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Nano- and Biomaterials
Nano- and Biomaterials

Compounds, Properties, Characterization, and Applications

Zhypargul Abdullaeva
Author All books published by Wiley-VCH are
carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors,
Prof. Zhypargul Abdullaeva editors, and publisher do not warrant the
Kumamoto University information contained in these books,
Materials Science & Engineering including this book, to be free of errors.
2-39-1 Kurokami Readers are advised to keep in mind that
Engineering Research Bldg. statements, data, illustrations, procedural
860-8555 Kumamoto details or other items may inadvertently
Japan be inaccurate.

Library of Congress Card No.: applied for

Cover

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albibliografie; detailed bibliographic
data are available on the Internet at
<http://dnb.d-nb.de>.

© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.

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All rights reserved (including those of

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Print ISBN: 978-3-527-34270-9

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Cover Design Adam-Design, Weinheim,

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Printing and Binding

Printed on acid-free paper

 v

Contents

Preface xi

1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials 1

1.1 Definition of Nano- and Biomaterials 1
1.2 History of Nano- and Biomaterials Application 1
1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials 2
1.3.1 Mechanical Dispersion Methods for Nanomaterial Synthesis 2
1.3.2 Intensive Plastic Deformation Methods for Nanomaterial
Synthesis 5
1.3.3 Obtaining of Nanomaterials by Mechanical Interaction of Various
Mediums 8
1.3.4 Physical Dispersion Methods for Nanomaterials Preparation 9
1.3.5 Preparation of Nanomaterials by Evaporation–Condensation
Method 10
1.3.6 Obtaining of Nanomaterials by Vacuum-Sublimation Technology 13
1.3.7 Obtaining of Nanomaterials by Using Solid Phase
Transformations 14
1.3.8 Chemical Dispersion Methods for Nanomaterial Preparation 14
1.3.9 Obtaining of Nanomaterials by Using Chemical Reactions 15
1.3.10 Preparation of Nanomaterials by Electrochemical Methods 20
1.3.11 Preparation of Nanomaterials by Combinations of Physical and
Chemical Transformations 21
1.4 Main Achievements in Nanotechnology 22
Case Study 1: Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Environmental Safety
Considerations 22
Case Study 2: Property Control of Nanomaterials by Setting
Experimental Conditions during Synthesis 23
Control Questions: 23
References 24
Further Reading 25

2 Classification of Nanomaterials 27
2.1 Dispersive Systems and Their Classifications 27
2.1.1 Classification of Dispersive Systems According to their Aggregation
States 27
2.1.2 Classification of Dispersive Systems According to Size 28
2.1.3 Classification of Dispersive Systems According to Dimension 31
vi Contents

2.2 Fullerenes 32
2.2.1 History of Fullerenes 34
2.2.2 Tetrahedral Fullerenes 34
2.2.3 Icosahedral Fullerenes 42
2.2.4 Physical Properties of Fullerenes 47
2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 49
2.3.1 Types and Classification of Carbon Nanotubes 49
2.3.2 Mechanical Properties and Physical Parameters of Carbon
Nanotubes 52
Case Study 1: Comparison of Structural Characteristics between
Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerenes 54
Control Questions 54
References 55
Further Reading 56
Online Sources 56

3 Nanocomposite Materials and Their Physical Property

Features 57
3.1 Nanocomposite Materials 57
3.2 Size Dependence as Nanomaterial Property 57
3.3 Thermodynamical Features of Nanomaterials 58
3.4 Phase Equilibrium Changes in Nano-sized Systems 60
3.5 Melting Temperature Changes in Nanomaterials 61
3.5.1 Polymorphic Characteristic Changes in Nanosystems 61
3.6 Structure of Nano-sized Materials 62
3.7 Crystal Lattice Defects in Nanomaterials 65
3.8 Microdistorsions of Crystal Lattice in Nanomaterials 66
3.9 Consolidation of Nano-sized Powders 68
Case Study 1: Applications of Composite Nanomaterials Due to Their
Improved Mechanical Properties 74
Control Questions 75
References 76
Further Reading 76
Online Source 77

4 Mechanical Characteristics of Dispersive Systems 79

4.1 Dispersion Characteristics of Nanomaterials 79
4.1.1 Specific Surface Area 79
4.1.2 Size Distribution in Nanomaterials 80
4.1.3 Surface, Boundaries, and Morphology of Nanomaterials 89
4.1.4 Grain Boundaries in Nanomaterials 91
4.1.5 Morphology of Nanodisperse Particles 92
4.2 Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials 95
4.2.1 Change in Length of Electron Free Path in Nanomaterials 95
4.3 Electrical Conductivity in Nanomaterials 97
4.4 Electron Work Function in Nanomediums 99
4.5 Superconductivity Phenomenon in Nanomaterials 101
 Contents vii

Case Study 1: Surfactant Effects on Dispersion Characteristics of

Copper-Based Nanomaterials 105
Case Study 2: Applications of Superconducting Nanomaterials 105
Control Questions 106
References 106
Further Reading 106

5 Physical Properties of Nanomaterials: Graphene 109

5.1 Ferromagnetic Characteristics of Nanomaterials 109
5.1.1 Substance in Single-Domain Condition 109
5.1.2 Superparamagnetism in Nanoparticles 111
5.1.3 Size Dependence on Coercive Force 112
5.1.4 Size Dependence on Saturation Magnetization 114
5.1.5 Size Dependence on Curie Temperature 115
5.2 Thermal Property Features in Nanomaterials 115
5.2.1 Size Dependence on Heat Conductivity 116
5.2.2 Heat Conductivity of Crystal Lattice in Nanomaterials 120
5.2.3 Debye Temperature in Nanomaterials 121
5.3 Optical Characteristics of Nanomediums 122
5.3.1 Light Scattering Features of Tiny Particles 123
5.3.2 Extinction by Dielectric Nanoparticles 125
5.3.3 Extinction in Metallic Nanoparticles 128
5.3.4 Influence of Morphology and Polydispersity on Optical Properties of
Nanomaterials 131
5.4 Diffusion in Nanomaterials 133
5.4.1 Diffusion in Nanopowders 133
5.5 Graphene 136
5.5.1 Structure of Graphene 137
5.5.2 Electronic Properties of Graphene 138
5.5.3 Topology of Hexagonal Lattice 138
5.5.4 Physical Properties and Ionization Potential of Graphene 139
5.5.5 Approaches in Graphene Synthesis 141
5.5.6 Characterizations of Graphene 142
5.5.7 Applications of Graphene 145
Case Study 1: Structural Features of Graphene, Lattice Directions,
Edge Location, Crystal Structure, and Energy in Reciprocal Space 145
Control Questions 147
References 148
Further Reading 149

6 Chemical Properties and Mechanical Characteristics of

Nanomaterial Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology 151
6.1 Chemical Properties of Nanomaterials 151
6.1.1 Size Effects in Chemical Processes 151
6.1.2 Oxidation Processes in Nanomediums 153
6.1.3 Spontaneous Combustion and Pyrophoricity of Nanomediums 157
6.1.4 Catalysis Involving Nanomaterials 160
viii Contents

