water could be a major challenge for the ground
water management and planning. The chapter by Machiwal and Jha briefly
reviews the past technologies and describes the recent advances made in
this vital arena of salinity management in agriculture.
Preface 1 by S. K. Gupta xxi

Plants when exposed to salt stress activate their salt tolerance mecha-
nisms through stress sensing and signaling so as to regulate the plant salin-
ity stress response. For example, some halophytes respond to salinity by
taking up sodium and chloride at high rates and then accumulating these
ions in their leaves. Many glycophytes respond to stress by salt exclusion
particularly through low rates of net transport of sodium or chloride, or
both from root to shoot. Plant adaptations to salinity have been categorized
into three types, namely osmotic stress tolerance, Na+ or Cl− exclusion, and
the tolerance of plant tissues to accumulated Na+ or Cl−.
Part II deals with these and similar issues in various plants types. The
chapter by Gururaja Rao et al. lists some of the technological interventions
to green the barren saline Vertisols using Salvadora persica, a facultative
halophyte, a potential source for seed oil, and some forage grasses. Four
grasses namely Dichanthium annulatum and Leptochloa fusca for saline
water-logged soils, and Aeluropus lagopoides and Eragrostis species for
saline water-irrigated lands have been included. Ramana et al. argue that
not much is known about the abiotic stress responses of Plectranthus spe-
cies grown for their ethno botanical use as ornamental, medicinal and eco-
nomic plants. This chapter looks at the impacts on morphology, physiology
and biochemical processes in the six genotypes of Plectranthus species to
arrive at their suitability for cultivation in saline environment. Desmukh
and Khare in their chapter argue that as per the estimates of World Health
Organization (WHO), nearly 80% of the world populations rely on medic-
inal herbs, the requirement of which can be met only through commercial
cultivation of medicinal plants. Since land is already a constraint to meet
the food demand, it is the otherwise problem soils and/or harsh climatic
conditions under which these plants will have to be cultivated. As such,
their chapter reviews the current status of studies conducted to assess the
effect of salinity stress on growth parameters and metabolites of medicinal
plants.
Reclamation and sustainable crop production on reclaimed lands has
been the major thrust area of research in salinity management in agricul-
ture. Part III deals with this theme and related issues includes five chapters
wherein application of emerging technologies and stakeholders partici-
pation in sustainable land reclamation programs is highlighted. Biologi-
cal reclamation of salt affected lands, a low cost eco-friendly approach,
xxii Preface 1 by S. K. Gupta

is emerging as a new thrust area of research where plants and microbes

are increasingly used to reclaim these lands. A comprehensive review of
bacterial-mediated amelioration processes in plants under salt stress has
been made by Kasotia and his colleagues. Singh argues that the lack of
success of many breeding programs in developing commercially success-
ful salt tolerant crops is due to limited evaluation of genetic material in
idealized conditions that does not represent the actual field situations. Sus-
tainable land reclamation using salt tolerant cultivars developed through
farmers’ participatory approach is the subject matter of discussion by him.
Pokkali rice cultivation has passed down from one generation to another
generation from more than 3000 years; and this has been discussed in the
framework of symbiotic nature of rice and shrimp cultivation. This strat-
egy helps to manage lands experiencing multiple stresses due to water
logging, soil salinity, and irrigation water salinity, a common feature of
the coastal ecosystems.
One of the important limiting factors for optimal use of land resources
for higher productivity especially in sub-humid and humid regions is soil
acidity—acid soils occupying about 3.95 billion ha globally. The chapter
by Chaitanya et al. presents comprehensive technological interventions to
manage such lands including the acid sulfate soils. Yaduvanshi, in the last
chapter of this volume, has emphasized that limited nutrient availability in
salt affected the soils. As a result of host of unfavorable physico-chemical
conditions, the production potential of reclaimed lands as well as impacts the
sustainability of the program. He emphasizes that appropriate prescription
of macro and micro-nutrients, in right quantities, at the right time and place,
from the right source, and in the right combination could play a major role in
sustaining the reclamation benefits.
I believe that the salinization of the land and water is now a very seri-
ous threat to the health and utility of soil, vegetation, rivers and ground
water around the world. Considering the looming food security crisis of
the 2050, no let-up can be allowed in our efforts to understand salt toler-
ance mechanisms, develop new technologies and apply the existing ones
for prevention, living with salts and/or sustainable land reclamation pro-
grams can be allowed. This volume may give the readers a good feel of the
efforts being made in these respective areas.
Preface 1 by S. K. Gupta xxiii

