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S E R I E S O N S E M I C O N D U C TO R
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Series Editors

R. J. Nicholas University of Oxford

H. Kamimura University of Tokyo
 SERIES ON SEMICONDUCTOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. M. Jaros: Physics and applications of semiconductor microstructures

2. V. N. Dobrovolsky and V. G. Litovchenko: Surface electronic transport
phenomena in semiconductors
3. M. J. Kelly: Low-dimensional semiconductors
4. P. K. Basu: Theory of optical processes in semiconductors
5. N. Balkan: Hot electrons in semiconductors
6. B. Gil: Group III nitride semiconductor compounds: physics and applications
7. M. Sugawara: Plasma etching
8. M. Balkanski and R. F. Wallis: Semiconductor physics and applications
9. B. Gil: Low-dimensional nitride semiconductors
10. L. Challis: Electron-phonon interaction in low-dimensional structures
11. V. Ustinov, A. Zhukov, A. Egorov, N. Maleev: Quantum dot lasers
12. H. Spieler: Semiconductor detector systems
13. S. Maekawa: Concepts in spin electronics
14. S. D. Ganichev, W. Prettl: Intense terahertz excitation of semiconductors
15. N. Miura: Physics of semiconductors in high magnetic fields
16. A. V. Kavokin, J. J. Baumberg, G. Malpuech, F. P. Laussy: Microcavities
17. S. Maekawa, S. O. Valenzuela, E. Saitoh, T. Kimura: Spin current
Spin Current
Edited by

Sadamichi Maekawa
Sergio O. Valenzuela
Eiji Saitoh
Takashi Kimura

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
If furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

c Sadamichi Maekawa, Sergio O. Valenzuela, Eiji Saitoh, Takashi Kimura 2012
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2012
Impression: 1

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012936272
ISBN 978–0–19–960038–0
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 Preface

Since the discovery of the giant magnetoresistance (GMR) effect in magnetic mul-
tilayers in 1988, a new branch of physics and technology, called spin-electronics or
spintronics, has emerged, where the flow of electrical charge as well as the flow
of electron spin, the so-called “spin current,” are manipulated and controlled
together. Whereas charge current flows without decay (owing to fundamental
charge conservation), spin current decays on a length-scale of less than a few
micrometers. In other words, it exists only at nanometer scales. Recent progress
in the physics of magnetism and the application of spin current has progressed
in tandem with the nanofabrication technology of magnets and the engineering
of interfaces and thin films.
This book is intended to provide an introduction and guide to the new physics
and application of spin current. The emphasis is place on the interaction between
spin and charge currents in magnetic nanostructures.
The International Conference on Magnetism (ICM), the largest conference in
the physics of magnetism, has been held triennially since the first one organized
by Louis Néel at Grenoble, France in 1958. The Eighteenth Conference in the
ICM series took place in Karlsruhe, Germany in July 2009, where a paradigm
in physics was epitomized by “a flood of spin current,” which introduces a new
front in the evolution of traditional research in magnetism.
I am glad to note that the achievements of the research in spin current by
Sergio O. Valenzuela, Eiji Saitoh, and Takashi Kimura were recognized through
the Young Scientist in Magnetism Awards at the Eighteenth ICM sponsored
by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), an agency
under the auspices of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization).
In this book, three of them give introductions to spin current, the spin Hall
effect, spin torgues, and the spin Seebeck effect based on their achievements.
Although the chapters make up a coherent whole, each chapter is self-contained
and may be read independently. The physics based on spin current is growing
rapidly. Therefore, we have tried to introduce the most recent results up to
August 2011. I hope this book is a sound guide to the new physics and technology.

August 2011 Sadamichi Maekawa

(On behalf of the Editors)
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Contributors xv

Part I Spin current

1 Introduction 3
E. Saitoh
1.1 Spin of electrons 3
1.1.1 Spin angular momentum 3
1.1.2 Dirac equation and spin 5
1.1.3 Nonrelativistic approximation 7
1.2 Spin current 9
1.2.1 Concept of spin current 9
1.2.2 An exact definition of spin current 10
References 14
2 Incoherent spin current 15
K. Ando and E. Saitoh
2.1 Fermi–Dirac distribution 15
2.2 Diffusion equation 18
2.3 Spin diffusion equation 19
References 24
3 Exchange spin current 25
E. Saitoh and K. Ando
3.1 Magnetic order and exchange interaction 25
3.2 Exchange spin current 25
3.2.1 Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert equation 25
3.2.2 Rewriting the Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert
equation 27
3.3 Spin-wave spin current 28
3.3.1 Spin-wave formulation 28
3.3.2 Spin current carried by a spin wave 31
References 32
viii CONTENTS

4 Topological spin current 33

E. Saitoh
4.1 Bulk topological spin current 33
4.2 Surface topological spin current 35
References 35
5 Spin polarization in magnets 36
K. Takanashi and Y. Sakuraba
5.1 Spin polarization in ferromagnets 36
5.2 Half-metallic ferromagnets 37
5.3 Experimental techniques for spin-polarization
measurement 39
5.3.1 Point-contact Andreev reflection (PCAR) 39
5.3.2 Superconducting tunneling spectroscopy (STS) 41
5.3.3 Spin-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (SP-PES) 43
5.4 Magnetoresistive devices with half-metals 43
5.4.1 Magnetic tunnel junctions with half-metals 43
5.4.2 Current-perpendicular-to-plane magnetoresistive
device with half-metals 45
References 46
6 Optically induced and detected spin current 49
A. Hirohata
6.1 Introduction 49
6.1.1 Optical generation of spins 49
6.1.2 Spin polarization in GaAs 49
6.1.3 Photoexcitation model 50
6.2 Optical spin injection 55
6.2.1 Photoexcitation 55
6.2.2 Schottky diodes 55
6.2.3 Spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy
(spin STM) 57
6.3 Optical spin detection 58
6.3.1 Spin-polarized light-emitting diodes (spin LED) 58
6.3.2 Schottky diodes 60
6.3.3 Spin injection into Si 62
References 62
7 Theory of spinmotive forces in ferromagnetic
structures 65
S. E. Barnes
7.1 Introduction 65
7.2 Spin Faraday’s law 65
 CONTENTS ix

