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Indian Society in the Eighteenth Century

• In the 18th century, India failed to make progress economically, socially, or
culturally at an adequate
pace. It was a land of contrasts. Extreme poverty existed side by side with extreme
riches and
luxury. There were the rich and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort. On
the other hand,
backwards, oppressed, and impoverished peasants live at the bare subsistence level
and have to bear
all sorts of injustices and inequities.
• Despite these disparities, the overall condition of the Indian masses was better at
this time than it had
been after over a hundred years of British rule at the end of the 19th century.
3.1. Economic Condition
Agriculture
• During the 18th century, there was no shortage of land for agriculture. Still,
agriculture suffered due
to the following factors:
 Agriculture was technologically backward and stagnant.
 The state, the zamindars, the jagirdars, and the revenue farmers tried to extract
the maximum
amount from him. Due to their oppression, peasants seldom reaped the fruits of
their work. Although
peasants supported the rest of society with their produce, their reward was
miserably inadequate.
 Indian villages were largely self-sufficient and imported little from the outside.
Trade
• The extensive trade within the country and between India and other countries of
Asia and Europe
was carried on under the Mughals. According to historians, at the beginning of the
18th century, India
had some 23% of the world’s economy.
• Indian trade suffered due to the following factors:
1. Backward means of communication.
2. Constant Warfare among the regional rulers
3. Disruption of Law and Order: Traders were regularly looted by the organised
bands of robbers.
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4. High customs duties: Every local chief imposed heavy customs duties on goods
entering or passing
through his territories.
5. The impoverishment of nobles: Nobles were the largest consumers of luxury
products. Their
impoverishment led to a decline in the demand for luxurious goods.
6. Political factors: Many rulers sacked and devastated the cities, affecting the
urban industries.
 Nadir Shah plundered Delhi.
 Ahmad Shah Abdali plundered Lahore, Delhi, and Mathura.
 The Jats plundered Agra.
 Maratha chiefs plundered Surat and other cities of Gujarat and the Deccan.
• However, the situation was not bleak everywhere. In some parts of the country,
trade expanded due
to the activities of European trading companies. The emergence of new cities such
as Faizabad,
Lucknow, Varanasi, and Patna by nobility and local zamindars led to the recovery
of artisanal production
to some extent.
India: A Sink of Precious Metals
• India was self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products. Hence, it did not
import foreign
goods on a large scale.
• On the other hand, India's industrial and agricultural products had a steady market
abroad. Consequently,
India exported more than it imported. This led to the high import of silver and
gold. Hence,
India was known as a sink of precious metals.
India's Import
• Persian Gulf Region: Pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water.
• Arabia: Coffee, gold, drugs, and honey.
• China: Tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk.
• Tibet: Gold, musk, and woolen cloth.
• Singapore: Tin.
• Indonesian islands: Spices, perfumes, arrack, and sugar.
• Africa: Ivory and drugs.
• Europe: Woolen cloth, metals such as copper, iron, lead, and paper.
India's Export
• India exported cotton textiles, raw silk, silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre,
opium, rice, wheat,
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sugar, pepper, spices, precious stones, and drugs.

• India's cotton textiles were famous worldwide for their excellence and were in
demand everywhere.
• During the 18th century, while sea trade expanded, overland trade through
Afghanistan and Persia was
disrupted.
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Industries
• At the dawn of the 18th century, India was one of the leading centres of world
trade and industry.
India was a land of extensive manufactures. Indian artisans enjoyed fame all over
the world for their
skill. India was a large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk fabrics, sugar, jute,
dye-stuffs, mineral
and metallic products like arms, metal wares, saltpetre and oils.
• The shipbuilding industry flourished in Maharashtra, Andhra, and Bengal. The
European companies
bought many Indian-made ships for their use.
 Writing about the great skill of Indians in shipbuilding industry, an English
observer wrote: "in shipbuilding
Indians probably taught the English far more than they learnt from them".
