COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT

BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS (MGMT 3211) NOTE

FOR EXIT EXAM. PREPARATION

PREPARED BY GETNET G/MICHAEL (MBA)

Reviewed by MENGISTU AMESE (MBA) and
KIFLE HAILE (MBA)

JANUARY 2023

BONGA, ETHIOPIA
 Business Research Methods Not for Exit Exam. Preparation.
2023

Table of Content
CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH METHODS ............................................................................... 1
1.1 Meaning & Definition of Research ........................................................................................ 1
1.2 Types of research ................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objective of Research ............................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Methods of scientific research ............................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER TWO: DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS
FORMULATION ....................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 11
2.1. What is Research Problem? ................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Components of research problem ......................................................................................... 14
1.3 Problem formulation and research question.......................................................................... 15
1.4 What is hypothesis? .............................................................................................................. 17
1.5 Importance of hypothesis ...................................................................................................... 17

2.6 Criteria for hypothesis formulation ....................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH PROPOSAL ........................................................................ 21

3.1 What is research proposal? ................................................................................................... 21

3.2 Elements of research proposal .............................................................................................. 24

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING OF RESEARCH PROJECT) .......... 27

4.1 Meaning of research design .................................................................................................. 27

Types of Research Design .......................................................................................................... 27
4.2 Need for research design ....................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Importance of Research Design ............................................................................................ 34
4.4 Feature of Good Research Design ........................................................................................ 35
CHAPTER FIVE: SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTIONS ........................ 36
5.1 Primary Sources .................................................................................................................... 36
5.1.1 Direct observation .............................................................................................................. 36
5.1.2 Questionnaires.................................................................................................................... 38
5.1.3 Interview ............................................................................................................................ 41
5.2 Secondary Sources ................................................................................................................ 45
5.2.1 Sources of Secondary Data ................................................................................................ 46

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5.3 Use the appropriate data collection methods ........................................................................ 47

CHAPTER SIX: PROCESSING OF DATA AND ANALYSIS ................................................ 50
6.1. Processing of Data ............................................................................................................... 50
6.2. Tabulation ............................................................................................................................ 54
6.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data ..................................................................................... 55
6.4. Meanings and Technique of Interpretation .......................................................................... 58
6.5. Drawing Conclusions and Recommendations ..................................................................... 59
6.6. Research Report ................................................................................................................... 59

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 CHAPTER ONE
RESEARCH METHODS

1.2 Meaning & Definition of Research

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the
former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to
examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles.

A research need not lead to ideal solution but it may give rise to new problems which may
require further research. In other words research is not an end to a problem since every
research gives birth to a new question. It is carried on both for discovering new facts and
verification of old ones.
Research in common parlance refers to search for knowledge. Actually the word Research is
derived from French word „Researcher‟ meaning „to search back„. In simple term research is
an in-depth study of the status, to find out the inner truth, inner story of any subject of
interest, and also to solve problems.

One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on
a specific topic. In fact research is an art of scientific investigation. In short, research is all
about;

 A careful investigation /inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge.
 A systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
 Search for knowledge through objective and systematic methods of finding solution
to a problem.

Definitions of Research

- Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidences for the

purpose of gaining knowledge. (Robert Ross).

- Research is an organized enquiry Designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem, (Fred kerlinger).

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- Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or relationship

and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge. (Francis Rummel).

- According to Clifford woody Research comprise defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypotheses, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deduction and
reaching conclusions and lastly carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit
for formulating hypotheses. Research is thus

 An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its

Advancement.
 The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solutions to a problem.

These Definitions Emphasis the following characteristics of research

2. Research must follow a systematic / scientific procedure and well-drawn research plan.
3. It is a controlled, empirical and critical investigation.

3. It involves investigation of some hypothetical propositions.

4. Its purpose is to provide information for decision making and solving problems. Further to
establish relationship between the variables.

5. It is an organized and careful investigation /inquiry, recording, analysing the available

evidence to gain knowledge.

1.2 Types of research

Research can be classified based on different ways in to the following

1. Based On Outcome Of The Research: whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be classified on
the following traits.
A. Basic/Pure/Fundamental Research

Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is
aimed at investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with
generalization and formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the
attainment of knowledge and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make

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in the fundamental principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of research also
verifies the old established theories, principles and laws. In general, fundamental research is
concerned with the theoretical aspect of science.