7.2.1 Magnetic momentum, spin electric, and magnetic

fields 66
7.2.2 Calculation of magnetic momentum for adiabatic
electrons 66
7.2.3 The spin fields E  s and Faraday’s law
 s and B 68
7.2.4 Landau–Lifshitz equations 69
7.2.5 Spin-torque-transfer (STT), spin valves, and magnetic
tunnel junctions (MTJs) 69
7.2.6 Spinmotive force (smf), spin valves and MTJs 71
s
7.2.7 The spin electric field E 73
7.3 Examples of spinmotive forces 74
7.3.1 A plain Néel domain wall 74
7.3.2 Reciprocal relations 75
7.3.3 The spinmotive force and magnons 76
7.3.4 Spin forces and Doppler shifts for phonons 77
7.3.5 Voltage steps and magnetoresistance 77
7.3.6 Static magnetic vortices 78
7.3.7 Field-driven magnetic vortices 78
7.4 Ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) and spinmotive forces 80
7.4.1 Field-driven FMR 80
7.4.2 STT-FMR and a-FMR resonance 80
7.4.3 The spin Seebeck effect and the smf 80
7.4.4 FMR with thermal gradients 81
7.5 Spinmotive forces, magnons, and phonons 82
7.5.1 The s = 1 nature of magnons and phonons 82
7.5.2 Realization of smf effects with magnons and
phonons 83
References 84
8 Spin pumping and spin transfer 87
A. Brataas, Y. Tserkovnyak, G. E. W. Bauer,
and P. J. Kelly
8.1 Introduction 87
8.1.1 Technology pull and physics push 87
8.1.2 Discrete versus homogeneous 87
8.1.3 This chapter 88
8.2 Phenomenology 89
8.2.1 Mechanics 89
8.2.2 Spin-transfer torque and spin pumping 89
8.2.3 Onsager reciprocity relations 99
8.3 Microscopic derivations 103
8.3.1 Spin-transfer torque 103
8.3.2 Spin pumping 109
x CONTENTS

8.4 First-principles calculations 114

8.4.1 Alpha 115
8.4.2 Beta 120
8.5 Theory versus experiments 123
8.6 Conclusions 124
References 125
9 Spin caloritronics 136
G. E. W. Bauer
9.1 Introduction 136
9.2 Basic physics 137
9.3 Spin-dependent thermoelectric phenomena in metallic
structures 138
9.3.1 Magneto-Peltier and Seebeck effects 138
9.3.2 Thermal Hall effects 139
9.4 Thermal spin-transfer torques 140
9.4.1 Spin valves 140
9.4.2 Magnetic tunnel junctions 140
9.4.3 Textures 140
9.5 Magneto-heat resistance 141
9.6 Spin caloritronic heat engines and motors 143
9.7 Spin Seebeck effect 144
9.8 Conclusions 145
References 145
10 Multiferroics 149
N. Nagaosa
10.1 Introduction 149
10.2 Multiferroics—a generic consideration 152
10.3 Spin-current model of ferroelectricity 154
10.4 Spin Hamiltonian for RMnO3 157
10.5 Electromagnons in multiferroics 161
10.6 Ultrafast switching of spin chirality by optical excitation 165
10.7 Quasi-one-dimensional quantum multiferroics 167
10.8 Summary and conclusions 168
References 170

Part II Spin Hall effect

11 Introduction 177
S. O. Valenzuela
11.1 Historical background 177
11.2 Spin–orbit interaction 181
 CONTENTS xi

11.3 The family of spin Hall effects 184

11.4 Experimental observation 185
References 190
12 Spin Hall effect 194
S. Maekawa and S. Takahashi
12.1 Introduction 194
12.2 Spin Hall effect due to side jump and skew scattering
in diffusive metals 195
12.3 Spin and charge currents 199
12.4 Spin–orbit coupling 200
12.5 Nonlocal spin Hall effect 201
12.6 Anomalous Hall effect (AHE) in a ferromagnet 203
12.7 Summary 204
References 205
13 Spin generation and manipulation based on
spin–orbit interaction in semiconductors 209
J. Nitta
13.1 Origin of spin–orbit interaction (SOI) in semiconductors 209
13.2 Gate controlled Rashba SOI 212
13.3 Spin relaxation and its suppression 214
13.4 Spin Hall effect based on Rashba and Dresselhaus spin–orbit
interaction 216
13.5 Aharonov–Casher spin interference; theory 217
13.6 Aharonov–Casher spin interference; experiment 220
References 224
14 Experimental observation of the spin Hall effect
using electronic nonlocal detection 227
S. O. Valenzuela and T. Kimura
14.1 Observation of the spin Hall effect 227
14.2 Nonlocal spin injection and detection 227
14.3 The electronic spin Hall experiments 230
References 239
15 Experimental observation of the spin Hall effect
using spin dynamics 244
E. Saitoh and K. Ando
15.1 Inverse spin Hall effect induced by spin pumping 244
15.2 Spin-Hall-effect induced modulation of magnetization
dynamics 248
References 250
xii CONTENTS

16 Spin-injection Hall effect 252

J. Wunderlich, L. P. Zârbo, J. Sinova,
and T. Jungwirth
16.1 Spin-dependent Hall effects 252
16.2 The spin-injection Hall effect experiment 253
16.3 Theory discussion 258
16.3.1 Nonequilibrium polarization dynamics along
the [11̄0] channel 259
16.3.2 Hall effect 261
16.3.3 Spin diffusion and spin precession in narrow
2DEG bars 262
16.4 Spin Hall effect transistor 265
16.5 Prospectives of spin-injection Hall effect 269
References 269
17 Quantum spin Hall effect and topological
insulators 272
S. Murakami and T. Yokoyama
17.1 Quantum spin Hall systems 272
17.1.1 Introduction 272
17.1.2 Topology and topological insulators 275
17.1.3 Topological numbers 277
17.2 Two-dimensional (2D) topological insulators 278
17.2.1 Edge states of 2D topological insulators 278
17.2.2 Experiments on edge states of 2D topological
insulators 280
17.3 Three-dimensional (3D) topological insulators 281
17.3.1 Surface states of three-dimensional topological
insulators 281
17.3.2 Properties of surface states of 3D topological
insulators 281
17.3.3 Materials for 3D topological insulators 284
17.3.4 3D topological insulators and Majorana fermions 288
17.4 Summary 290
References 291
18 Spin Seebeck effect 296
E. Saitoh and K. Uchida
18.1 Introduction 296
18.2 Sample configuration and measurement mechanism 297
18.3 Detection of spin Seebeck effect using inverse spin
Hall effect 299
18.4 Theoretical concept of spin Seebeck effect 301
 CONTENTS xiii

18.5 Thermal spin injection by spin-dependent Seebeck effect 303

18.6 Conclusion 305
References 305

Part III Spin-transfer torque

19 Introduction 311
T. Kimura
19.1 Theoretical description of spin-transfer torque 312
19.2 Perpendicular spin torque 315
19.3 Diffusive picture for injecting spin current 317
19.4 Experimental study of magnetization reversal due to spin
torque 319
19.5 Magnetization dynamics due to spin-current injection 322
19.6 Domain wall displacement due to spin-current injection 327
19.7 Theoretical description of the spin-current-induced domain
wall displacement 329
19.8 Dynamics of magnetic domain wall under spin-current
injection 330
19.9 Vortex motion due to spin-current injection 332
19.10 Other new phenomena 334
References 336
20 Spin-transfer torque in uniform magnetization 343
Y. Suzuki
20.1 Torque and torquance in magnetic junctions 343
20.2 Voltage dependence and field-like torque 347
20.3 Landau–Lifshitz–Gilbert (LLG) equation in Hamiltonian form 349
20.4 Small-amplitude dynamics and anti-damping 352
20.4.1 Linearized LLG equation 352
20.4.2 Spin-torque diode effect 353
20.5 Spin-transfer magnetization switching 357
20.6 Large-amplitude dynamics and auto-oscillation 362
References 367
21 Magnetization switching due to nonlocal spin
injection 372
T. Kimura and Y. Otani
21.1 Generation and absorption of pure spin current 372
21.2 Efficient absorption of pure spin current 375
21.3 Efficient injection of spin current 377
21.4 Magnetization switching due to injection of pure spin current 378
References 381
xiv CONTENTS

