Fuels for Gas Turbines

Fuels – Natural Gas

• Mainly methane, with small amounts of other hydrocarbons.
• Clean-burning, high energy content, low emissions compared to
coal or oil
• Widely used for power generation, especially in combined-cycle
power plants, where it fuels the primary combustion turbine and
steam turbine for enhanced efficiency
• Requires minimal processing but is often treated to remove
impurities and moisture
Fuels – Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Primarily propane and butane
• Portable, easily stored as a liquid under pressure, higher energy
density than natural gas
• Used where pipeline natural gas is unavailable, such as in remote
areas or as a backup fuel
• Requires pressurized tanks for storage; slightly more emissions
than natural gas
Fuels – Diesel and Jet Fuel
• These are petroleum-based fuels
• High energy density, readily available, and suitable for emergency
or backup power
• Diesel is often used in small-scale or backup gas turbines, while
jet fuel (similar in composition) is common in aviation gas turbines
• Produces higher emissions compared to natural gas, requires
efficient emission controls
Fuels – Biogas and Landfill Gas
• Contains methane and carbon dioxide, with minor impurities
• Renewable, reduces methane emissions from waste, aligns with
sustainability goals
• Used in turbines for distributed generation or as a supplemental
fuel source
• Requires purification to remove moisture, CO₂, and sulphur
compounds to prevent turbine corrosion.
Fuels – Hydrogen
• Pure hydrogen gas
• Zero carbon emissions upon combustion, high energy output per
unit mass
• Growing interest in using hydrogen for decarbonized power
generation
• Requires specialized infrastructure for storage and transport; high
flame temperature may necessitate design adjustments in
turbines.
Fuels – Synthesis Gas
• A mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small amount of
methane, produced from gasification of coal, biomass, or waste
• Utilize low-value feedstocks, enabling waste-to-energy
applications
• Used in integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants,
allowing gas and steam turbines to work together for improved
efficiency
• Lower energy content per volume than natural gas; requires
cleaning to avoid turbine corrosion
Fuels – Heavy Oils and Residual Fuels
• Heavy oils derived from crude oil
• Utilize lower-cost, readily available heavy oils
• Less common but still used in locations where lighter fuels are
expensive or unavailable
• High emissions and operational issues like clogging and
corrosion; often require fuel pretreatment
Associated Emissions
• NOx
• DLN Burners, Water or Steam injection, SCR
• CO
• Combustion Process Optimization
• UHCs and VOCs
• Improved combustion controls, good maintenance practices
• PM
• SOx
• CO2
Designing Gas Turbines
Design Aspects
• Designing gas turbines is a complex engineering process focused
on maximizing:
• Efficiency
• Power output
• Reliability
• while minimizing:
• Fuel consumption
• Emissions
Compressor
• Compresses the incoming air to high pressure, which is crucial for
efficient combustion.
• Axial compressors are common for large turbines due to their higher
efficiency, while centrifugal compressors are used in smaller
applications.
• Often, compressors have multiple stages, each with a series of rotating
and stationary blades, to gradually increase air pressure.
• Compressors experience significant heating, so they may include
intercooling or advanced materials to maintain efficiency and prevent
overheating.
Combustion Chamber
• Burns fuel with compressed air to produce high-temperature,
high-pressure gases that drive the turbine.
• Annular, can-type, or can-annular combustors are used, each with
distinct airflow and mixing characteristics.
• Fuel nozzles must ensure even mixing with air for complete combustion,
limiting carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate
emissions.
• High temperatures can damage materials, so advanced alloys and
thermal barrier coatings are used, alongside cooling techniques.
• Low-NOx combustors are often used to reduce nitrogen oxides, a primary
pollutant. Premixed or staged combustion is sometimes used to keep the
flame temperature lower and limit NOx formation.
Turbine
• Extracts energy from high-temperature, high-pressure gases to
produce mechanical work, which powers the compressor and
generates thrust or electricity.
• Blades are carefully shaped for aerodynamic efficiency. They often use
advanced materials, coatings, and cooling techniques (such as air or
steam cooling channels) to withstand extreme temperatures.
• Film cooling, internal cooling passages, and heat-resistant materials are
essential in modern gas turbines to prevent damage due to high
temperature.
• Turbines have multiple stages of stationary and rotating blades to
gradually reduce gas pressure and temperature while maximizing energy
extraction.
Exhaust System
• Directs exhaust gases out of the turbine and often into a heat
recovery system in combined-cycle applications.
• The exhaust section must be optimized to minimize energy loss while
directing gases efficiently.
• In combined-cycle setups, exhaust gases are used to produce steam for
additional power generation, enhancing efficiency.
Materials and Cooling
• Advanced Materials
• Components, especially in the turbine and combustor, are exposed to
high temperatures and pressures. Nickel-based superalloys and ceramic
matrix composites are commonly used for their strength and temperature
resistance.
• Thermal Barrier Coatings
• These coatings protect the metallic parts from the extreme temperatures
of combustion gases.
• Blade Cooling
• Effective cooling of turbine blades is achieved through internal air cooling
channels or by bleeding air from the compressor and directing it over
critical surfaces.