6.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Nanomaterials 163

6.2.1 Hardness, Strength, and Plasticity in Nanomaterials 163
6.2.2 Superplasticity Phenomenon in Nanomaterials 170
6.3 Concept Map of Characterization Tools in Nanotechnology 172
6.4 Diffraction Methods for Nanomaterial Characterization 173
6.5 Microscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials 174
6.5.1 TEM Characterization of Nanomaterials 174
6.5.2 HRTEM Characterization of Nanomaterials 177
6.5.3 AFM Characterization of Nanomaterials 177
6.5.4 SEM Characterization of Nanomaterials 178
6.6 Spectroscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials 181
6.6.1 FT-IR Spectroscopy of Nanomaterials 181
6.6.2 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Nanomaterials 182
Case Study 1: Oxidation of Fe Nanoparticles 182
Case Study 2: Microscopical Characterization of Nanomaterials and
Sample Preparation 183
Case Study 3: Nanomaterials Strength 184
Control Questions 185
References 185
Further Reading 187
Online Sources 187

7 Introduction to Biomaterials 189

7.1 Biomaterials: Subject, Purpose, and Problems 189
7.1.1 Current Goals of Biomaterials Field 189
7.2 General Requirements for Biomaterials 190
7.3 Biomaterials in Body Systems 191
7.4 Types and Classification of Biomaterials 192
7.4.1 Metallic Biomaterials 193
7.4.2 Composite Biomaterials 199
7.4.3 Nanostructured CaP Composites 200
Case Study 1: Mechanical Properties of Bone Cements and Tissue
Interface Formation after Implantation 203
Control Questions 204
References 205
Further Reading 207

8 Properties of Biomaterials 209

8.1 Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials 209
8.1.1 Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials 209
8.1.2 Titanium Alloy with Self-Adjustable Young’s Modulus 211
8.1.3 Wear Resistance of Biomaterials Used in the Living Body 212
8.2 Biological Properties of Biomaterials 215
8.2.1 In Vivo Tissue Biocompatibility 215
8.3 Chemical Properties of Biomaterials 220
8.3.1 Ceramic Biomaterials 222
8.3.2 Polymer Biomaterials 230
 Contents ix

Case Study 1: Polymeric Biomaterials Used in Load-Bearing Medical

Devices 235
Control Questions 236
References 237
Further Reading 238

9 Implants and Artificial Organs 239

9.1 Implants 239
9.2 Types of Implants 239
9.2.1 Intraocular Lenses 239
9.2.2 Cochlear Implants 241
9.2.3 Brain Implants 242
9.2.4 Heart Implants 243
9.2.5 Joint Implants 246
9.2.6 Other Organ Replacement Implants 247
9.3 Processes between Living Tissue and Implant Interface 249
Case Study 1: Iris-Fixated Phakic Intraocular Lens Implantation after
Retinal Detachment Surgery: Long-Term Clinical Results 252
Case Study 2: Cardiac Pacing Systems and Implantable Cardiac
Defibrillators (ICDs): A Radiological Perspective of Equipment,
Anatomy, and Complications 254
Control Questions 255
References 256
Further Reading 258

10 Tissue Engineering, Scaffolds, and 3D Bioprinting 259

10.1 Definition of Tissue Engineering 259
10.1.1 Biomaterials Used for Tissue Engineering 259
10.1.2 Principles of Tissue Engineering 260
10.1.3 Components of Tissue Engineered Constructs 260
10.2 Scaffolds and Scaffolding 262
10.2.1 Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering 262
10.2.2 Tissue Engineering of Heart Valves 264
10.3 3D Bioprinting 266
10.4 Foreign Body Reaction 271
10.4.1 Inflammatory Response Following Material Implantation 273
10.4.2 Monocytes, Macrophages, and Foreign Body Giant Cells 274
10.5 Wound Healing 275
Case Study 1: Bioactive Glass and Glass-Ceramic Scaffolds for Bone
Tissue Engineering 275
Case Study 2: Regulatory Considerations in the Design and
Manufacturing of Implantable 3D Printed Medical Devices 276
Control Questions 279
References 279
Further Reading 282

Index 283
 xi

Preface

If you are the person who is trying to bend the hills of Nano- and Biomaterials
science, here is the textbook, carefully designed and addressed to you, students,
as well as instructors and to all, who need to master the basic phenomena, terms,
determinations and examples of Nano- and Biomaterials course. The main goal
of this book is to foster an easy perception and conceptualizing ability in read-
ers. Systematical representation and logical sequence are one of specific aspects,
helping in assimilation of obtained knowledge.
Chapter 1 of this textbook starts with introduction into Nano- and Biomate-
rials, describing definition, history and application of Nano-and Biomaterials.
Body of the chapter 1 covers various methods for nanomaterials preparation,
and end with the main achievements in Nanotechnology. Chapter 2 is focuses
on classification of nanomaterials, including classification of dispersive systems,
fullerenes and nanotubes. Chapter 3 presents nanocomposite materials and
their physical property features, mainly of size dependence, thermodynamic,
phase equilibrium and melting temperature changes, structure of nanomaterials,
crystal lattice defects, microdistorsions of crystal lattice and consolidation
of nano-sized powders. Chapter 4 covers mechanical characteristics of dis-
persive systems, electrical properties, electrical conductivity, electrical work
function and superconductivity phenomena in nanomaterials. Chapter 5 gives
the theory of physical properties for nanomaterials and Graphene, particu-
larly, ferromagnetic characteristics, thermal and optical property features,
diffusion in nanomaterials, graphene and its structure, synthesis approaches
and characterization of graphene. Chapter 6 presents chemical property and
mechanical characteristics of nanomaterials, as well as characterization tools
in nanotechnology, diffraction methods, microscopical and spectroscopical
characterization tools for nanomaterials. Chapter 7 reviews introduction into
biomaterials, subject, purpose and problems of biomaterials science, general
requirements for biomaterials, biomaterials in body systems, types and classi-
fication of biomaterials, metallic and composite biomaterials. Chapter 8 gives
theory of biomaterials properties, such as mechanical, chemical and biological,
also describing ceramic and polymeric types of biomaterials. Chapter 9 covers
implants and artificial organs, clarifying their definitions, types, explaining the
xii Preface

processes between living tissue and implant interface. Chapter 10 focuses on

tissue engineering, scaffolds and 3D bioprinting, provides conclusion by foreign
body reaction and wound healing.
Each chapter ends with answer-required questions for control of obtained
knowledge. Case studies given after control questions are providing additional
explanatory support related to the key concepts along the chapter, which are
helpful for readers in building of basic knowledge and learning skills.
 1

Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

Translated materials from the original work of Ryzhonkov, D.I., Levina, V.V.,
Dzidziguri, E.L. were used in this chapter.

There is no substitute to hard work . . . .

Thomas Edison, inventor (1847–1931)

1.1 Definition of Nano- and Biomaterials

Nano (from Greek, nannos), meaning dwarf, is one billionth of or 10−9 part of
a thing, for example, 1 nm = 10−9 m. Nanomaterials consist of nanostructured
materials and nanoparticles, which can be defined as nano-sized complexes of
interrelated atoms and/or molecules. Nanotechnology is defined as the knowl-
edge and management of processes on a scale from 1 to 100 nm and application
of object properties on a nanometer scale. Significant works in nanotechnology
started in 1980. Definition for the term nanotechnology was given for the first time
by Norio Taniguchi, a professor of Tokyo University, in 1974 in his paper Basic
concepts of Nanotechnology, which mentioned “Nanotechnology mainly consists
of the processing of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by
one atom or one molecule.”
Biomaterials can be defined as “materials intended to interface with biological
systems to evaluate, treat, or replace any tissue, organ or function of the body”
[1] or “any synthetic material which is used to replace part of a living system or
to function in intimate contact with the living tissue [2].”