22 Magnetic domains and magnetic vortices 382

Y. Otani and R. Antos
22.1 Micromagnetic equations 383
22.2 Analytical approaches 386
22.3 Experimental techniques 388
22.4 Steady state motion phenomena 389
22.5 Dynamic switching 391
22.6 Magnetostatically coupled vortices 393
22.7 Conclusions and perspectives 395
References 396
23 Spin-transfer torque in nonuniform magnetic
structures 402
T. Ono
23.1 Magnetic domain wall 402
23.1.1 Magnetic vortex 402
23.2 Current-driven domain wall motion 405
23.2.1 Basic idea of current-driven domain wall motion 405
23.2.2 Direct observation of current-driven domain wall
motion by magnetic force microscopy 407
23.2.3 Beyond the adiabatic approximation: Non-adiabatic
torque 408
23.2.4 Domain wall motion by adiabatic torque and intrinsic
pinning 411
23.2.5 Toward applications of current-driven domain wall
motion 412
23.3 Current-driven excitation of magnetic vortices 413
23.3.1 Current-driven resonant excitation of magnetic
vortices 413
23.3.2 Switching a vortex core by electric current 417
References 420
24 Spin torques due to large Rashba fields 424
S. Zhang
24.1 Introduction 424
24.2 Rashba coupling at metallic interfaces 425
24.3 Current-driven spin torque with Rashba coupling 427
24.4 Manipulating magnetization by the current 429
24.5 Discussions and conclusions 430
References 430
Index 433
 Contributors

K. Ando Norway
Institute for Materials Research [email protected]
Tohoku University
A. Hirohata
2-1-1 Katahira
Department of Electronics
Aoba-ku
The University of York
Sendai 980-8577
Heslington, York, North Yorkshire
Japan
YO10 5DD
[email protected]
UK
R. Antos [email protected]
Institute of Physics T. Jungwirth
Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Department of Physics
Charles University in Prague Texas A&M University
Ke Karlovu 5 College Station, TX 77843–4242
CZ-12116 Prague USA
Czech Republic [email protected]
[email protected]ff.cuni.cz
P. J. Kelly
S. E. Barnes Faculty of Science and Technology
Physics Department and MESA+ Institute for
University of Miami Nanotechnology
Coral Gables, Florida 33146 University of Twente
USA The Netherlands
[email protected] [email protected]
G. E. W. Bauer T. Kimura
Institute for Materials Research Advanced Electronics Research
Tohoku University Division, INAMORI Frontier
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku Research Center, Kyushu University
Sendai 980-8577 Motooka 744, Nishi-ku
Japan Fukuoka 819-0395
[email protected] Japan
[email protected]
A. Brataas
Department of Physics S. Maekawa
Norwegian University of Advanced Science Research Center
Science and Technology Japan Atomic Energy Agency
7491 Trondheim Tokai, Ibaraki, 319-1195
xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Japan Y. Sakuraba
[email protected] Institute for Materials Research
Tohoku University
S. Murakami
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku
Department of Physics
Sendai 980-8577
Tokyo Institute of Technology
Japan
2-12-1 H44 Ookayama, Meguro-ku
[email protected]
Tokyo 152-8551
Japan J. Sinova
[email protected] Department of Physics
N. Nagaosa Texas A&M University
University of Tokyo College Station
7-3-1-6-212 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku TX 77843–4242
Tokyo 113-8656 USA
Japan [email protected]
[email protected] Y. Suzuki
J. Nitta Graduate School of
Department of Materials Science Engineering Science
Tohoku University Osaka University
6-6-02 Aramaki-Aza Aoba 1-3 Machikaneyamacho
Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579 Toyonaka, Osaka, 560-8531
Japan Japan
[email protected] [email protected]

T. Ono S. Takahashi
Institute for Chemical Research Institute for Materials Research
Kyoto University Tohoku University
Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku
Japan Sendai 980-8577
[email protected] Japan
[email protected]
Y. Otani
Institute for Solid State Physics K. Takanashi
University of Tokyo Institute for Materials Research
5-1-5 Kashiwanoha Tohoku University
Kashiwa 277-8581 Japan 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku
[email protected] Sendai 980-8577
Japan
E. Saitoh [email protected]
Institute for Materials Research
Tohoku University Y. Tserkovnyak
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku Department of Physics and
Sendai 980-8577 Astronomy
Japan University of California
[email protected] Los Angeles
 CONTRIBUTORS xvii

California 90095 Cambridge CB3 OHE

USA UK
[email protected] [email protected]
K. Uchida T. Yokoyama
Institute for Materials Research Department of Physics
Tohoku University Tokyo Institute of Technology
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku 2-12-1 Ookayama
Sendai 980-8577 Meguro-ku
Japan Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
[email protected] [email protected]
S. O. Valenzuela L. P. Zârbo
Institució Catalana de Recerca Institute of Physics ASCR, v.v.i.
i Estudis Avançats (ICREA) Cukrovarnická 10
Catalan Institute of Nanotechnology 162 53 Praha 6
(ICN) and Universitat Autònoma Czech Republic
de Barcelona, Campus UAB [email protected]
Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193
S. Zhang
Spain
University of Missouri Columbia
[email protected]
Columbia
J. Wunderlich Missouri 65211
Hitachi Cambridge Laboratory USA
J.J. Thomson Avenue [email protected]
This page intentionally left blank
Part I Spin current
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
side of the machine, and the paper is cut off to the required size. On
top of the work-table is a locating projection which holds the box in
place. A locating gauge is also provided so that the vertical
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It is only fair to state that there are other efficient topping
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 Figure 3. Diagram shows shape of wrapper used on Stokes & Smith
Wrapping Machine.

Perhaps the most remarkable machine ever invented for use in the
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 Stokes and Smith Wrapping Machine.

For cutting the sheets of paper to this special shape, a Stokes &
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are cut out afterwards. The Double Corner Cutter will cut two corners
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Extension bottom boxes, or to use the old term, boxes with “French
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The change in the shape of the wrappers is made by equipping the
Double Corner Cutter with the proper sub-presses, knives, and dies.
 Another advantage of the Stokes & Smith Wrapping Machine is that
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H O W W O R K I S H A N D L E D.