I take this opportunity to thank all the contributors for sparing their
valuable time and painstaking efforts made in preparing timely submis-
sion and updating their edited manuscripts in a time bound manner to
make timely publication of this volume possible. I believe that the current
volume will serve as a good repository of latest information and will be
highly useful to researchers, policy planners, teachers, students especially
the post graduate students, development agencies and other who are inter-
ested in salinity management for resolving global food security issues and
its relationship with the environment. Finally, I thank the editorial staffs
who have been involved in this project.
—S. K. Gupta, PhD
Lead Editor
PREFACE 2 BY MEGH R. GOYAL

According to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinity, the soil salinity is

the salt content in the soil; and the process of increasing the salt content is
known as salinization, which can be caused by natural processes (mineral
weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean) or through artifi-
cial processes such as irrigation. The ions responsible for salinization are:
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cl−. As the Na+ (sodium) predominates, soils can
become sodic. Sodic soils present particular challenges because they tend
to have very poor structure, which limits or prevents water infiltration and
drainage. Over long periods of time, as soil minerals weather and release
salts, these salts are flushed or leached out of the soil by drainage water
in areas with sufficient precipitation. In addition to mineral weathering,
salts are also deposited via dust and precipitation. In dry regions, salts may
accumulate leading to naturally saline soils. Human practices can increase
the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water. Proper irri-
gation management can prevent salt accumulation by providing adequate
drainage water to leach added salts from the soil. Disrupting drainage pat-
terns that provide leaching can also result in salt accumulations. Salinity
in drylands can occur when the water table is between two to three meters
from the surface of the soil. The salts from the ground water are raised by
capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when ground water
is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices
allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate.
Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs,
since almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts.
When the plants use the water, the salts are left behind in the soil and even-
tually begin to accumulate. Since soil salinity makes it more difficult for
plants to absorb soil moisture, these salts must be leached out of the plant
root zone by applying additional water. This water in excess of plant needs
is called the leaching fraction. Salinization from irrigation water is also
greatly increased by poor drainage and use of saline water for irrigating
xxvi Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal

agricultural crops. The consequences of salinity are: detrimental effects on

plant growth and yield; damage to infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion
of pipes and cables); reduction of water quality for users, sedimentation
problems; soil erosion ultimately, when crops are too strongly affected
by the amounts of salts. Salinity is an important land degradation prob-
lem. Soil salinity can be reduced by leaching soluble salts out of soil with
excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control involves water table control
and flushing in combination with tile drainage or another form of sub-
surface drainage. A comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available
from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. High levels
of soil salinity can be tolerated if salt-tolerant plants are grown. Sensi-
tive crops lose their vigor already in slightly saline soils, most crops are
negatively affected by (moderately) saline soils, and only salinity resistant
crops thrive in severely saline soils.
According to “R. Brinkman (1980), Saline and Sodic Soils. In: Land
reclamation and Water Management, pp. 62–68. International Institute
for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The
Netherlands,” the salinized areas (in million ha) are: 69.5 in Africa;
53.1 in Near and Middle East; 19.5 in Asia and Far East; 59.4 in Latin
America; 84.7 in Australia; 16.0 in North America; and 20.7 in Europe.
One can download free the LeachMod software for simulating leach-
ing of saline irrigated soil from http://www.waterlog.info/leachmod.htm.
LeachMod is designed to simulate the depth of the water table and the soil
salinity in irrigated areas with a time step as selected by the user (from 1
day to 1 year). The program uses small time steps in its calculations for
a better accuracy. In case of a leaching experiment with measured soil
salinities, LeachMod can automatically optimize the leaching efficiency
by minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between mea-
sured and simulated salinities. The root zone can consist of 1, 2, or 3 lay-
ers. LeachMod allows the introduction of a subsurface drainage system
in a transition zone between root zone and aquifer, and subsequently it
determines the drain discharge. When the irrigation/rainfall is scarce and
the water table is shallow, LeachMod will calculate the capillary rise and
reduce the potential evapotranspiration to an actual evapotranspiration.
LeachMod can also take into account upward seepage from the aquifer
or downward flow into it. The latter flow is also called natural subsur-
Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal xxvii