Ex. - The relationship between crime and economic status

- Darwin theory of Evolution

B. Applied Research:

A research aimed finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by either
individuals or groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers.

Ex. The improvement of safety in the working place.

Types of Applied Research

 Social impact analysis: the major purpose of social assessment is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and
making choices among alternative policies.
 Evaluation Research: is widely used type of applied research that addresses the
question, “did it works?” Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgment based
on evidence.

Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools namely; need
assessment and cost benefit analysis.

 Need Assessment: a research collects data, to determine major needs and their severity.
It is often a preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people.
 Cost benefit analysis: this is commonly used in social impact analysis. Economics
developed cost benefit analysis, in which the researcher estimates the future costs and
the expected benefits of one or several proposed actions and gives them monetary
values.

2. Based On Purpose: The reason why are we conducting the research:

A. Exploratory Research (Pilot Survey): It is also called preliminary research. As its name
implied, such research is aimed at discovering, identifying and formulating a research

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problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies that can be referred such research
is needed. Sales decline in a company may be due to: Inefficient service, improper price,
inefficient sales force, Ineffective promotion, improper quality.

The research executives must examine such questions to identify the most useful avenues for
further research. Preliminary investigation of this type is called exploratory research. Expert
surveys, focus groups, case studies and observation methods are used to conduct the
exploratory survey. E.g. “Our sales are declining and we don„t know why?

B. Descriptive Research: it describe characteristics of population or phenomenon and it tries

to answer questions like, who how, what, when where questions. The main purpose of
descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists at present. Simply stated, it is a
fact finding investigation. In descriptive research, definite conclusions can be arrived at, but it
does not establish a cause and effect relationship. This type of research tries to describe the
characteristics of the respondent in relation to a particular product.

Descriptive research deals with demographic characteristics of the consumer. For example,
trends in the consumption of soft drink with respect to socio-economic characteristics such
as age, family, income, education level etc. Another example can be the degree of viewing
TV channels, its variation with age, income level, and profession of respondent as well as
time of viewing.

C. Explanatory (causal) research: Causal research is conducted to determine the cause

and effect relationship between the two variables. Example: Effect of advertisement on
sales. E.g. Which of two advertising strategies is more effective?

3. On the Basis of the Process of Research

That is, on the basis of data used in the research process research to be

A. Qualitative research: Such research is applicable for phenomena that cannot be

expressed in terms of quantity. Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find
how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is an example of
such research.

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B. Quantitative research: Quantitative research on the other hand, is concerned with

quantitative phenomena. It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable for phenomena that can be expressed in term of quantity.

4. On the Basis of the Environment: in which the research is carried out can be:

A. Field Research - It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in
social science, agricultural science, history and archaeology.

B. Laboratory Research - It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are

commonly experimental research. Such researches are common in medical science,
agriculture and in general in natural sciences.

C. Simulation Research - Such research uses model to represent the real world. Simulation
is common in physical science, economics and mathematics.

5. On the Basis of the Time Required to Complete the Research, research can be:

A. One –time research: it is a research limited to a single time period

B. Longitudinal research: Such research is also called on-going research. It is a research

carried out over several time periods.

6. Based on logic: is the research from specific to general or vice versa.

A. Deductive Research: is a study in which conceptual and the critical structures is

developed and then tested by empirical observation. It is moving from the general to
particular

B. Inductive Research: is a study in which theory is developed from the observation of

empirical reality

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Objective of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it. Studies with this
object in view are known as Exploratory Research

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

studies with this object in view are known as Descriptive Research.

3. To Determine the frequency with which something occurs / or with which it is associated
with something else – studies with this object in view are known as Diagnostic Research
studies.

4. To test the hypotheses of a causal relationship between variables – such studies are known
as Hypothesis Testing Research.

Generally the objective of any research study is either to explore a phenomenon or to

describe the characteristics of a particular event /object/ individual or groups or to diagnose
or to test the relationship between variables.

1.3 Methods of scientific research

Research Method: research method is all about all those methods / techniques / procedures
for conduction of research. Research method, thus, refers to the methods the researchers use
in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research are termed as research methods.

In short, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

a. Those methods which are concerned with the collection of Date (i.e. methods of data
collection)

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b. Those methods / statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationship
between the data and the unknowns (i.e., methods of analysis)

c. Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the result obtained.

Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In
it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by the researcher in studying his
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary to the researcher to know
not only the research methods / techniques but also the methodology. Researcher not only
need to know how to develop certain questionnaires, indices or tests, how to calculate, how to
apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these method or
technique are relevant and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and why.
Researchers also need to understand the assumption underlying various methods and they
need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain methods / procedures will be
applicable to certain problems and others will not.

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of research methodology. The scope of
research methodology is wider than that of research method.

“Research Methodology is generally refers to different approaches to systematically inquiry

developed within a particular paradigm with associated epistemological assumptions. (e.g.
Experimental / Nonexperimental, Action / grounded / …)

Thus, when we talk about research methodology we are not only talk of research methods but
also consider the LOGIC behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method and why we are not using others so that
research result are capable of being evaluated.

 Why research study has been undertaken?

 How the research problem has been defined?
 Why the hypotheses has been formulated and in what way?
 What data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted?
And why not others?
 Why particular method of analysis has been used?, and

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A host of other similar questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research study.

Research and Scientific Method

For clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method are closely related. Research as already stated,
can be termed as “an enquiry in to the nature of, the reason for and the consequence of any
particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur”.

On the other hand scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations. The ideas of science are to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
Scientific method attempts to achieve these ideal by observation – experimentation – logical
argument from accepted postulates and the combination of these three in varying propositions
(i.e., declarative tentative statements). In scientific method logic aids in formulating
propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternative become clear with the
consequence of such alternatives.

Thus, the scientific method is the best way yet discovered for winnowing the truth from lies
and delusion. It is based on certain basic postulates. The simple version looks something like
this:

1. Observe some aspects of the universe

2. Invent a tentative description, called Hypotheses, which is consistent with what you have
observed.
3. Use the hypotheses to make predictions.
4. Test those predictions by experiments or further observations and modify the hypotheses in
the light of your results.
5. Repeat step 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and /
or observation.

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When consistency is obtained the hypotheses becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of
propositions, which explain a class of phenomenon. A theory is then a framework with in
which observations are explained and predictions are made. The great advantage of scientific
method is that:

- It is unprejudiced: one does not have to believe a given researcher: one can redo the
experiment and determine whether his / her results are true or false. The conclusions will hold
irrespective of the state of mind.

- A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing power of the proponent, but on
the results obtained through observation and / or experiments, which any one can reproduce:
the result obtained through scientific method are repeatable.

A frequent criticism made of the scientific method is that it cannot accommodate any thing
that has not been proved. The argument then points out that many things thought to be
impossible in the past are now every day realities. This criticism is based on a
misinterpretation of the scientific method. When the hypotheses pass the test it is adopted as a
theory it correctly explains arrange of phenomenon it can, at any time, be falsified by new
experimental evidences. When exploring a new sort of phenomena scientists do using
existing theories but, since this is a new area of investigation, it is always kept in mind that
the old theories might fail to explain the new experiment and observations. In this case new
hypotheses are devised and tested until a new theory emerges.

The other limitations of scientific method are relating with the: Difficulty in use of
experiments: for instance the laboratory of social scientists is the world of everyday living. It
is difficult to control external factors; Complexity of subject matters; Measurement problem;
Difficulties in replication / generalization; Differences in observation – bias / preconception
of phenomenon; and Objectivity.

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Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research?

- Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
- Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problem
- Desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative work
- Desire to be provide service to society
- Desire to get respectability
- Government directives, employment conditions

Significance of Research

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than over confidence, for it leads to
inquiry, and inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson maxim in the
context of which the significance of research can well be understood, and the following are
the basic:

 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
 Research has its special significance involving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
it„s seeking answers to various social problems.
 To philosophers and thinkers research may mean the out let for new ideas and
insights.
 To professional in research, it may mean a source of insights.
 To analysis and intellectuals, it may mean the development of new theories.
 To literary men & women, it may mean development of new styles & creative work.
 To managers it helps to get information as basis for making certain decisions.

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CHAPTER TWO
DEFINING RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS
FORMULATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it
becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem
is?
The first step in the research process is the choice of suitable problem for investigation.
Problem is any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty. Problem also
denotes here a question proposed for solution or discussion. On the other hand research
problem refers to a problem that someone would like to investigate; a situation that needs to
be changed or addressed. These problems usually consist of area of concern, condition to be
improved, difficulties to be eliminated, and questions seeking answer. A research problem
also defined as an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in research
study.