In plants where this machine is in operation, the work is handled as

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In some of the larger paper box manufacturing plants, where
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teams. For example, two wrapping machines and two gluing machines
are so arranged that the boxes and the lids are finished, inspected
and assembled with all of the work being done in one small
“department.” In not a few shops the boxes and lids are covered on
machines which are located a considerable distance apart, resulting in
a waste of time when the boxes and lids are assembled. The
accompanying illustration will give the reader an idea of how the
machines may be properly grouped so as to eliminate unnecessary
handling:

Figure 4. Illustrating how time and labor may be saved in the plant
by grouping the machines properly, and by working
the operators in teams.

S H O U L D S T U DY F LO O R P LA N S.

Paper box manufacturers should devote time and study to floor

plans of this character. With the shorter work-day being adopted in all
parts of the country, and with skilled labor becoming more scarce
every day, it behooves the manufacturer to work out plans by which
time and labor may be saved, and which will make an increased
amount of output possible. This may be accomplished through
following plans that will effect real efficiency in the factory. No matter
what kinds of machines the manufacturer may be using, they may be
grouped in such a way as to make it possible for the various operators
to work closely together in teams.
Within the last few months the writer visited a paper box making
plant where the staying machines were located at one end of a
spacious room, and where the covering machines were located at the
other end of the room. In about the center of the room the topping
machines were placed. Think of the great number of unnecessary
foot-steps which are made by the workers in this shop during the
course of a day! Consider the large amount of time that is being
wasted every day in carrying the material from one machine to
another! The reader can readily understand that by grouping the
staying machines, the covering machines, and the topping machines
in small “departments,” so to speak, the boxes and lids could be
finished, inspected and assembled simply by passing the work from
one operator to another as the different processes are completed.
The larger sizes of plain paper boxes, such as those used for
holding envelopes, shoes, etc., are not made from the same shapes of
blanks as are used for the making of the smaller sizes of boxes. In the
majority of cases the board used for the larger-size boxes consists of
three separate pieces. The main piece contains flanges with mitered
corners. After the main piece of box-board has been cut to the
required size, and after it has been scored and the corners mitered,
the board is folded or bent to form the bottom and two sides of a box,
having flanges at either end. Separate side pieces are then glued to
these flanges, making the box complete as to form. The principal
reason why the larger-size boxes are made in this fashion is because
it prevents wastage of box-board.
 CHAPTER III

S I D E -S E T PA P E R B OX E S.

IF a single piece of box-board were to be used for the making of a

large-size set-up paper box, (a hat box, for example) it would
necessitate the cutting out of four corner pieces which would be as
large in size as the two side walls of the box, therefore the reader can
readily understand that it would not be economical to cut out corners
of stock which is to be used for the larger-sized boxes. Another
advantage of the side-set paper box is in the ends being stronger
than the ends of a one-piece box. While this strong feature of
construction would not been needed in a small-size box—a pound size
candy box, for instance—it is an advantage for a larger size box such
as is used for holding 500 No. 10 envelopes.
For this kind of a box, the chip-board, news-board, or straw-board
is cut and scored to the size required on either a single or double
scoring and cutting machine. This refers to the body-piece of the box.
The side pieces may be cut to the desired size, in stacks of fifty or
more sheets at a time, on an ordinary power paper cutter, or of
course, the side pieces may be cut from large-size sheets of box-
board on a scoring and cutting machine, or on a rotary board cutter.
In many of the big paper box plants the rotary board cutter is being
used for neck-pieces, side-pieces for side-set boxes, and for other
plain cutting where no scoring is to be done in connection with it. The
main advantage of the rotary board cutter is in the smooth, clean
edges left on the box-board after it has been cut into the various
sizes. The smooth, clean edges could not be procured on an ordinary
paper cutting machine, but in the case of common paper boxes, the
rough edges of end-pieces would not be a serious matter. For the
better grade of boxes the edges of the end-pieces should be smooth
and free from small particles of the board, especially when the box is
to be covered, as the rough edges would show plainly from under the
covering.

Fig. 5. Showing the construction of the flange style of paper box.

Note the mitered corners of the flanges.
Fig. 6. Shows the end-pieces glued to the flanges.

Mitering for stock that is to form the body-pieces for side-set boxes
is done on a machine such as the Hobbs Duplex Corner Cutting and
Mitering Machine which is also used for cutting the corners for one-
piece set-up boxes. The Hobbs machine is so constructed that two
corners may be cut from box-board on one side, and two miters cut
from box-board on the other side. In other words, it is a quadruple
machine which will permit two operators to work upon it at the same
time, the operator on one side doing corner cutting, and the operator
on the other side doing mitering. Either side of the machine may be
used independently of the other, and all sizes of corners up to 3
inches, and all sizes of miters up to 1 inch in depth, can be done by
making the necessary adjustments of the dies, sub-presses, and
gages. The two miters may be spaced as wide apart as 22 inches, and
the two corners as wide as 20 inches.
Some of the paper box manufacturers are making the side-set
boxes by hand, but the majority of box-makers are using Ending
Machines for this kind of work. The hand method of construction is
very simple: The operators are seated on each side of a long table;
one operator “turns in” the flanges of the body-pieces, and shapes
them ready for receiving the end-pieces; another operator applies
glue to the end-pieces and keeps a supply of the glued end-pieces,
arranged in rows, ready for the next operator who places the body of
each box on a form, and then applies the end-pieces. It requires care
for the operator to place the end-pieces in true register with the
bottom and sides of the box. The scoring lines made for the flanges
are followed as guides for putting on the end-pieces squarely. The
form is simply a smooth block of wood, the size of the interior of the
box that is being fashioned. The amount of work which a force of
skilled hand-workers can turn out during the course of a day is really
surprising.

H O W E F F I C I E N C Y I S A C C O M P L I S H E D.

Efficiency in the production of hand-made paper boxes, as well as

efficiency in the production of machine-made boxes, is accomplished
by keeping the workers, or the machines, abundantly supplied with
material, and by having boys or girls carry the material to and from
the tables or machines, instead of having experienced operators
attend to such work. When a force of operators start work at a table,
or at a group of machines, there should be a steady flow of material
to keep them constantly employed. This is the system now being
followed in the leading box-making factories, and it is a system which
should be adopted by every box manufacturer, no matter how small
his shop may be. Keep your skilled help plentifully supplied with
material. Do not allow your best operators to waste time in carrying
stock from place to place when boys or girls, with the aid of light
trucks, can do this class of work just as well.
This leads up to still another important suggestion which we will
offer to the manufacturers in general: Do not keep your apprentices
working for long periods at menial tasks, such as carrying stock,
sweeping floors, running errands, etc. Push the apprentices ahead as
rapidly as possible. Train them to become first-class box-makers.
A brief description of the Hobbs Automatic Ending Machine will
doubtless give the reader an idea of how end-pieces are attached to
the flanges of boxes mechanically: This machine is equipped with a
form, pasters, a hopper and a feeder, all being adjustable to provide
for paper boxes of various sizes. The machine is designed to apply
end-pieces to the bottom and sides of a box, causing the ends to
adhere to the in-turned flanges at either end of the box. The body of
the box is placed upon the form by the operator with the flanges lying
flat upon the surface. The end-pieces are placed in a hopper, and the
machine automatically feeds the undermost end-piece forward,
applies paste to three edges as it is being fed, registers the end
accurately with the box-body upon the form, and then presses the
end-piece firmly to the flanges. This completes the ending operation.