1.2 History of Nano- and Biomaterials Application

Nanomaterials and biomaterials are important because of their primal and initial
applications, which date back to ancient times and the Middle Ages, when glass-
blowers insensibly used nanotechnology. They added gold chloride (AuCl3 ) to
melted glass to change its color to ruby. Thousands of years BC, people knew and
used natural fabrics such as cotton, silk and flax, and wool [3]. The Romans had
the Lycurgus Cup during the fourth century AD (Anno Domino), which com-
prises silver and gold nanoparticles at a ratio of roughly 7 : 3, with a diameter

Nano- and Biomaterials: Compounds, Properties, Characterization, and Applications,

First Edition. Zhypargul Abdullaeva.
© 2017 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2017 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
2 1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

size of 70 nm, as disclosed by modern analytic methods. The cup demonstrates

a unique color display because of the presence of these metal nanoparticles. It
appears green when observed in reflected light, for instance, in daylight, but turns
red when light is propagated through it, which is now in the British museum.
Historical applications of biomaterials include the use of linen threads by ancient
Egyptians to close wounds. Europeans used a fiber made from catgut to close
the wounds during the Middle Ages 4000 years ago. Inca surgeons repaired cra-
nial fractures with gold plates in neurosurgery. Mayans used sea shells to create
an artificial teeth. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of
physicians began to explore the way in which the body reacted to implanted mate-
rials. After World War II, observations began to demonstrate the tolerance of the
human body to some metals in vivo. Physician Harold Ridley who worked with
World War II aviators had noticed that pieces of shattered cockpit canopies inad-
vertently embedded in the eyes of pilots were well tolerated; thus, he made the 1st
formal assessment of “biocompatibility.” Later he created implantable intraocular
lenses from polymethylmetacrylate [1].

1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials

Recently, a huge number of methods for nanomaterial preparation were devel-
oped, which led to a variety of nanomaterial properties and expanded the ranges
of nanomaterial classes with the creation of a new and unique materials. The for-
mation of high-dispersive structures might happen during phase changes, chem-
ical interactions, recrystallization, amorphization, high mechanical stress, and
biological synthesis. Improvement of primary methods for nanomaterials syn-
theses defined the main requirements such as:
• Method should provide control of composition and properties for obtaining of
nanomaterials.
• Method should provide permanent stability of nanomaterials, principal pro-
tection of particle surfaces against oxidation and sintering during synthesis.
• Method should be highly productive and economical.
• Method should allow acquisition of nanomaterials with definite sizes or grains.
Basically, preparation of nanomaterials can be divided into up-bottom and
bottom-up processes, which are based on crushing and integration, respectively.
These processes are essential for nanomaterials syntheses, especially of mechan-
ical, physical, chemical, and biological methods. Mechanical dispersion methods
are based on the interaction between pressure, curve, vibration, friction, and
cavitation processes. Physical methods for nanomaterial syntheses are based on
physical transformations: evaporation, condensation, sublimation, hardening,
thermocycling, and so on. Chemical methods are based on chemical dispersion
process, chemical reaction, electrolysis, reduction, and thermal decomposi-
tion. Biological methods for nanomaterials syntheses are based on the use of
biochemical processes in the protein-containing body.

1.3.1 Mechanical Dispersion Methods for Nanomaterial Synthesis

Most mechanical dispersion methods involve mechanical milling, intensive plas-
tic deformation, and mechanical interactions between various mediums.
 1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials 3

Figure 1.1 Scheme of

vibration mill for Body 1
nanomaterial preparation 2 Unbalanced shaft
(reproduced with permission
of BKL Publishers).

Coil springs 3
4 Fixed frame

Mixer shaft 2 1 Grinding capacitance

Grinding material 3

Grinding body 4

Water

Mixer blades 5

Figure 1.2 Scheme of attrition milling device for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with
permission of BKL Publishers).

Mechanical milling is determined by local mechanical interactions appearing

in the strain field of the given material. Due to locality and impulsivity in the area
of dispersing material, loads can be focused for a short time and cause formation
of particle defects, stacking faults, deformations, and cracks. Finally, milling of
materials will occur, as well as acceleration of mass transfer, mixing of compo-
nents in material, and activation of chemical interactions between solid reagent
compounds. Mechanical milling or grinding is conducted by using of various
equipment such as vibration mills (Figure 1.1), ball mills, hygroscopic mills, attri-
tion mills (Figure 1.2), vortex mills (Figure 1.3), and jet mills.
Grinding in vortex mills is primarily intended for ductile metal conversion into
nanopowders. In these devices, collisions between the abrasive particles of grind-
ing material will occur. Inside the working chamber of a jet, mill propellers rotate
in opposite directions with a speed of 3000 rotations per minute (Figure 1.3).
Depending on the nature of the grinding material, particles might be obtained
in splintered, flaky, and rounded forms.
Another type of mill for nanomaterial preparation is the planetary centrifugal
mill, which allows fast and fine crushing of hard milling materials. In hygroscopic
mills, the grinding drum rotates horizontally and vertically at the same time.
4 1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

Inlet chamber

Sedimentary
chamber 3 Bunker

6 5

1 Working
chamber

2
Pump
4
Propellers

Figure 1.3 Scheme of vortex mill device for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with
permission of BKL Publishers).

Jet mills are designed for the effective production of nanopowders. They pro-
vide fine crushing of material by inserting compressed gas jet (air, nitrogen, etc.)
or hot steam into working chamber from the nozzles, with sonic or ultrasonic
velocity. Inside the working chamber, grinding materials undergo vortex motion
and multiple collisions, resulting in their intensive abrasion. Jet mills are used for
grinding of metals, ceramics, polymers, and their different combinations.
Also, the grinding of fragile and specially embrittled materials, for example,
electrolytic sediments and spongy metals, can be conducted inside jet mills.
An inert atmosphere can prevent the oxidation inside the working chamber of
jet mills.
Moreover, for effective grinding, it is recommended that the grinding process
be conducted in liquid organic mediums, such as hydrocarbons and oleic acid.
Nanoparticles obtained by mechanical milling methods usually have various
shapes, ranging from uniaxial to flaky or lamellar. As-obtained powder size
depends on synthesis conditions and ranges from 1 to 100 nm.
Mechanochemical method is one of the means to grind materials and involves
increase in the physical interaction between mixtures of various components, as
well as mechanochemical reactions likely initiated or accelerated by mechanical
 1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials 5

interactions due to the deformation and destruction of the grinding material.

Thus, in the solid phase, chemical reactions might occur in solutions and melts at
high temperatures. The flow of mechanochemical reaction depends on the dis-
persity of initial substances, their characteristics, and conditions of grinding. The
effect of deformation on material properties can be characterized by mechani-
cal activation, referred to mechanical processes, during which reaction ability of
solid material will increase.