The identification of research problem is difficult, but it is an important phase of the entire
research process. It requires a great deal of patience and logical thinking on the part of the
researcher. Beginners find the tasks of identifying a research problem a difficult one. Most of
the time researchers select a problem because of his own unique needs and purposes. There
are, however, some important sources which are helpful to a researcher for selecting problem
to be investigated.

2.1. What is Research Problem?

A research problem is any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or

artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking. It is the difficulty experienced by
the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation. A research problem is the situation that
causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused and ill at ease. It is the determination of

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a problem area within a certain context involving the, who, what, where, when and the why
of the problem situation.

Elements of a research problem: the elements of research problems are

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question why „why is
there an investigation, inquiry to study.

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question what.

3. The place/local where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question where?

Where the study to be conducted?

4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This answers the
question when.

5. Population/universe from whom the data are to be collected. Answers the question who or
from whom.

Steps in Formulating a Research Problem/Topic

There are several steps to follow in formulating a Research problem

1. Identify broad fields of study. In which area are you most interested? E.g. Management,

Logistics, Accounting, Economics or Marketing

2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas, E.g. HRM, Motivation, and Leadership

3. Select the sub-areas which you are most interested within the subject by considering your
knowledge, time, budget…etc

4. Raise research questions in questionnaire or interview guides.

5. Formulate research objectives: Research objectives are drive from research questions.

Research objectives and research questions are the same except the way they are written.

Research questions are written in the form questions.

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Research objectives are written in the form of affirmative statement by using action
oriented words, such as ―to examine, ―to ascertain‖, ―to measure‖, ―to investigate‖
etc.

6. Assess objectives- evaluating the objectives in the light of the time, budget, technical and
professional expertise about the subject and other related resources.

7. Double check- go back and make sure that you have sufficient interest, time, resource and
expertise, if you are happy, then you jumps to next step.

Sources of a Research Problem

Research problem / Idea originate from many sources. We discuss four of these sources for
the time being: Everyday life, practical issue, past research (literature), and Inference from
theory.

1. Everyday life: is one common source of research problem / idea, Based on Questioning
and inquisitive approach, you can draw from your experiences, and come up with many
research problems. For example think about what type of management practices in
cooperatives you believe work well or do not work well. Would you be interested in doing a
research study on one or more of those practices?

2. Practical Issue: this is one of most important source of research problem especially when
you are practitioner. What are some current problem facing cooperatives developments?
What research topic do you think can address some of these problems?

By such types of inquisitive approach with regard to the practical issue you can come up with
research problem.

3. Past research (literature): Among the sources of research problems one has to be very

familiar with the literature in the field of one„s interest. Past research is probably the most
important source of research idea / problem. That is because, importantly research usually
generate more questions than it answers. This also the best way to come with a specific idea
that will fit in to and extend the research literature.

4. Theory (Explanations of phenomenon): inference from theory can be a source of

research problem. The application of general principles involved in various theories to

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specific situation makes an excellent starting point for research. The following question gives
illustration how theory can be a source of research problem.

- Can you summarized and integrate a set of post studies in to a theory?

Are there any theoretical predictions needing empirical testing?

- Do you have any theories that you believe have merit? Test them.

- If there is little or no theory in the area of interest to you, then think about collecting data to
help you to generate a theory.

2.2 Components of research problem

The Most Important Components of research problem as discussed by R. L. Ackoff are listed
below:

(1) Research Consumer:

There must be individuals or groups which have some difficulty or problem. The individuals
or the groups themselves may be researchers. There are other participants in the problem. All
are affected by the decision on the part of the research consumer.

(2) Research-Consumer’s Objective:

There must be some objectives to be attained as the research consumer must have something
he wants to get it. It one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.

(3) Alternative Means to Meet the Objective:

There must be alternative means or the courses of action for attaining an objective one wishes
to obtain. Means are courses of action. A course of action may involve the use of objects.
Objects are the instruments. This means that there must be at least two means available to a
researcher or if he has no choice or means, he cannot have a problem.

(4) Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives:

The existence of alternative courses of action is not enough. To experience a problem the
researcher must have some doubt as to which alternative to select. Without such a doubt there
can be no problem. This means that research must answer the question concerning the
relative efficiency of the possible alternative.

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(5) There must be one or More Environments:

There must be some environments to which the difficulty or problem pertains. A change in
the environment may produce or remove a problem. A researcher may have doubts as to
which will be the most efficient means in one environment but may entertain no such doubt
in another. Some problems are quite general.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for
the given problem so that the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given
environment.