VA R I O U S K I N D S O F A D H E S I V E S.

Various kinds of paste and glue are used for ending work. White
Dextrine is recommended for this purpose by many box-makers.
Stein, Hall & Company, of New York City, make a Dry Ending Gum, as
well as Dry Gums for all classes of paper box work. The “Mikah Cold
Glues,” manufactured by the National Glue and Gelatine Works, of
New York City, are also well recommended. There are other good
glues and pastes on the market.
In addition to the Hobbs Automatic Ending Machines there are
several other ending machines in general use which are rendering first
class service. The Kingsbury & Davis Double Ending and Quadruple
Staying Machine is another “wonder-worker” which is worthy of
special mention. It is said that one of these machines will do the same
amount of work that can be done on five single enders or stayers.
Some of the larger-size paper boxes which are constructed with
flanges and end-pieces, have a strong linen thread running around
the sides of the box, near the top, for the purpose of strengthening
the corners, the paper covering of the box concealing the thread.
Other paper boxes with flanges and end-pieces, have the corners
stayed on the outside with Kraft paper in the same way as the
smaller-size set-up boxes. Others still have the four top edges and the
four corners of the lid stayed with Kraft paper, also the four bottom
edges and the four corners of the box stayed with the same material.
This makes a box and lid of very strong construction, and as a rule, a
box and lid of this kind are not covered with glazed paper, or in fact,
paper of any kind, the box-board being allowed to show in its natural
color. Many of the larger-size envelope boxes are made in this manner,
the corners and edges stayed, but no covering paper applied to either
the inside or the outside of the box or lid.
Shoe boxes, in nearly all instances, are stayed at the corners, and
afterwards are covered with white glazed paper of an inexpensive
grade.

M A N Y T W O - P I E C E B OX E S.

Although the great majority of paper boxes of the larger sizes seem
to be made on the plan of the flange construction with separate end-
pieces, there are also many boxes made from two pieces of box-board
—one continuous side-piece, folded and joined at one corner, and a
“set-in” bottom-piece. A square-shaped box containing a “neck”, such
as is used by manufacturing chemists for magnesia, etc., is often
made on this pattern. Writing paper boxes, and other boxes which are
high and square in form, are also made in this way.
When a paper box is made on this plan—with one continuous side-
piece and a set-in bottom-piece—there is practically no wastage of
box-board, for the reason that no corner-pieces are cut out of the
stock as would be the case with a one-piece set-up box. The
continuous side-piece is scored at three corners, and is joined and
stayed at one corner. The body is then set on a form, of the same size
as the interior of the box, and while the body remains on the form,
the bottom-piece is set in. Strips of stay paper are then pasted to the
four edges of the bottom-piece, and to the four bottom edges of the
box, so as to hold the body and bottom-piece together. When an extra
strong box of this design is wanted, gummed linen tape is used
instead of stay paper for holding the body and bottom-piece together.
Sometimes the stay paper, or linen tape, is pasted on both the inside
and the outside of the box, along the edges of the bottom-piece and
body, for the purpose of making an exceptionally strong box.
Paper boxes of the kind which have been described in the last few
paragraphs are usually covered, after the staying material has been
applied to the corner and at the bottom of the box, with cheviot
paper, or with glazed paper in white or color. A large-size, high and
square box of this type looks particularly handsome when covered
with light gray cheviot paper. The high, oblong box also makes a nice
appearance when covered with the cheviot. Trimming of white glazed
paper, at the top edges of the lid, and at the bottom edges of the box,
forms a good “color scheme” with the cheviot paper, and the trimming
enhances the general appearance of the box.
When large-size paper boxes are made with either flanges and side-
pieces, or with continuous side-pieces and set-in bottoms, the lid is
made on the same pattern as a lid for a plain set-up box, that is with
cut-out corners, and with the corners joined together with staying
material. In the case of a large-size “telescope” box, however, the lid
is made in the same way as the box, the size of the lid being large
enough, of course, for the lid to fit over the sides of the box. A
“telescope” box is the kind generally used for holding suits, coats,
shirt waists, men’s underwear, etc. Boxes of this class are usually low
in depth, say about three inches, and are therefore made with cut-out
corners, or with folding corners. Some telescope boxes, in the larger
sizes, are made as high as 12 inches, both the box and the lid being
formed of two separate pieces. We shall endeavor to explain how
folding suit boxes are made in another chapter.

E Q U I P M E N T R E Q U I R E D F O R S M A L L P LA N T.

While holding an interview with a manufacturer of paper box

making machinery who has furnished complete plants for many box-
makers during the last two decades, the writer asked the
manufacturer to mention the equipment that would be required for a
small paper box factory just starting in business. The manufacturer
answered that it would be difficult for him to specify the kinds and
sizes of the machines necessary for a small new plant, without
knowing exactly the class of work which was to be produced. The
manufacturer explained, however, that for an ordinary plant where a
general line of plain set-up paper boxes were to be made, the
following equipment would probably be sufficient in the beginning of
the venture:

One Single Scoring and Cutting Machine.

One Staying Machine.
Two 9-inch Covering Machines.
One 12-inch Covering Machine.
One 16-inch Covering Machine.
One 16-inch Topping Machine.
One Ending Machine.
One Single Corner Cutting Machine.
One Paper Slitter.
One 34-inch Paper Cutter.
Supplies of box-board, staying material, white and colored glazed
paper in 25-inch rolls, cheviot paper in 25-inch rolls, paste, glue, etc.

The corner cutting machine may be equipped with interchangeable

dies for cutting round corners, miters for box-bodies with flanges, and
odd shapes of many kinds, such as for example, corners for wrappers
used on Stokes & Smith machines. All of this work may be done on
the single cornering machine in addition to the plain corner cutting for
set-up boxes, but it would be necessary to order the special dies as
“extras,” as they are not furnished with the regular equipment.

E C O N O M Y I N P O W E R E Q U I P M E N T.