1.3.2 Intensive Plastic Deformation Methods for Nanomaterial Synthesis

In order to form nanostructures in bulk materials, special mechanical schemes
for deformation are applied. They allow significant distortions in samples at rel-
atively low temperatures. Intensive plastic deformation methods include the fol-
lowing:
a) Torsion under high pressure
b) Equal-channel angular pressing
c) Comprehensive forging method
d) Equal-channel angular extraction
e) Hourglass method
f) Intensive sliding friction method.
Among these, torsion under high pressure and equal-channel angular pressing
are mostly applied. There are several requirements to form nanostructures in bulk
materials by using of plastic deformation:
• The final result of the aforementioned methods is the formation of nanostruc-
tures with large angular borders of grains.
• These methods should form homogenous nanostructures within the whole
volume of material.
• The material obtained should not have any mechanical damages and destruc-
tions.
For the implementation of deformation by torsion under high pressure, initial
substances should have disk-like shapes. The initial material is inserted between
punches and pressed under pressure of several gigapascal (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of deformation by torsion P

method under high pressure (reproduced with permission of BKL
Publishers).

Raw
material
6 1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

P Figure 1.5 Principle of equal-channel angular pressing

method for nanomaterial preparation (reproduced with
permission of BKL Publishers).

Raw material

Only the upper punch will be rotated, deforming the main volume of material
by friction force. Hydrostatical compression and applied pressure lead to nonde-
struction of the sample by deformation. The process occurs at room temperature,
as well as at temperatures up to 0.4T melt . The obtained samples by intensive plas-
tic deformation have disk-like shapes, with sizes of 10–20 mm and thickness of
0.2–0.5 mm; significant grindings of sample structure can be observed right after
the deformation at half turnover, but for the preparation of homogenous nanos-
tructure, deformation at multiple turnovers is required.
Raw materials for equal-channel angular pressing are samples with round or
square transverse section and a diameter of 20 mm; for example, the maximum
diameters of raw materials treated through this method are 40 mm for Ti, 90 mm
for Al, and 150 mm for Mo. The length of raw materials was 70–100 mm. To
obtain the necessary level of deformation, the sample was repeatedly pressed
inside a special equipment through two channels with similar transverse section,
crossing at an angle of 90∘ (although this angle might be larger (Figure 1.5)). The
quantity of passages depend on the nature of deformation material. For example,
Cu tolerates sixteen passages, while the Al–Cu–Mg alloy is destroyed after three
passages.
The transformation speed of the sample during pressing depends on tempera-
ture, with the average being 60 mm min−1 , that is, one passage being finished in
10 seconds.
There are several routes for deformation such as (Figure 1.6):
• Orientation of raw material does not change (route A).
• After each passage, the raw material turns around its cross-sectional axis to
90∘ direction (route B).
• After each passage, the raw material turns around its cross-sectional axis to
180∘ direction (route C).
The direction of shift during repeatable passages through the crossing channels
for the raw material changes according to the aforementioned routes, leading to
the formation of various structures in the raw material.
Comprehensive forging is another way of nanostructure formation in bulk sam-
ples and is based on the use of multiple (up to 20 times) repetitions of free forg-
ing (Figure 1.7). By starting the treatment at high temperatures (0.3–0.6)T melt
through this technique, it is possible to obtain a nanostructured condition for
 1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials 7

Figure 1.6 Routes for raw material orientation (a)

during equal-channel angular pressing: (a)
orientation of raw material does not change
during all passages; (b) the raw material turns to
90∘ after each passage; (c) the raw material turns
to 180∘ after each passage (reproduced with
permission of BKL Publishers).
(b)

90°

(c)

180°

∅D

0.9 D
II

0.4 H

Figure 1.7 Scheme for comprehensive forging method (reproduced with permission of BKL
Publishers).

fragile materials. By increasing the deformation percentage, the temperature can

possibly decrease.
Intensive plastic deformation methods exhibit a number of certain advantages:
• The possibility for obtaining of bulk materials, and also nanostructures with
complex profiles, at a single stage
• The possibility for the formation of continuous process based on equal-channel
angular pressing.
Below are some goals, which can be achieved by the improvement of
technology:
• Small size of product
• Nonhomogenous microstructure of the final product
• Complicated and expensive technical equipment.
8 1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

1.3.3 Obtaining of Nanomaterials by Mechanical Interaction of Various

Mediums

Recently developed methods are hydrodynamic cavitation, vibration, shock wave,

grinding by ultrasound, and detonation synthesis.
Hydrodynamic cavitation aims to synthesize suspensions of nanopowders in
various dispersion mediums. Cavitation comes from the word cavitas, which
means hollow, and hence is defined as the formation of hollows (cavitation bub-
bles or caverns) in liquids filled with gas, steam, or gas–steam mixture. Cavitation
results from a decrease in the local pressure of liquid, which might happen due
to the increase of its velocity (hydrodynamic cavitation) or due to the passing of
most intensive acoustic waves during the intensity subperiod (acoustical cavita-
tion). During the transfer to the large flow region with high pressure or during
subperiodical pressing, cavitation bubble slams, thus emitting a shock wave. The
destruction caused by cavitation impact is also used in the grinding of nanoma-
terials by ultrasound.
Vibrational method is based on the synthesis of nanomaterials by resonance.
This allows minimal energy use and high level of homogenization in multiphase
mediums. The procedure is based on definite vibrational interaction of the
dispersing reagent vessel. Shock wave in mechanical interaction can be used to
obtain nanomediums. Nanodiamond powders with an average particle size of
4 nm are synthesized by shock wave treatment of graphite and metal mixture
under a pressure several tenths of gigapascal and for an interaction period
of 10–20 μs. Also, the shock wave treatment is used for grinding of porous
structures. Investigations done on the ZrO2 –Y2 O3 system showed that shock
wave completely grinds initial dimensional compounds into fragments with
size not less than 100 nm and with a particle size of 10 nm. Diamond particles
are also obtained by using the detonation synthesis method. In this method,
explosion energy is used to reach pressures up to hundreds of atmosphere and
temperatures up to several thousands of degrees. These conditions are suitable
in the thermodynamical stability region for diamond phase. In order to achieve
a significant production of diamond powder, a mixture of trinitrotoluol and
hexane (with mass ratio of 50 : 50 or 60 : 40) is used under a pressure of 15 GPa
in detonation wave and a temperature of 3000 K. The detonation synthesis is
carried out inside a special chamber, with a capacity of 10 g to several kilograms
of initial reaction mixture. To prevent the reduction of diamond powder and
its transformation into graphite, reaction chambers are filled with inert carbon
dioxide gas. Synthesis lasts for 0.2–0.5 μs. In order to remove the carbon soot and
other contaminants after synthesis, condensed product is treated with hot acids
and then dried after multiple washings. The productivity of diamond powder is
8–9% of the total initial reaction mixture mass. The amount of main synthesizing
product has a particle size of 4–5 nm. Explosive compounds containing carbon
have an important role during the synthesis procedure. Carbon exists in the
form of several complex morphologies: nanotubes, funnels, hollow spherical
particles, and plates. Also, synthesis products plaques by carbon layer with a
thickness of 10–20 nm. Mechanical interaction methods have the following
advantages:
 1.3 Methods for Preparing of Nanomaterials 9

• High productivity
• Possibility for waste utilization
• Possibility for formation of protective layers during dispersion.
However, the following disadvantages are present:
• Contamination of product by material of reaction medium
• Necessity of a special complex equipment.