face drainage. This model is somewhat similar to SaltCalc. On one hand,

the water management options are fewer (e.g., re-use of drainage or well
water for irrigation do not feature here), but the model is more modern in
the sense that the variable input for each time step is given in a table so
that the calculations over all the time steps are done at one step. More-
over, by inserting the observed values of soil salinity in the data table, the
model optimizes the leaching efficiency of the soil automatically. On 11
July 2015, LeachMod was updated to include more rigorous data checks.
I know what the cooperating authors have emphasized in their chapter
for this book volume. I am a staunch supporter of preserving our natural
resources. Importance of wise use of our natural resources has been taken
up seriously by Universities, Institutes/Centers, Government Agencies and
Non-Government Agencies. I conclude that the agencies and departments
in soil salinity management have contributed to the ocean of knowledge.
This book also contributes to the ocean of knowledge on soil salinity
management. Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ABEs) with exper-
tise in this area work to better understand the complex mechanics of soil
salinity. ABEs are experts in agricultural hydrology principles, such as
controlling drainage, and they implement ways to control soil erosion and
study the environmental effects of sediment on stream quality.
The mission of this book volume is to serve as a reference manual
for graduate and undergraduate students of agricultural, biological and
civil engineering; horticulture, soil science, crop science, and agronomy. I
hope that it will be a valuable reference for professionals who work with
soil salinity management; for professional training institutes, technicals
agricultural centers, irrigation centers, agricultural extension service, and
other agencies that work with micro irrigation programs. I cannot guar-
antee the information in this book series will be enough for all situations.
After my first textbook, Drip/Trickle or Micro Irrigation Management
by Apple Academic Press Inc., and response from international read-
ers, I was motivated to bring out for the world community a ten-volume
series on Research Advances in Sustainable Micro Irrigation. The web-
site http://www.appleacademicpress.com gives details on these ten book
volumes. I have already published five book volumes under book series,
“Innovations and Challenges in Micro Irrigation.”
xxviii Preface 2 by Megh R. Goyal

At the 49th annual meeting of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engi-

neers at Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) during February 22–25 of
2015, a group of ABEs and FEs convinced me that there is a dire need to
publish book volumes on focus areas of agricultural and biological engi-
neering (ABE). This is how the idea was born for new book series titled
Innovations in Agricultural and Biological Engineering. This book, Soil
Salinity Management in Agriculture: Technological Advances and Applica-
tions, is the ninth volume under this book series.
My classmate and longtime colleague, Dr. S. K. Gupta, joins me as a
Lead Editor of this volume. In the last 45 years, Dr. Gupta holds exceptional
professional qualities with his expertise in Soil Salinity Management. In
addition, Dr. Gupta is a research scientist and distinguished Professor at
ICAR – Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (Zarifa Farm), Karnal –
132001, Haryana, India. His contribution to the contents and quality of
this book has been invaluable.
I would like to thank the editorial staff, Sandy Jones Sickels, Vice
President, and Ashish Kumar, Publisher and President at Apple Academic
Press, Inc., for making every effort to publish the book when the diminish-
ing water and food resources are a major issue worldwide. Special thanks
are due to the AAP Production Staff for the quality production of this book.
I request the readers to offer your constructive suggestions that may
help to improve the next edition. The reader can order a copy of this book
from http://appleacademicpress.com.
I express my deep admiration to my family and colleagues for their
understanding and collaboration during the preparation of this book vol-
ume. As an educator, there is a piece of advice to one and all in the world:
Permit that our almighty God, our Creator, provider of all and excellent
teacher, feed our life with Healthy Food Products and His Grace—and
Get married to your profession.
—Megh R. Goyal, PhD, PE
Senior Editor-in-Chief
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