2.3 Problem formulation and research question

After selecting a specific research topic and conducting a thorough literature review, you are
ready to take the next step in planning a research study: clearly articulating the research
problem. The research problem typically takes the form of a concise question regarding the
relationship between two or more variables. Examples of research problems include the
following:

i. Is the onset of depression among elderly males related to the development of physic
al limitations?
ii. What effect does a sudden dip in the Dow Jones Industrial Average have on the economy of
small businesses?
iii. Will a high-fiber, low-fat diet be effective in reducing cholesterol levels among middle-aged
females?
iv. Can a memory enhancement class improve the memory functioning of patients with
progressive dementia?

When articulating a research question, it is critically important to make sure that the
question is specific enough to avoid confusion and to indicate clearly what is being studied.
In other words, the research problem should be composed of a precisely stated research
question that clearly identifies the variables being studied. A vague research question often
results in methodological confusion, because the research question does not clearly indicate
what or who is being studied.

The following are some examples of vague and nonspecific research questions:

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1. What effect does weather have on memory?

2. Does exercise improve physical and mental health?

3. Does a taking street drug result in criminal behaviour?

As you can see, each of these questions is rather vague, and it is impossible to determine
exactly what is being studied. For example,

 In the first question, what type of weather is being studied, and memory for what?
 In the second question, is the researcher studying all types of exercise, and the effects
of exercise on the physical and mental health of all people or a specific subgroup of
people?
 Finally, in the third question, which street drugs are being studied, and what specific
types of criminal behaviour?

An effective way to avoid confusion in formulating research questions is by using operational

definitions. Through the use of operational definitions, researchers can specifically and
clearly identify what (or who) is being studied (see Kazdin, 1992). As briefly discussed in
Chapter 1, researchers use operational definitions to define key concepts and terms in the
specific contexts of their research studies. The benefit of using operational definitions is that
they help to ensure that everyone is talking about the same phenomenon. Among other things,
this will greatly assist future researchers who attempt to replicate a given study‟s results.
Obviously, if researchers cannot determine what or whom is being studied, they will certainly
not be able to replicate the study. Let‟s look at an example of how operational definitions can
be effectively used when formulating a research question.

Let‟s say that a researcher is interested in studying the effects of large class sizes on the
academic performance of gifted children in high population schools. The research question
may be phrased in the following manner: “What effects do large class sizes have on the
academic performance of gifted children in high-population schools?” This may seem to be a
fairly straightforward research question, but upon closer examination, it should become
evident that there are several important terms and concepts that need to be defined. For
example, what constitutes a “large class”; what does “academic performance” refer to; which
kids are considered “gifted”; and what is meant by “high population schools”?

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To reduce confusion, the terms and concepts included in the research question need to be
clarified through the use of operational definitions. For example, “large classes” may be
defined as classes with 30 or more students; “academic performance” may be limited to
scores received on standardized achievement tests; “gifted” children may include only those
children who are in advanced classes; and “high-population schools” may be defined as
schools with more than 1,000 students. Without operationally defining these key terms and
concepts, it would be difficult to determine what exactly is being studied. Further, the
specificity of the operational definitions will allow future researchers to replicate the research
study.

Criteria for Research Problems

Good research problems must meet three criteria (see Kerlinger, 1973).

 First, the research problem should describe the relationship between two or more
variables.
 Second, the research problem should take the form of a question.
 Third, the research problem must be capable of being tested empirically (i.e., with
data derived from direct observation and experimentation).

2.4 What is hypothesis?

After you have identified a problem, you may formulate certain answers in the form of
hypotheses. These guesses are based on the past experiences or informal observation or
information gained from others. A hypothesis is defined as “A tentative proposition
suggested as a solution to a problem or as an explanation of some phenomenon (Ary
et.al. 1985).

2.5 Importance of hypothesis

It is an agreed fact that, whenever possible, research should proceed from a hypothesis.
Hypotheses are particularly necessary in studies where the cause-and-effect relationships are
to be discovered. These, however, may not be so important in research studies in which the
issue is of determining the status of a given historical, social or educational
phenomenon.

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It may be mentioned here that hypotheses are not essential to all researches,
particularly, in the early stages of exploration of a problem. And it should not be assumed
that failure to develop a hypothesis is necessarily a sign of lack of scientific orientation.
However, a hypothesis may be conceived as an assumption which merits consideration
and needs to be tested against the available empirical evidence. That is why it is
suggested that a hypothesis is to be used as a pivot around which the investigation
resolves, limiting thereby the field of investigation to a definite target and also
determining the observations to be made and the ones to ignore.