1.3.4 Physical Dispersion Methods for Nanomaterials Preparation

This group of methods includes spraying, evaporation–condensation processes,

vacuum-sublimation technology, and solid state transformation methods.
Solid spraying method is one of the common methods for spraying of melt flow
by liquid or gas (Figure 1.8). In this complex physical process, aerodynamical
forces play a main role, determined by the relative speed of transferring dispersive
material and its density. The mechanism of liquid stream dispersion is deter-
mined by a step-by-step splitting of more disperse particles into primary drops
and then into secondary drops.
In contrast to gas dispersion, liquid spraying method is characterized by a
high-density medium, which influences the kinetic energy of the liquid stream.
The high density of the separating liquid provides high-speed preservation
at significantly large distances from the nozzle section, which allows relative
position of stream and makes construction of streaming equipment easier. One
of the possible schemes for the dispersion of metal alloy melt is presented in
Figure 1.9.
Taking out of the working liquid happens through holes in the circular disk,
which rotates at a high speed. For example, to obtain nanomaterials with a particle
size less than 100 nm, the jet undergoes cold gas spraying to cool the sedimenta-
tion surface. The particle size can be influenced by the working pressure of the
separating jet: the larger the pressure, the smaller the particle size of the dispers-
ing material. Also, particle size distribution and powder particle morphology can
be affected by melt temperature during spraying and the square jet cross section.
It is possible to obtain powder with a particle size of 50–100 nm. The shape of

2
1
2
1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8 Scheme of jet melt spraying method: (a) gas flow, directed perpendicular to the
melt jet; (b) spraying by subaxial gas flow; (c) gas flow, directed under the angle to melt jet.
1 – breaking gas flow; 2 – dispersing melt flow (reproduced with permission of BKL Publishers).
10 1 Introduction into Nano- and Biomaterials

Figure 1.9 Spraying method of

2 Liquid metal jet metal melt by liquid jet.

1 Working liquid

Figure 1.10 Scheme of centrifugal spraying method under

centrifugal force or rotating method (reproduced with
permission of BKL Publishers).

Drops

spraying material is usually drop-like or spherical. However, during high-speed

cooling, the formation of particles with an inappropriate shape is possible.
During centrifugal spraying method, nanopowder is obtained through melt
material spraying in nonoxidative atmosphere by centrifugal force. During melt-
ing in the electric arc furnace or in the low-temperature plasma, the electrode
(Figure 1.10) rotates at high speed.
From the surface of being melted and fast rotating electrode end, liquid drops
are separated and converted into dispersive powder during solidification. The
main advantage of this process under centrifugal force is the possibility for dis-
persion in inert gas or vacuum. By regulating the atmosphere inside the furnace,
it is possible to disperse refractory metals and metals with affinity to oxygen. The
particle size obtained by using this method is about 100 nm.
Spinning is a method for nanomaterial formation by hardening the liquid phase.
This method is based on obtaining thin tapes at fast cooling stage, with a speed
not less than 106 K s−1 , and cooling the melt on the surface of a rotating cylinder.

1.3.5 Preparation of Nanomaterials by Evaporation–Condensation Method

All evaporation–condensation methods are based on the synthesis of nano-
materials by fast change in aggregate condition and by phase transformations:
steam–solid matter or steam–liquid–solid substance. The final material evapo-
rates by intensive heating and then is sharply cooled. Evaporation–condensation
methods are classified according to the heating type of evaporating material,
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 Nicodemus

Do not go out, Magdalene: it means destroying him and

destroying us with him....

Mary Magdalene

Ah, destroying you with him, that is the trouble!... Wait! (She
takes another step towards the door. Nicodemus stops her resolutely.)

Nicodemus

You shall not go out.

Mary Magdalene

I shall not go out?... True, you dare fight against a woman. I had
not foreseen this great courage born of terror. You all shake your
heads like empty cornspikes; and the women rejoice in at last
discovering the cowardice of the men, showing itself suddenly more
signal than their own!...

Joseph of Arimathæa

Take counsel, Magdalene; think of him and reflect that, if he

heard you....

Mary Magdalene

Well, if he heard me, it would be as on the day when that one

among you whom you all resemble reproached me with anointing his
feet with too costly an ointment!... Have you forgotten what he
said?... Whom did he declare to be right?... You have understood
nothing!... For months and years, you have lived in his light; and not
one of you has the least idea of what I saw because I loved him, I
who did not come until the eleventh hour, I whom he drew from
lower than the lowest slave of the lowest among you all!...

Nicodemus (listening to the sounds outside)

Hush!... Listen!... Some one is walking outside the house.... (To

Bartimæus.) Go see who it is....

Bartimæus (at the window)

It is a man wrapped in a cloak.... A Roman.... He has stopped....

He knocks at the door.... He is coming in.... The door was not
closed....

Mary Magdalene (running to the door of the Supper-

room)

It is he, it is Lucius Verus!... Open the door to him! Open

quickly!... I hear him!...

(They open the door of the Supper-room. Lucius Verus appears

in the embrasure. At the sight of the strange assembly of
Persons cured by Miracles, Cripples, Beggars and Sick, he
stops and stands dumbfoundered on the threshold.)
 SCENE III
The Same, Lucius Verus

Mary Magdalene (running to Verus with outstretched

arms)

It is you, my Verus, it is indeed you!... An eye that looks me in

the face, a sword, shoulders, hands that do not tremble!... Come!
Come! What are we to do?... Have you seen him?... Where are we
going?... How can we help him?... How many men do you need?...
Where are yours? He is not only innocent, as you well know, he is so
pure, he stands so high that the thoughts of men cannot reach
him.... In his goodness he is bearing everything for the sins of the
world; but we will not have him sacrifice himself for us.... A single
glance from his eyes, a single word from his mouth, are worth all the
lives of all other men....

Verus (icily)

Is this indeed the place where I was to meet you?... Who are
these ... these men ... surrounding you?...

Mary Magdalene

They can be trusted.... They love him as well as he loved them;

but they want a leader.... They were waiting for you.... They will
follow you everywhere....

Verus (ironically)
 I have not come to command this ... foreign ... troop.... I do not
know what you mean. There is some misunderstanding; and we
should not, I think, explain it here, before so many witnesses....

Mary Magdalene

You are right.... (To the others) Leave us.... I will call you when
the time comes for action....

(All go out, except Mary Magdalene and Lucius Verus.)

 SCENE IV
Lucius Verus, Mary Magdalene

Verus (sarcastically)

Who are those extraordinary persons?... I have never seen so

many cripples, vagrants and evil-smelling sick people gathered
together.... What do they want with you?... I was told that you were
living in the midst of uncouth creatures, the oldest, the ugliest, the
dirtiest and the most pestilential of those Jews whom you mocked so
pleasantly in the house of the wise Silanus; but I could not have
believed that they were so intimate with you as this.... However, that
no longer concerns me. But I told you that we should meet again
before long.... Appius informed me that you had been looking for me
in the Roman quarter. I left everything to hasten at your first
summons. I knew what was happening and I was biding my time....

Mary Magdalene

How good and generous you are!... How reassuring and

comforting your presence and your smile!... Those others ... if you
only knew!... They were trembling like the reeds of which our Master
speaks; and I was helpless and dying with shame.... But I knew that
you would come back to us; and now this is you, your arms, your
breast.... It seems to me that Rome in her entirety is protecting us
and that your arms, which can do all things, cannot abandon him....