The machines mentioned may be operated by either hand or foot

power, or they may be equipped for power fixtures. Power machines
are recommended as always being the most economical, as the
amount of work produced on power machines is far greater than the
amount of work produced by hand or foot power. In many of the big
paper box making factories practically all of the machines are driven
by individual electric motors, which means that there is no wastage of
electric current when all of the machines are not in motion. When
individual motors are being used in a plant, no overhead shafting or
belting is necessary. Overhead shafting and belting is often
responsible for dirt, dust or oil being thrown on expensive material.
When steam power, or a single large motor, is used in a plant, it costs
money for shafting and belting, and it also costs something to operate
the shafting and belting before the power reaches the machines. Belts
often break and must be repaired while the machines are standing
idle. All of this expense is eliminated by the individual motor system;
it helps in maintaining clean work-rooms, and it saves the
manufacturer a considerable sum of money on account of the electric
current being consumed only at points where the machines are in
operation. On occasions when all of the machines are not running,
there is a certain reduction in the amount of current used. This is not
the case when a single large motor is in service. It spends its power in
driving shafting and belting even when only one of the machines is in
operation.
With the mechanical equipment which has been suggested for the
establishment of a small paper box-making plant, and with a force of
experienced operators, the manufacturer would be in a position to
produce all kinds of plain set-up paper boxes such as are used for
confectionery, shoes, writing paper, collars, envelopes, and so forth.
As the business grows other machines of greater capacity may be
added to the plant. In due course of time the manufacturer could
have a double scoring machine, and perhaps an automatic wrapping
machine, installed, but it would not be advisable for the box-maker to
invest money in such machines unless he controlled enough business
to keep them constantly busy. It would be a mistake for the
manufacturer to buy an automatic wrapping machine, or other
extraordinary equipment, when he is not sure of having sufficient
work to provide for such equipment.
Practically all of the large and successful box-making concerns are
specializing in some particular line. For example, one large company is
specializing on druggists’ pill and powder boxes. Another firm is
making fine candy boxes of all kinds. Still another concern is making
nothing except folding boxes. The specialty line seems to be “the
thing” in these days, and one can easily understand why it would not
pay a manufacturer in attempting to make every variety of paper
boxes and folding boxes. It would be almost impossible for him to
properly equip his plant with the machinery which would be necessary
to handle all classes of work. The folding box business is one branch
of the industry; the set-up box business is another branch.
Nevertheless, there are some cases where the manufacturer of set-up
boxes could add a cutting and creasing department to his plant with
advantage, and there are also some instances where the maker of
folding boxes could enter the set-up paper box field. But, in no case
would it pay the manufacturer to make all kinds of folding and set-up
boxes. As a general rule the box-maker should specialize in some
particular line.
 CHAPTER IV

D R U G G I S TS ’ P I L L A N D P O W D E R B OX E S.

O NE of the most important branches of the paper box industry is that

which is devoted to the manufacture of druggists’ pill and powder
boxes. Only a comparatively few concerns are engaged in the
production of these specialties, and at the present time these firms
are practically in control of this class of business, for the reason that
their plants have been especially equipped for the production of this
line. In some instances these manufacturers have had special
machinery built for the particular needs of their factories.
While it is true that a great many of the small pill and powder boxes
are made by hand, by skilled workers who have had long experience
on this kind of work, it is also a fact that large numbers of small pill
and powder boxes are being made on machines. In one large plant, of
Philadelphia, there are several specially-built machines which are
being used for the making of round pill boxes of various sizes. The
owners of this plant will not allow strangers to see these machines in
operation; in fact, only certain loyal employes of the firm are
permitted to enter the department where these machines are located.
Another concern, who for the last sixty years has been making a
specialty of druggists’ pill and powder boxes, will not allow visitors in
the mechanical departments of the plant under any circumstances. All
“secrets” in the processes of manufacture are carefully guarded, and
only certain employes have admittance to the work-rooms where
round pill and face powder boxes are put together. The manufacturers
of pill and powder boxes in general seem to have erected a “Chinese
Wall” around their industry, and they should not be blamed for this, as
in some instances the manufacturers have spent thousands of dollars
in perfecting machines and processes, and these of course are their
own private property.
Nevertheless, the writer is of the opinion that no manufacturer will
lose anything by allowing visitors to walk through all departments of
his factory. Personality in business and quality of product are things
which cannot be stolen. You cannot steal a man’s ideas, or rather his
brains. Consider the business methods of the Curtis Publishing
Company, of Philadelphia, for example. This company is said to have
the best-equipped printing plant in the world. Doubtless the reader
knows about the superior quality of The Ladies’ Home Journal, The
Saturday Evening Post, and The Country Gentleman—the three
famous magazines produced by the Curtis Publishing Company. This
company invites the public to go through all departments of its
wonderful plant. This great $25,000,000 concern is not afraid of
anybody stealing its “secrets.”
“Competition is the life of trade.”

R O U N D P I L L A N D P O W D E R B OX E S.

Through the courtesy of one manufacturer of druggists’ pill and

powder boxes, the writer was permitted to see how this line of work is
produced, so far as the plant in question is concerned, and the writer
will attempt to explain the practical side of this work in the following
paragraphs. The reader will be particularly interested in this subject,
no doubt, when it is mentioned that some of the facts presented have
never before appeared in print, to the writer’s knowledge. This is a
bold statement, but we believe that it is well supported.
Round and oval paper boxes, especially the smaller sizes such as
are used for face powders, pills, capsules, etc., are made by highly-
skilled labor and this class of work is considered to be the most
difficult in the paper box industry. Round work is far more intricate
than square-box work of any kind. It requires years of practical
experience for one to become a first class round or oval box maker.
Round work is an art, and many of the fine pill and face powder boxes
which are seen in drug stores are beautiful works of art. The greater
portion of round and oval work is done by hand, although as stated,
some round pill boxes are made on machines.
Round pill and powder boxes are made in a considerable number of
sizes and in a great variety of colors and trims. Round pill boxes are
made as small as three-fourths of an inch in diameter and with a
depth as low as eight-sixteenths of an inch. Then there is a full range
of sizes all the way up to three and five-sixteenths inches in diameter,
and even larger.
Plain, round, shouldered pill boxes are made from two round pieces
of box-board, two “rings” of equal size, made from paper, and one
larger “ring” which forms the shoulder or neck.

Round Shouldered Pill Box—Covered with colored glazed

paper, leaving four white edges.

Note that a round box of this type does not have projecting edges
at the top of the lid and at the bottom of the box. The round top and
bottom pieces set within the rings. The ring is first placed over a
form; glue is applied to the edge of the round piece of box-board, and
this is then set inside the ring. A strip of thin trim paper—gold, white
or colored—is then pasted around the side of the ring, the strip of
trim paper being wide enough to extend slightly over the top of the
lid, or over the bottom of the box. This extension of the trim paper
helps in holding the round piece of box-board to the edge of the ring
and produces a smoothly-covered edge.

T H E F I N I S H E D B OX .

Both the lid and the bottom of the box are made in the same
manner as described. After the trim-paper has been applied to the
sides and edges of the rings, strips of white or colored glazed paper
are then pasted around the sides of the rings (over the trim-paper),
these strips not being as wide as the strips of trim paper. The finished
box shows four edges of the trim, one at the top of the lid, one at the
bottom of the lid, one at the top of the box and one at the bottom.
The shoulder ring, or neck, is nearly double the height of the ring
which forms either the box or the lid. Paste is applied to one edge of
the neck-ring and the neck-ring is then placed inside one of the box-
rings, the end containing the paste adhering to the bottom of the box.
It is well also to put a small portion of the paste on the side of the
shoulder-ring which goes down inside the box. The lid, of course, fits
snugly over the neck.
Some round, shouldered boxes of this type are covered on the
inside with colored glazed paper, others have merely the tops and
bottoms lined with white paper. In the latter case, the box-board used
for the round top and bottom pieces is lined on one side before being
cut into circles.
The rings for the lids, boxes and shoulders, when made of white
paper, are naturally white on the inside. We will explain how the tubes
for the rings and shoulders are made later on.
 Round, Shouldered Projecting Edge Pill Box—Covered with colored
enameled paper, leaving four gold edges.