• The important centres of textile industry were Dacca and Murshidabad in Bengal,
Patna in Bihar,
Surat, Ahmedabad, and Broach (Bharuch) in Gujarat, Chanderi in Madhya
Pradesh, Burhanpur in Maharashtra,
Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and Agra in U.P., Multan and Lahore in the Punjab,
Masulipatnam,
Aurangabad, Chicacole and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra, Bangalore in Karnataka,
and Coimbatore and
Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Kashmir was a centre of woolen manufactures.
Economic Decline
• The Indian economy was quite resilient, and there was a certain continuity in
economic life, but it was
declining. However, there was less economic distress or decline in agricultural and
handicraft production
in the Indian states of the 18th century than was to result from the impact of British
colonialism
in the 18th and 19th centuries.
3.2. Social and Cultural Life
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• Social life and culture in the 18th century were marked by stagnation and
dependence on the past.
The people were divided by religion, region, tribe, language, and caste.
Social Backwardness
Hindus
• Among Hindus, the caste (jati) was a major divisive force and element of
disintegration. Besides the
four varnas, Hindus were divided into numerous castes. The caste rules were
extremely rigid, and they
permanently fixed the people's place on the social scale.
• The following restrictions were placed because of the caste system:
 Inter-caste marriages were forbidden.
 Inter-dining among members of different castes was prohibited.
 In some cases, persons belonging to higher castes would not take food touched
by persons of
the lower castes.
 The caste often determined the choice of profession, though exceptions occurred
on a large scale.
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• Caste regulations were strictly enforced by caste councils, panchayats, and caste
chiefs through fines,
penances (prayaschitya) and expulsion from the caste.
Muslims
• Muslims were also divided by caste, race, tribe, & status, even though Islam
promotes social equality.
 The nobles of Shia and Sunni factions often disagreed due to their religious
differences.
 The Irani, Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and officials often
stood apart.
 The Sharif Muslims, including nobles, scholars, priests, and army officers,
tended to look down
on lower-class Muslims (Ajlaf Muslims), much like the way higher-caste Hindus
treated lowercaste
Hindus.
Hindu-Muslim Unity in 18th Century India
• In 18th century India, Hindus and Muslims lived together harmoniously. There
was little communal
bitterness or religious intolerance. People respected each other's beliefs, and a
spirit of tolerance
prevailed.
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• In the religious realm, the influence and mutual respect that had developed due to
the Bhakti Movement
among Hindus and Sufism among Muslims continued to thrive. Many Hindus
revered Muslim
saints, and vice versa. Examples:
 The Marathas supported the shrine of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti in Ajmer.
 The Raja of Tanjore supported the shrine of Shaikh Shahul Hamid of Nagore.
 Tipu Sultan provided financial support to the Shringeri Temple.
Shringeri Temple
• Shringeri temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the goddess Sharadamba
(Saraswati) in Sringeri,
Karnataka.
• Sri Adi Shankaracharya (Vedic scholar) founded the temple in the 8th century.
• The cooperation among Hindus and Muslims extended beyond religious contexts
to social and cultural
aspects. Hindu writers often wrote in Persian, while Muslim writers wrote in Hindi,
Bengali, and
other vernaculars.
[Mains Practice – Opinions Explored] Do you believe that the Hindu-Muslim unity
was better before
the British arrived than under British rule? Why?
Condition of Women
• Outside Kerala, women were subjected to nearly complete male control. Despite
being honoured,
they were supposed to confine themselves to the roles of a mother and a wife.
• The women possessed little individuality of their own.
• The following social evils were prevalent:
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1. Dowry System: The evil of dowry was especially widespread in Bengal and
Rajputana. In Maharashtra,
it was curbed to some extent by the energetic steps taken by the Peshwas.
2. Heavy expenses of marriage: The evil customs of incurring heavy expenses on
marriages prevailed
among the upper classes.
3. Purdah system: The purdah was most common among the higher classes in the
North. It was not
practised in the South.
4. Polygamy: Men were permitted to have multiple wives. On the other hand,
women were expected
to only marry once in their lifetime.
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5. Sati practice: The custom of sati was mostly prevalent in Rajputana, Bengal and
other parts of
northern India. In the South, it was uncommon, and the Marathas did not
encourage it. Even in
Rajputana and Bengal, it was practised only by the families of rajas, chiefs, big
zamindars and
upper castes.