Verus
 They will not abandon you, Magdalene. The rest depends upon
yourself alone.... I am good and generous, perhaps, but in my own
manner; and we must understand each other.... So they have
arrested him in whom you take so lively an interest, as I told you
that they would?...

Mary Magdalene

They have not only arrested him: all the menials of the Temple,
the grooms, the herds, the meanest scullions in the kitchens rushed
at him, insulted, flouted and ill-treated him.... And, as they were
afraid, as they were too cowardly to venture it alone, they made the
Roman soldiers help them!...

Verus

I know.... But had we not best be brief and to the point?...

Mary Magdalene

Yes, we have no time to lose....

Verus

Even so. It is not now a question of arrest nor of more or less

justifiable ill-usage, but of imminent death. I have seen the
Procurator Pontius Pilate.

Mary Magdalene

Good. What did he say?...

 Verus

I found him anxious, perplexed, at a loss. He is a mild, irresolute

man, an enemy to quarrels and violence. He had to choose between
the inevitably bloody revolt of the priests and their sectaries and the
sacrifice of an agitator who was unquestionably troublesome and
dangerous, but who has not, perhaps, incurred the death penalty in
the eyes of Roman law and justice. I spoke according to my duty
and conscience. He did not hesitate. He chose the more humane and
wiser course. And, as I am the armed guardian responsible for the
Roman peace, he gave the fate of your Nazarene into my hands.
However, I must admit that, before our interview, I had purposely
allowed events to take the course they did....

Mary Magdalene

He is saved! I was sure of it! And how right I was to fear nothing
and to hope all things in turning to you!...

Verus

Do not let us go too fast. There are many things to consider....

Mary Magdalene

What do you say?...

Verus

I say that there are many things to consider.... Had I known

nothing whatever of your adventure, my choice would not have been
in doubt: I should, while more or less pitying him, have sacrificed
the wretched man to the public tranquillity; it is the sovereign law of
the empire; but now....

Mary Magdalene

But now, it is different, you know him, you know everything....

There is no excuse for a moment’s hesitation; it would be
monstrous....

Verus

Indeed, there is no excuse for a moment’s hesitation; it would be

monstrous, as you say.... Shall I, to snatch a favoured rival from a
well-merited death, for the second time lose the only woman whom
I love or can love?... That certainly is impossible....

Mary Magdalene

I do not quite understand....

Verus

Yet it is simple enough: in saving him, I hand you over, without

defence, to the fellow who will drag you with him, by fall after fall, to
the bottom of none can tell what pit of folly and wretchedness,
whence no human and reasoning power will be able to extricate you.
Moreover, speaking for myself, I lose you irrevocably by thus giving
you, with my own simple, foolish hands, to one who robs me of my
happiness by methods against which a man who values the name
does not try to struggle. Whereas, if I abandon him to his fate, there
remains a chance of seeing you return to the light and for me some
prospect of finding you in my path; for our two lives have still, I
hope, a long space to cover; and many roads, as you well know,
lead to Rome....

Mary Magdalene

I understand.... I understand, since I needs must understand....

But I do not yet believe.... No, it is not possible; and you, the man
whom I know, have not come to tell me coldly that you wish to
destroy him and thus revenge yourself for an injury which he has
not done you.... There is, there must be, something else....

Verus

Yes, there is something else.... There remains to us, if you are

absolutely bent upon it, one means of saving him. But, at the point
to which we have come and to which I have driven the adventure,
saving him probably means ruin to myself. Besides, time presses.
The sentence is written, I have seen it. He will be put to death at
daybreak; for the hours are numbered because of the Passover....

Mary Magdalene

What must I do?... Quick, quick, I will do it....

Verus

The prisoner is guarded by my men; it is therefore not quite

impossible to effect his escape....

Mary Magdalene
 Why yes, why yes, it is simple; and that, of course, is what we
must do!... Once free, he will hide and he will be forgotten.... Let us
lose no time.... But I do not understand why you came to say....

Verus

You will soon understand.... I answer for the prisoner, therefore.

Do you know what I am doing, do you know what I risk by restoring
him to liberty?...

Mary Magdalene

You are only doing your duty in freeing an innocent man....

Verus

It is not for me to enquire into his innocence; that does not

concern me. I am not his judge, but his keeper....

Mary Magdalene

Your soldiers will hold their tongues and no one will know that....

Verus

My soldiers will not be able to hold their tongues. They will have
to choose between silence and their lives. It will therefore be known
that they acted only on my orders. Now there is no instance of the
high-priests’ ever abandoning a prey, a revenge, a hatred. They will
go and complain, first, at Antioch, to the Governor of Syria, and,
next, to Cæsar himself, whose anger is kindled at the very breath of
a suspicion. Do you know what Cæsar is? The greatest, the most
powerful men in Rome tremble before his shadow.... For me, it
means, if not death, at least exile far from Rome; and death, to us
Romans, seems sweet compared with exile.... That is what I give;
that is my stake; I am waiting for yours.

Mary Magdalene

You are waiting for mine?... What would you have me give?... I
have nothing left.... I distributed all to the poor the other evening....

Verus

I do not ask for what one gives to the poor.... And, besides, I
have had enough of those evasions which lead to nothing and of
those shuffling phrases.... Ah, much I care for justice and a vagrant
more or less in the world and my own fate and my own exile!...
Have you not understood that it is you I want, you alone and all of
you; that I have wanted you for years; and that this is my hour?... It
is not beautiful, I know, and it is not as I dreamt it!... But it is all I
have; and a man takes what he can to make his life!... We stand
here face to face, with our two madnesses, which are more powerful
than ourselves and cannot recede; we must come to an
understanding!... The more you love him, the more I love you, the
more you wish to save him and the more I wish to destroy him! We
must come to an understanding!... You want his life, I want mine;
and you shall have his life, but I shall have you, before he escapes
his death.... Is it understood?... Are we agreed?... Say no, if you
dare, and let his blood be upon her who has brought him to this
pass and who is destroying him twice over!...

Mary Magdalene
 Ah, so that was it!... Yes, yes, I know, I see.... I was not
conscious and I no longer thought of it; but it was bound to be....
Ah, so it was that which caused me just now, while you were
speaking, to have no confidence despite my confidence!... It is so
strange, so monstrous, so remote from us!... One needs a little time
to understand.... All one’s thoughts become deranged and one’s soul
falls, falls, like a stone in a well.... One grasps the meaning of
nothing.... One no longer knows where one stands....

Verus

You and I know quite well; and there is nothing extraordinary in

all this.... A few days ago, you would not have needed so much
urging; and I do not understand that to-day, when the price of love
is something quite different, to-day, when a life, dear to you among
all lives....

Mary Magdalene

Ah, you do not understand!... And to think that scarcely any one,
not even those who loved him, would understand better!... Am I
then the only being that has seen into his soul?... And yet it is not so
very difficult!... He has spoken to me only three times in my life, but
I know what he thinks. I know all that he wishes, I know all that he
is as completely as though I were within him, or as though he were
there, near me, fixing upon my brow his glance in which the angels
come down from heaven, as on the evening when I kissed his feet
and wiped them with my hair....