B OX E S W I T H P R OJ E C T I N G E D G E S.

Round, shouldered pill boxes with projecting edges are made in

about the same way as the plain, round boxes, with the exception
that greater care must be taken by the operator in wrapping the trim
paper around the projecting edges of the lids and boxes. Particular
care must also be taken in placing the round pieces of box-board
accurately in position over the edges of the rings.
For trimming the edges of boxes with projecting edges, light-weight
paper having special stretching qualities should be used. In the trade
this stock is known as “Round-work Glazed.” A. Hartung & Company,
of 506 Race street, Philadelphia, are in a position to furnish this paper
on special order. It can be supplied in white, gold and in various
colors. It comes in rolls 24 inches wide.
Many expert operators on round box work are capable of making
boxes with projecting edges without using forms for placing the tops
and bottoms of the boxes accurately into position. Some operators
make use of metal rings which are placed over the box-rings after the
round pieces of box-board have been attached to the glued edges of
the box-rings. According to the size of the boxes being made, the
metal ring’s outside dimensions are the same as the diameter of the
round pieces of box-board. The inside of the metal ring fits closely
around the outside of the box-ring. By careful manipulation with the
fingers, the operator with the aid of the metal ring, obtains an even
margin on the projecting edge all around.
Other operators do not use glue in applying the edges of the rings
to the round pieces of box-board, the strips of trimming paper serving
to hold the material together firmly. The strip of trimming paper, with
paste applied to one side of it, is neatly wrapped around the outside
of a box-ring and around the edge of the round piece of box-board.
One edge of the trim paper is then turned over the edge of the round
piece of box-board, and the other edge of the trim paper is then
turned over the edge of the ring. It requires experienced fingers
indeed to accomplish this tedious work without causing the turned
edges of the trimming paper to wrinkle. “Practice makes perfect.” The
skilled operator can produce a surprising amount of this class of work
during the course of a day. The finished product shows the trimming
paper smoothly wrapped around the boxes and lids, and where the
paper passes over the projecting edges of the boxes and lids, not the
smallest wrinkle in the paper is to be seen. The turned-in edges of the
trimming paper are even and smooth.

E D G E S L E F T E X P O S E D.

The operator holds in proper position one of the box-rings, and one
of the round pieces of box-board, as the trimming paper is applied.
After the trimming paper has been put on, strips of glazed paper, of
the color desired, are pasted to the sides of the boxes and lids,
leaving the edges of the trimming paper exposed.
Round, shouldered pill boxes with projecting edges are made in
many different sizes, some as small as one and one-sixteenth inches
in diameter, and with a depth as low as one-half of an inch. These
boxes are trimmed and covered with papers of various colors, and
beautiful effects are obtained when correct color schemes are chosen.
White or gold trimming paper harmonizes well with all other colors of
paper. A box covered with white trimming paper and bronze enameled
paper, leaving four white edges, forms a pleasing color combination.
Bronze and gold, light blue and white, red and gold, light blue and
gold, are only a few of the many good color schemes which are being
used.
Some of the fine, round, shouldered pill boxes with projecting
edges are lined inside with silver, gold, colored or tin foil paper. Some
of these boxes are covered entirely with gold paper, others are
covered entirely with white or colored paper. Others again are covered
with fancy embossed, or watered paper, after gold or silver trimming
paper has been applied.
The tops of the lids for these boxes are not covered by the box-
maker as a general rule. Druggists who buy these boxes paste their
own printed round labels to the lids of the boxes as physicians’
prescriptions for pills, capsules, etc., are filled.
One can form some idea of the large number of round pill boxes
which are being consumed in this country when considering the
number of drug stores that are located in all sections of the United
States. The demand for high grade round pill boxes is constantly
increasing. At the present time, the supply of fine, hand-made pill and
powder boxes is not equal to the demand, as only a few
manufacturers are specializing in this class of product.

S H O U L D E R E D M A G N E S I A B OX E S.

Among the other kinds of small paper boxes which are used
extensively by pharmacists are plain, round, shouldered magnesia
boxes, as they are termed in the trade. Round boxes of this variety
are higher in form than the pill boxes which have been described, and
they are used for holding other powders in addition to magnesia.
(Insect powder, for example). Some boxes of this model have a depth
of three inches, while the diameter of the lid is one and fifteen-
sixteenths inches.
 Round Shouldered Magnesia Box—Covered
with
colored glazed paper.

Round, shouldered boxes of this class are made in about the same
way as plain, round pill boxes, the round pieces of box-board being
glued to the inside edges of the rings. In some instances, the sizes of
the rings for the lid and box are both the same. In other cases the
depth of the ring for the box is considerably larger than the depth of
the ring used for the lid.
The shoulder, or neck, for this kind of box consists of a tube which
is almost the same height as the interior of the box. One edge of this
tube is glued to the bottom of the box. Some glue is also applied to
the side of the tube, so that it will hold firmly to the inside of the box.
On account of the neck on this style of box being higher than the
neck on a pill box, some slight difficulty would be experienced in
placing the lid of the box over the neck. To overcome this, a slit,
running slightly on an angle, is cut into the neck with a sharp knife.
This slit causes a lap-over of the neck, at the edge, making it an easy
matter to slide the lid on.

PURPOSE OF HOLES

Before cutting the slits in the necks, some operators punch small
holes, with a bodkin or an awl, in the sides of the necks, at a point
where the length of the slit is to be determined. The hole serves two
purposes: First, it acts as a guiding mark when the operator cuts the
slit; second, it has an influence on the lap-over, allowing it to be
moved freely as the lid is placed over it.
Round, shouldered magnesia boxes are covered with glazed or
enameled paper, white or colored. Trimming paper is seldom applied.
When tubes, or rings of white paper have been used in the
construction of these boxes, the covering paper for the side of the box
and side of the lid may be cut to widths that will permit four white
edges of the box to show. These white edges make the box and lid
appear as though they had been trimmed with white paper. The
reader is to understand, however, that in the case of a round box with
projecting edges, it would be necessary to apply trimming paper,
before pasting on the regular covering paper, as the trimming paper
serves to hold the round piece of box-board to the edge of the ring.
In the case where the tops and bottoms of plain, round boxes are
to be covered with glazed or enameled paper, there are two methods
of covering: One method is in having one side of the box-board
(which is to be used for the tops and bottoms of the boxes) covered
with glazed or enameled paper before the box-board is cut into round
pieces. The other method is in having round pieces of the paper, of
desired size and color, cut out with a die, and the round pieces of
paper are then pasted to the tops and bottoms of the boxes.
Labels for round magnesia boxes are usually pasted to the sides of
the boxes, and for this reason the tops and bottoms of these boxes
are frequently covered with glazed or enameled paper, the same color
as that applied to the sides of the boxes.
 As mentioned in a previous paragraph, some plain, round boxes,
not having projecting edges, are trimmed on all four edges with
“Round-Work Glazed Paper” before regular glazed or enameled paper
is applied to the sides, but as a general rule, only round boxes with
projecting edges are treated in this manner.