Fuel System
• Supplies and controls fuel flow into the combustion chamber
• Fuel injectors are designed based on the fuel type (e.g., natural gas,
hydrogen, or diesel).
• Precision control is needed to manage combustion, fuel efficiency, and
emissions.
• Modern gas turbines use sophisticated fuel metering systems to adjust
fuel flow dynamically based on load requirements.
Control System
• Manages the operation of the gas turbine, ensuring safe, efficient,
and reliable performance.
• Real-time monitoring and control of temperature, pressure, fuel flow, and
emissions are necessary for optimal performance.
• Controls ensure that the turbine starts up, runs, and shuts down safely
and efficiently.
• Sensors are used to detect any issues with vibrations or thermal
imbalances, which can be corrected to prevent damage.
Aerodynamic Optimization
• Reduces drag and optimizes airflow throughout the turbine for
maximum efficiency.
• Turbine and compressor blades are designed to minimize drag and
maximize lift, allowing for higher efficiency.
• The entire airflow path is optimized to ensure smooth transitions and
minimal energy losses.
System Integration and Heat Recovery
• In combined-cycle plants, the gas turbine’s exhaust heat is used
to create steam that powers an additional steam turbine,
enhancing overall plant efficiency.
• Some designs use gas turbines to produce both electricity and
heat (for district heating or industrial processes), achieving high
energy utilization rates.
Environmental Emission and Control
• Minimize pollutants such as NOx, CO, and unburned
hydrocarbons.
• Mixing fuel with a larger amount of air before combustion can reduce
peak flame temperature, limiting NOx emissions.
• For certain gas turbines, injecting water or steam into the combustion
chamber can lower NOx by cooling the flame, though it requires additional
infrastructure.
• Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is sometimes installed in the exhaust
system to further reduce NOx emissions.
Design Parameters – Thermodynamic Cycle
(Brayton)
Parameter Value(s)/Ranges Significance
Compressor Pressure 15:1 to 30:1 Higher ratios improve efficiency but increase
Ratio mechanical stress
Turbine Inlet Temperature 1300°C to 1500°C Advanced turbines may reach up to 1700°C with
(2372°F to 2732°F) cooling technologies
Compressor Inlet Ambient (15°C to 30°C) Affected by environmental conditions
Temperature
Fuel Type Natural Gas, Diesel, Natural gas is the most common for power
Kerosene, Biogas generation
Mass Flow Rate (Air) 150 kg/s to 500 kg/s Depends on turbine size and power output
Air-to-Fuel Ratio 50:1 to 70:1 Ensures complete combustion with low emissions
Design Parameters – Compressor
Parameter Value(s)/Ranges Significance
Number of Stages 10 to 16 Multi-stage axial compressors for efficiency
Compressor Efficiency 85% to 92% Higher efficiency reduces fuel consumption
Compressor Blade Titanium alloys, High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance
Material Inconel
Pressure Ratio per Stage 1.2 to 1.3 Determines overall pressure ratio
Design Parameters – Combustion Chamber
Design
Parameter Value(s)/Ranges Significance
Annular, Can-Annular, or Can Annular designs offer compact size and
Combustor Type
lower NOₓ emissions
Combustion Efficiency 99% High efficiency reduces CO and UHC
emissions
Fuel Nozzle Pressure 3% to 5% of total pressure Ensures proper fuel atomization
Drop
Turbine Inlet 1400°C to 1600°C (2552°F to Limited by material and cooling
Temperature 2912°F) technology
NOₓ Emissions < 25 ppm (using DLN burners) Low NOₓ technologies like Dry Low NOₓ
(DLN) are used
Design Parameters – Turbine Section Design
Parameter Value(s)/Ranges Significance
3 to 4 Depends on power output and efficiency
Number of Stages
targets
Turbine Blade Material Nickel-based superalloys (e.g., High-temperature resistance and creep
Inconel, Rene 80) strength
Cooling Technology Film cooling, Transpiration Allows higher turbine inlet temperatures
cooling, Airfoil cooling
Turbine Efficiency 88% to 92% High efficiency improves overall cycle
performance
Blade Cooling Airflow 15% to 20% of total airflow Ensures blades remain below melting
point
Design Parameters – Heat Recovery and
Combined Cycle Design
Parameter Value(s)/Ranges Significance
Exhaust Gas 450°C to 650°C (842°F to 1202°F) Depends on turbine design
Temperature
Heat Recovery Steam 80% to 90% Increases overall plant efficiency
Generator (HRSG)
Efficiency
Combined Cycle 55% to 62% Higher than simple cycle gas turbines
Efficiency (30% to 40%)
Steam Turbine Inlet 100 bar (1450 psi) Typical for high-pressure steam systems
Pressure
Design Parameters – Emissions and
Environmental Controls
Parameter Permissible Emission Levels Control Technologies
< 25 ppm Dry Low NOₓ (DLN) burners, water/steam
NOₓ
injection, SCR
CO < 10 ppm Catalytic oxidation, optimized
combustion
Unburned < 10 ppm Proper fuel atomization and combustion
Hydrocarbons (UHCs) control
Particulate Matter (PM) < 5 mg/m³ Cleaner fuels like natural gas, particulate
filters
SOₓ < 5 ppm (using natural gas) Low-sulfur fuels, desulfurization if using
liquid fuels