A good hypothesis has several basic characteristics. We discuss some of them as follows:

i) Providing direction: Hypotheses provide direction to research and prevent review of

irrelevant literature and collection of useless or excessive data. They enable you to classify
the information from the stand point of both „relevance‟ and „organisation‟.

This is necessary because, a given fact may be relevant with respect to one hypothesis and
irrelevant with respect to another, or it may belong to one classification with regard to first
hypothesis or to an entirely different classification with regard to the second. Thus,
hypotheses ensure the collection of relevant data necessary to answer questions arising from
the statement of the problem. For example, in a research problem, „Study habits and
achievement of Distance Education Learners‟, the researcher may frame the hypothesis –
learners putting in more study hours achieve more in the examination. The researcher will
collect data about the number of hours being put in by learners for study and their
achievement in the examination.

ii) Hypothesis should be testable: Hypotheses should be stated in such a way as to indicate
an expected difference or an expected relationship between the measures used in the research.
The researcher should not state any hypothesis that she/he does not have reason to believe
that it can be tested or evaluated by some objective means.

Hypotheses are the propositions about the relationships between variables. These can be
tested empirically. There is no relationship between attendance to personal contact
programmes in a distance education course and achievement in examination. Such
propositions can be tested by means of empirical data.

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iii) Hypothesis should be brief and clear: Hypothesis should be stated clearly and briefly. It
makes problems easier for the reader to understand and also for the researcher to test. The
statement should be a concise statement of the relationship expected.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

There are some important aspects to be looked into to judge the worth of a hypothesis in
research. A good hypothesis must be:

i) consistent with known facts and theories, and might be even expected to predict or
anticipate previously unknown data,

ii) able to explain the data in simpler terms,

iii) stated in the simplest possible terms, depending upon the complexity of the concepts
involved in the research problem, and

iv) stated in a way that it can be tested for its being probably true or probably false,
in order to arrive at conclusions in the form of empirical or operational statements.

2.6 Criteria for hypothesis formulation

Criteria for Formulation of Hypothesis:

There exist two criteria for formulation of a good hypothesis.

First, it is a statement about the relations between variables.
Secondly it carries clear implications for testing the stated relations.
Thus, these couple of criteria imply that the hypotheses comprise two or more variables
which are measurable or potentially measurable and that they specify the way in which they
are related. A statement which fails to meet these criteria is no scientific hypothesis in the
true sense of the term. However, there are legitimate hypotheses, formulated in factor analytic
studies.

The following examples may be cited in order to justify how the couple of criteria apply to
hypotheses:

1. More intelligent persons will be less hostile than those of lower level of intelligence.

2. Group study contributes to higher grade achievement.

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In the first hypothesis, we visualize a relation stated between one variable, „intelligence‟, and
another variable „hostility.‟ Furthermore, measurement of these variables is also easily
conceivable. In the second example, a relation has also been stated between the variables
„group study‟ and „grade achievement.‟ There exists the possibility of the measurement of the
variables are thus there is implication for testing the hypotheses. Thus both the criteria are
satisfied. „
2.7 Types of Hypothesis
Hypothesis can be formulated in either of the following two ways:
(i) Null Hypothesis (Ho): It states that there is no much (significant) difference between the parameter and
statistic. In other words, H states that the difference between sample statistic and the claimed population
parameter is due to chance variation in sampling. Null hypothesis is normally preferred in testing process. It
enables the researcher to test it. The random selection of the samples from the given population makes the
tests of significance valid for us. For applying any test of significance we first set up a hypothesis - a define
statement about the population parameter(s). Such a statistical hypothesis, which is under test, is usually a
hypothesis of no difference between statistical and parameter. Hence it is called Null hypothesis. In the
words of R.A. Fisher null hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under the
assumption that it is true.
(ii) Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): It is true when Ho is false. It is the statement about the population that must
be true if null hypothesis is false. Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called
an alternative hypothesis. It is important to explicitly state the alternative hypothesis in respect of any null
hypothesis, because the acceptance or rejection of H  is meaningful only it is being tested against a rival
hypothesis
2.8 Type I error and Type II error.
Type I error means rejection the null hypothesis when it happens to be true.
Type II error means not rejection the null hypothesis when it is false.
The following tables being explain the type of error
Position of Hypothesis Null Hypothesis-Not reject Null hypothesis-Reject
Ho TRUE Correct Decision Type: I Error
Ha FALSE Type II Error Correct Decision

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

3.1 What is research proposal?

A research proposal is a simply a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to
research (i.e. your research topic), why it‟s worth researching (i.e. your justification),
and how you plan to investigate it (i.e. your practical approach).