HOW THE “BARRELS” ARE MADE.

To a person not familiar with the process of manufacturing round

and oval paper boxes, it would appear that the sides of the boxes are
formed of light-weight cardboard, rolled to the required shape. Such is
not the case. The tubes, or “barrels” from which the rings for the
boxes are cut, are made of paper. The tubes from which the shoulders
or necks are cut, are also made of paper. Manila stock is used for
tubes of the cheaper grade. Machine finished book paper is used for
tubes of good quality, and the tubes which are used for the making of
the finest face powder boxes are constructed of white coated or
enameled paper. This will explain the beautiful gloss-white surface
which may be seen on the inside of expensive face powder boxes.
 Knowlton Tube Cutting Machine.

The various kinds of paper used for the making of tubes comes in
rolls, and can be supplied by any of the well known paper dealers in
rolls of standard widths. What is known in the printing trade as 50-
pound manila, 50-pound machine finished book, and 80-pound
enameled or coated-one-side, are the kinds of paper generally used
for making the different varieties of tubes. These papers can be
furnished in all of the standard weights or thicknesses.
Parallel tube rolling machines are necessary for this class of work.
James Brown, Jr., & Sons, Manayunk, Philadelphia, Pa., have invented
a tube rolling machine which is capable of turning out twenty-two
“barrels,” sixteen inches long, per minute. This machine is equipped
with a paste tank, a steel mandrel of the desired size, a cut-off device,
and a roll of the paper, say sixteen inches wide. Adjustments can be
made so as to roll the tube to any required thickness. Three or four
complete revolutions of the mandrel are all that are necessary for a
tube which is to be used for small pill boxes. Flour paste is
recommended in making tubes of the kind in question, but dextrine or
any of the patented cold glues on the market may be used for the
purpose.
 CHAPTER V

D R U G G I S TS ’ P I L L A N D P O W D E R B OX E S ( C o n t i n u e d )

I
N addition to manufacturing tube rolling machines for the box-
makers, James Brown, Jr. & Sons, Manayunk, Philadelphia, are also
making tubes for the trade. Instead of manufacturing the tubes, or
“barrels,” for round boxes in their own plants, some of the box-makers
order the tubes made by concerns like James Brown, Jr., & Sons.
Afterwards, the box-makers have the finished tubes cut into rings of
the required sizes, and assembled into boxes in their own plants.
There is an advantage, of course, in the box-maker having his own
tube rolling machines.
The finished “barrels” for round paper boxes are cut into rings of
various lengths on a rotary tube-cutting machine which works
somewhat on the principle of a lathe. Some of the larger
manufacturers of round pill boxes have had special cutting machines
built for this purpose. Tube-cutting machines of this kind are supplied
by some of the larger manufacturers of paper box machinery.
In some paper box factories, where small, round and oval pill boxes
are produced as a specialty, the tubes are rolled by hand on forms of
the required sizes. After a tube has been rolled, it is placed on
another form to dry for about twenty-four hours before being cut into
small sections on a lathe. The machine-made tubes are said to be just
as satisfactory as the hand-made tubes. All of the tubes are allowed
to dry thoroughly before cutting them into rings.

C O V E R I N G F O R R O U N D A N D O VA L B OX E S.

As previously mentioned, small round and oval boxes are first

covered with Round-work Glazed Paper, having special stretching
qualities. This stock comes in rolls, 24 inches wide. A rotary slitting
machine is used for cutting the paper into widths of the necessary
sizes. The slitting and rewinding machine cuts the large roll into strips,
and these are rewound into small rolls. The operators on the round
and oval boxes make use of the smaller rolls when covering the
boxes.
The glazed white or colored paper used for finishing the boxes also
comes in rolls, and the large rolls are cut into sections, or different
widths, on the slitting and rewinding machine, in exactly the same
way as the Round-work Glazed Paper.
In some plants, small covering machines, of special model, are used
by the operators in applying the paper to the sides of round and oval
boxes. In other plants, all of the covering work is done entirely by
hand, the operators working with paste, scissors, and the small,
narrow rolls of glazed paper. This is artistic work, indeed, and it can
be done only by experienced operators.
The hand-operators work on spacious tables, and these are
provided with the tools, gluing-boards, paste-containers, and all of the
material necessary for the making of the round and oval paper boxes.
The operators at intervals rub their fingers on small cakes of bees’
wax to keep the fingers clear of paste or glue. One operator
continually works at covering the boxes and lids; another works
exclusively at finishing, or rather, covering the sides of the boxes and
lids with strips of colored glazed paper; still another operator inserts
the necks in the boxes. The boxes and lids are then assembled
together, and the completed product is afterwards packed in large-size
paper boxes, usually holding one gross each.

C U TT I N G R O U N D A N D O VA L P I E C E S.

The round and oval pieces of box-board for the tops and bottoms of
the round and oval paper boxes are cut to the proper sizes and
shapes by means of steel dies and a press. A steel die of the required
size and shape is placed over about a dozen pieces of box-board. The
die and stock are then placed under the head of the press; powerful
pressure is applied, and the steel die cuts through the dozen or more
pieces of box-board, cleanly cutting out the disks or ovals as the case
may be. It is necessary, of course, to have a steel die for each size
and shape desired. The manufacturers of small round and oval boxes
have complete sets of steel dies, suitable to all the standard sizes of
work, and these dies are kept in first-class condition so that they are
always capable of doing sharp, clean cutting. Several different dies
may be put under a large press at one time. The square or oblong
pieces of box-board are cut to sizes to conform with the various sizes
of dies so as to prevent as much wastage of stock as possible. A
margin of about one-half of an inch, all-round, will do for the average
die. Steel dies and die-presses can be furnished by any of the large
manufacturers of paper box machinery.

O VA L S H O U L D E R E D P I L L B OX E S W I T H P R OJ E C T I N G E D G E S.

Oval shouldered pill boxes with projecting edges are made much in
the same manner as round shouldered pill boxes with projecting
edges, with the exception that oval forms are used for properly
shaping the boxes and their lids.
The forms for the oval boxes are usually made of hard-wood, and
they are accurately cut and smoothly finished so that the box and lid
will fit nicely together. The covering is done while the box, or the lid,
remains on the form. The regular rings, cut from the round tubes are
used, and these round rings are easily placed over the oval forms.
Extreme care must be exercised by the operator when applying the
Round-work Glazed paper to the sides and projecting edges of the
oval boxes and lids. The work of setting in the necks is comparatively
simple.