6. Prohibition of widow remarriage: Widow remarriage was uncommon. Widows
belonging to the
higher classes and higher castes could not remarry. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber
and the Maratha
General Parshuram Bhau tried to promote widow remarriage but failed.
7. Child marriage
8. Patriarchal Family: The family system was primarily patriarchal and Patrilineal.
However, in Kerala,
the family among Nairs (Nayars) was matrilineal.
[Mains Practice – Unlocking Creativity] Imagine you were the ruler of the regional
state in the 18th
century. What measures would you have taken to improve the condition of
women?
Education
• During the 18th century, education was traditional. It was confined to literature,
law, religion, philosophy,
and logic. It excluded the study of physical and natural sciences, technology, and
geography.
The teachers enjoyed high prestige in the community.
• Literacy: The average literacy was greater than what it was under the British
later.
• Girls’ Education: Most girls did not receive an education; however, some women
from wealthier families
were exceptions to this.
• Elementary Education: Elementary education was quite widespread, mainly
among the higher
castes, but many individuals from lower castes also often received it.
• Higher Education: The higher education centres were spread all over the country
and were usually
financed by nawabs, rajas, and rich zamindars.
 Sanskrit Learning: Higher education among the Hindus was based on Sanskrit
learning and was
mostly confined to Brahmins.
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 Persian Education: Persian, being the official language of the Mughals, was
equally popular
among the Hindus and the Muslims.
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Cultural Stagnation
• In the 18th century, Culturally, India showed some signs of exhaustion. The
Royal Court, rulers, nobles,
chiefs, and zamindars used to primarily finance cultural activities. However, their
impoverishment
resulted in the gradual neglect of cultural activities. The decline of art occurred
rapidly in the
branches that relied on the patronage of kings, princes, and nobles.
• However, the 18th century was not a dark age.
 Many artists migrated to provincial courts and flourished there. This was true of
most Mughal
architecture and painting.
 Many painters migrated to provincial courts and flourished in Hyderabad,
Lucknow, Kashmir, and
Patna.
Music
• Music continued to develop and flourish in the 18th century both in the North and
the South. Significant
progress was made in this field during the reign of Muhammad Shah.
Tanjore
• Music, poetry, and dance flourished under the patronage of the Tanjore court in
the first half of the
18th century.
Tayaumanavar
• Tayaumanavar (1706-44) was one of Tamil's best exponents of sittar poetry. In
line with other sittar
poets, he protested the abuses of temple rule and the caste system.
Literature
• Urdu: During the 18th century, the Urdu language spread rapidly, leading to the
vigorous growth of
Urdu poetry. Urdu gradually became the medium of social interaction among the
upper classes of
northern India.
• Malayalam Literature: Malayalam Literature was revived under the patronage of
the Travancore
rulers Martanda Varma and Rama Varma.
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• Assamese Literature: Assamese literature was developed under the patronage of

the Ahom kings.
• Gujarati Literature: Dayaram, one of the great lyricists of Gujarat, wrote during
the second half of the
18th century.
• Punjabi Literature: Heer Ranjha, the famous romantic epic in Punjabi, was
composed at this time by
Waris Shah.
• Sindhi Literature: Shah Abdul Latif composed his famous collection of poems,
Risalo. Sachal and Sami
were the other great Sindhi poets of the century.
Kerala
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• In the 18th century, Kerala witnessed the full development of Kathakali literature,
drama, and dance.
• The Padmanabhapuram Palace, with its remarkable architecture and mural
paintings, was also constructed
in the 18th century.
Scientific Lag
• The main weakness of Indian culture lies in the field of science. While Western
Europe experienced a
scientific and economic revolution, India remained tied to tradition and
superstition.
• Despite earlier contributions in math and natural sciences, Indians neglected
science for centuries.
• The Indians remained almost wholly ignorant of the scientific, cultural, political,
and economic
achievements of the West. Except for Tipu, Indian rulers showed little interest in
Western knowledge.
• This weakness in science played a significant role in the total subjugation of India
by the British
(the most advanced country of the time).