Verus
 I well knew that I came too late, but I should never have
believed that you had gone so far.... If he has spoken to you only
three times, he has not wasted the minutes and has told you enough
to remove my doubts.... But let us be calm. It is a question other
than of love; and your lover himself, were he consulted, would judge
that a kiss does not weigh much in the presence of death.... Since
you love him so well, is his life not worth a slight displeasure, which
but lately would not have inspired you with such horror?... If there
were a looking-glass in this room, I would go and gaze at myself
with curiosity, to make out what, in a few days, has made me so
repulsive that the torture of the one man whom you adore is
preferred to the touch of my lips!... But what is the matter?... One
would think that I was speaking of unimaginable things!... What
have I said? What have I done?... Your face is distorted.... There is
no need to look at me like that, with mad and terrified eyes, as
though they beheld the fall of the sun or the violation of a tomb!...

Mary Magdalene

Let me be.... You cannot know.... I am only beginning to

understand....

Verus

A few days since, you were not so slow in understanding....

Mary Magdalene (in a soft and distant voice)

Yes, yes.... For one sees only little by little.... (Staring before her)
It is unfolded slowly, like a thing that has no beginning, no end, no
name.... There are two deaths here, I hold two deaths in my hand;
and that is too heavy a weight for a poor creature born upon this
earth....

Verus

Two deaths?... What do you mean?... You do not intend to follow

him, surely?... Your death, since he loves you, would only add a very
useless bitterness to his....

Mary Magdalene (in the same soft and distant voice)

No.... I am not speaking of mine.... It is two other deaths.... I

still have my senses.... I can see clearly in the abyss.... Let me look,
where you can see nothing....

Verus

I should not have thought that, when I came to bring you his
safety and the great sacrifice which I am making to love....

Mary Magdalene (with a sudden outburst)

The sacrifice which you are making to love!... Ah, if you could
see the sacrifice which is being accomplished here and which the
very angels dare not look upon!... But you cannot know what has
happened on earth since he descended upon it!... It is no longer the
same earth; and it is no longer possible!... Before he came, the
purest would not have hesitated!... Before he came! Before he
came!... And, even then, to-day, I, who have been born again
through him, if it were not he, if it were a question of another, I
should not have the strength!... I should perhaps sin against all that
he loves, to save what I love!... But he gives too much strength to
love and to suffer!... I could save him in spite of himself; but no
longer in spite of myself!... If I bought his life at the price which you
offer, all that he wished, all that he loved would be dead!... I cannot
plunge the flame into the mire to save the lamp! I cannot give him
the only death that could touch him!... But look at me with clearer
eyes and you shall perhaps see all that I perceive without being able
to tell you!... Were I to yield but for a moment under the weight of
love, all that he has said, all that he has done, all that he has given
would sink back into the darkness, the earth would be more
deserted than if he had not been born and heaven would be closed
to mankind for ever!... I should be destroying him altogether,
destroying more than himself, to gain for him days which would
destroy everything....

Verus

It is not so much a question of gaining days for him as of sparing

him tortures, the mere thought of which should make you reflect....

Mary Magdalene

I know! I know!... Because I love him thus, as none has ever

loved upon this earth where heaven had not yet poured forth its
love, must I not sacrifice to him what no human soul has possessed
before me?... But you come to ask for all that he has given; and
what he has given is much more than his life and lives more in our
hearts than it lives in himself!... If I destroy him in myself, I destroy
him in us!... I know no more, I see no more, I understand no
more.... I would do it, perhaps, if my soul were alone; but it is no
longer possible and God would not have it!...

Verus
 The gods always will what men will.... Be sure that, if he whom
you are about to deliver to the torture could make his voice heard at
this moment, he would not hesitate....

Mary Magdalene

Ah, I know that he would not hesitate! And that is why I am

struggling thus, like a blind beast, between two sacrifices!... It is my
past shame that overwhelms me and prevents me from rising to the
level of his will!...

Verus

Man has but one will in the presence of death....

Mary Magdalene

My God! My God!... I am nothing, I am defiled with every

defilement: what matters this one, which brings thee life?... But am
I in question?... Is it not thou alone whom I defile to-day in defiling
thy salvation, thou, the very source whence the source of all purity
and of every happiness and of every life will spring?... I no longer
know where to thrust back my soul!... Nothing remains to me, if I
lose it; nothing remains to us, if I save it!...

Verus

Nothing is lost so long as life endures....

Mary Magdalene
 Hush, I beseech you!... Leave me alone in his silence and his
will.... Let me contemplate, let me listen to other things.... I do not
yet love him as he would be loved!... In vain I raise my eyes to his
heaven of light: I see only his death, his sorrows, his suffering ... his
steadfast face, his eyes that lit up all he looked upon, his mouth that
spoke unceasingly of happiness ... his feet which I have kissed,
lifeless and icy cold!... Verus, Verus, have pity!... I cannot bear it, I
cannot bear it! I am falling!... Do with me what you will!...

Verus (catching her in his arms)

Magdalene, Magdalene!... I knew....

Mary Magdalene (springing back at his touch)

No, you did not know! And it is not that!... There is something
else!... There is another outlet!... Verus, Verus, come, you are not
without feeling, you are not a monster, you will understand also.... It
depends on you.... For me it is impossible.... There is a wall there
defended by his angels.... I cannot pass it.... I must not think of it....
But you, you can do everything!... To think that you hold there, in
that human hand of yours, the life of the God of Gods descended
upon earth!... I know, I know, you do not believe it.... But you must
at least believe in his innocence; and you know that he has done no
evil.... He does not even know what evil is, since he is all
goodness.... He has done nothing but heal, console and pray.... He
has done nothing but breathe over men’s souls and flood them with
happiness.... If only you knew him, if he had spoken to you, were it
but once!... Because he is innocent and because you are just,
because you have strength and because you are brave, you cannot
deliver him defenceless to the executioners.... It would not be
Roman, it would not even be manly....
 Verus

Enough of this; and, as everything is useless, let him be treated

as you have decided.... It is not I who am leading him to the
torture....

Mary Magdalene (clinging to the garments of Verus, who takes

a step to the door)

Verus! Verus!... I implore you!... That is not all!... All is not

said!... It cannot be decided like this!... But do not ask the one
impossible thing.... I will be your slave, I will live at your feet, serve
you on my knees for the rest of my days; but give me his life
without destroying in my soul and throughout the earth that which is
the very life of our new life!...

Verus

Enough!... Besides, there is no time. My patience in saving a rival

whom I hate is as ridiculous as your persistent attempt to save your
lover by singing his praises!... When you see him dead, in less than
three hours hence, do not weep over him, lest your tears should be
flung back in your own face!... (Perceiving Joseph of Arimathæa, who
discreetly opens the door, to the left, of the Supper-room.) Who
goes there?... Come in, come in, this is the very thing!... We need
witnesses. Where are the mountebanks, the monsters, the lepers? I
want to tell them....

Mary Magdalene

What?...
 Verus

They shall know who has betrayed their god!... We shall then see
if you have the heart to despatch him before their eyes and how
they will take the news!... Repugnant though they be, I want to see
their ugly faces again!... (He reaches the door and throws it open
wide.)

Mary Magdalene (hurrying to stop his action)

Verus! Verus!... This is not worthy of you!...

Verus

I know! I know!... I am not worthy of anything, it appears! Not

even of you, harlot!... (Calling in a loud voice) Hi! Hi! The rest of
you!... Where are you?... Hasten this way, you halt and lame, you
club-feet, you cripples, you beggars, vagrants, lepers, paralytics!... I
have something of importance to tell you!... (Startled faces appear in
the embrasures of the two doors.)
 SCENE V
Verus, Mary Magdalene and nearly all the Characters of SCENE III

Verus

Come in, come in, you have nothing to fear!... (They Enter,
timidly.) Are you all there?... There seem to be fewer of you....
Where are the others gone?...

Joseph of Arimathæa

Sir, some of them fear lest the night....

Verus

I understand; they were afraid.... Their love and their faith do

not take any risk of blows.... However, these will do.... Do you see
that woman?... I came to offer to save your master. She had only to
say yes. She has said no. She orders his death. He will therefore die
at sunrise.

(Sensation in the crowd.)

Nicodemus

What is he saying, Magdalene?...

(Mary Magdalene does not reply.)

 Verus

Ask her, you will learn....

Nicodemus

Magdalene, is it true?...

(Mary Magdalene remains silent.)

Joseph of Arimathæa

But come, answer!... What is the matter with you?...

Verus

She is at the same time betraying and destroying all those who
followed the tempter. I have spoken. Farewell. Look to yourselves.
(He turns to the door.)

Joseph of Arimathæa (stopping him and beseeching him)

Sir, I beg of you, do not go away like this.... She is mistaken, you
will see.... There is some terrible misunderstanding.... Magdalene,
come, what is he saying, what do you say?... Why, it is impossible!...
What has happened?...

Several Sick Men and Beggars (surrounding Magdalene, who

remains motionless, gazing blindly into the distance)

Magdalene! Magdalene....

A Hunchback
 She also has sold him!... She was with the Iscariot!...

Martha (putting her arms around Magdalene’s neck)

Magdalene!... Listen to me!... You used to love me.... What has

come to you?... Tell me it is not true.... You have not heard....

Mary Cleophas (putting her hand on Magdalene’s

shoulder)

Magdalene, Magdalene!... No, it is impossible.... You cannot have

forgotten....

A Poor Man

How much did you receive?...

A Man cured by a Miracle

Yes, how much?... Where is the money?...

Another

Give back the gold! Give back the gold!... Search her!...

Mary Salome

Magdalene! Magdalene!... She is mad!...

A Vagrant

Harlot!... Soldiers’ wench!...

 Another

Strumpet! Strumpet! Strumpet!

A Man cured by a Miracle

The seven devils whom he cast out have entered her body
again!...

Another

She has sold us like a herd of oxen!...

A Sick Man

We shall all have to suffer!...

Another

Yes, but not before she does!...

The Man whose Hand was withered

She shall not go from here until....

A Palsied Man

In any case, she shall not go hence alive, take my word for it!...

(Almost all, shouting, gesticulating, threatening, with

clenched fists, crowd round Magdalene, who remains
motionless and dumb.)
 Joseph of Arimathæa (intervening)

Come, come, do not forget who you are, where you are nor in
whose name you are speaking. (To Verus) Sir, I beg of you, a little
patience.... I am a just and reasonable man; and everything will be
explained.... Listen, Magdalene, I am speaking to you in his name....
There is still time to say yes.... I am speaking as a father....

(Magdalene maintains her motionless silence.)

The Hunchback

You see!... She has received the price!...

(An explosion of hatred. All surround her more closely. The

cries, the threats, the imprecations, the entreaties, the
moans are redoubled. Suddenly, in the street, rises a
tumult which drowns that in the Supper-room. It is the
shouting of an angry crowd approaching swiftly, the
sound of arms and horses. The uproar in the room is at
once lulled. All listen, anxiously.)

A Man cured by a Miracle

The Romans!... The soldiers!... They are coming to arrest us!...

She has betrayed us!... Let us fly!... This way, this way!...

(All lose their heads. Some run wildly round the room,
seeking for an outlet.)

A Vagrant
 No, no!... Do not go out!... There is only one door!... We cannot
escape!... They would discover us!...

A Man cured by a Miracle

Be silent!... Hide yourselves!...

A Cripple

Why do you not put out the lamps?... They will see the lights!...
Quick! Quick! Put out the lamps!...

(The lamps are put out.)

Another

Do not go to the windows!... Do not show yourselves at the

windows!... Lie down along the walls!...

Verus

It is a noble spectacle and I long to see it out....

Joseph of Arimathæa (going up to Verus)

Sir, do not ruin them.... They are weak and poor.... Almost all of
them are sick.... They know not what they do.... Have pity on men
and do not judge them....

(The shouts—“Crucify him! Crucify him!... Tempter!

Tempter!... Galilean! Nazarene!... He would destroy the
Temple!... He would destroy the Law!... Blasphemer!...
Crucify him! Crucify him! Crucify him!”—are redoubled in
 the street and are now heard outside the house itself.
The red light of the torches is cast into the room. The
Blind Man of Jericho steals up to one of the windows and
looks out.)

A Panic-stricken Voice

Do not go to the windows!...

A Lame Man (going to another window)

What is happening?...

The Blind Man of Jericho

It is he!...

(Several Persons, irresistibly attracted, climb up to the

windows and look into the street, with infinite caution.
Occasionally one of them turns to those who remain at
the back of the room, to tell them what he sees.)

One of those at the Windows

There are soldiers all around him!... There is a crowd of them!...

Another

He is coming! He is coming this way!... His hands are bound!...

They are striking him!...

Another
 He is weeping!... His eyes are bleeding!...

Another

They are taking him to Pilate!... There are Peter and John, hiding
themselves!...

Another

The blood is dripping on his feet!...

Another

He cannot walk any farther!... He staggers! He staggers!...

Verus (to Magdalene, who has not moved and who stands
against a column, in the middle of the room, staring
before her, without turning towards the windows)

Magdalene!...

(In the street, suddenly, the tumult falls, as a huge, heavy

object might fall. A wonderful silence.)

A Voice (in the room)

What is it?...

The Blind Man of Jericho (at the window)

He falls!... He has fallen!... He is looking at the house!...

Verus
Magdalene, I still promise you....

Mary Magdalene (without stirring, without looking at Verus,

without anger, simply, in a voice from another life, full of
peace, full of divine clarity and certainty)

Go!...

The Blind Man of Jericho (at the window)

He rises to his feet!... They drag him along!...

(The tumult, the shouts of “Crucify him!” are resumed and

redoubled in the street. Verus goes out slowly, with his
eyes on Magdalene, who remains motionless, as though in
ecstasy and all illumined with the light of the departing
torches.)

CURTAIN
 Transcriber's Notes

The following changes have been made to the

text as printed:
1. A close-bracket ")" has been inserted after
"to receive Mary Magdalene" on Page 17.
2. Two instances of punctuation after the
speaker's name "Magdalene" have been removed
(Page 48, Page 59).
3. "The same" (below "SCENE II" on Page 74) has
been placed in upright small-capitals rather than
italics.
4. "Judea" (Page 104) has been changed to
"Judæa".
5. Indentation and justification of stage
directions have been made more consistent.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MARY MAGDALENE:
A PLAY IN THREE ACTS ***

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