The purpose of the research proposal (it‟s job, so to speak) is to convince your research
supervisor, committee or university that your research is suitable (for the requirements of the
degree program) and manageable (given the time and resource constraints you will face).

The most important word here is “convince” – in other words, your research proposal needs
to sell your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn‟t convince them (of
its suitability and manageability), you‟ll need to revise and resubmit. This will cost you
valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance
(which is bad news).

A research proposal is a formal document that explains what you plan to research,why it’s
worth researching and how you’ll do it.

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “what”, the “why” and the “how” of
the research. Let‟s look at each of these in a little more detail:

The WHAT

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic. This needs to be specific and
unambiguous. Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research
and in what context. Here‟s an example:

Topic: An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s
likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

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 What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote a brand of makeup
 Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
 In what context – the United Kingdom

So, make sure that your research proposal provides a detailed explanation of your research
topic. It should go without saying, but don‟t starts writing your proposal until you have a
crystal-clear topic in mind, or you‟ll end up waffling away a few thousand words.

The WHY

It‟s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic
is original. In other words, what makes it unique? What gap in the current does it fill? If it‟s
simply a rehash of the existing research, it‟s probably not going to get approval – it needs to
be fresh.

But, originality alone is not enough. Once you‟ve ticked that box, you also need to justify
why your proposed topic is important. In other words, what value will it add to the world if
you manage to find answers to your research questions?

For example, let‟s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting
brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings
would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have
commercial value. That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you‟re crafting your research proposal, remember that it‟s not enough for a topic to
simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that
value in your proposal.

The HOW

It‟s all good and well to have a great topic that‟s original and important, but you‟re not going
to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

 How will you undertake your research?

 Is your research design appropriate for your topic?
 Is your plan manageable given your constraints (time, money, expertise)?

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While it‟s generally not expected that you‟ll have a fully fleshed out research strategy at the
proposal stage, you will need to provide a high-level view of your research methodology and
some key design decisions. Here are some important questions you‟ll need to address in your
proposal:

 Will you take a qualitative or quantitative approach?

 Will your design be cross-sectional or longitudinal?
 How will you collect your data (interviews, surveys, etc)?
 How will you analyse your data (e.g. statistical analysis, quantitative data analysis,
etc)?

So, make sure you give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at
least a basic understanding of research methodologies before you start writing up your
proposal.

How is a research proposal structured?

While the exact structure and format required for a dissertation or thesis research proposal
differs from university to university, there are five “essential ingredients” that typically
make up the structure of a research proposal:

1. A descriptive title or title page

2. A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
3. A discussion of the scope/eliminations of the research
4. An initial literature review covering the key research in the area
5. A discussion of the proposed research design (methodology)

Final thoughts

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose: to
convince. Your research proposal needs to sell your research idea in terms of suitability and
viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative and you‟ll have won half the battle.

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3.2 Elements of research proposal

While developing a detailed and comprehensive research proposal requires a lot of planning,
attention to details, and academic writing skills, understanding the core elements of the paper
is the first step to getting your proposal accepted.

So here are the elements that you should include in your research proposal.

1. Title

It sounds somewhat obvious when we say that your research proposal with a title. To say the
least, you already know you should.

But perhaps the most common mistake that many students make is to write general titles that
lack focus.

Instead of writing a long title that‟s hard to read or a short title that fails to highlight the
theme of your research, write a clear and concise headline that tells your reader what your
research proposal is about at a first glance.

2. Introduction

The starting paragraph to a research project is one of the elements of a good research
proposal because it introduces the subject you wish to address or a research problem you
wish to analyse. Because the introduction of a research proposal is what sets the tone for the
rest of the paper, it‟s important to start with a hook and then organize your thoughts in a
logical and organized manner.

The introduction to your research proposal should give background information and explain
why you believe a research question is worth exploring. While not mandatory, you can
briefly describe your methodologies in the introduction and then expand them later on.

Your introduction should be clear and concise. Make sure you include only the most relevant
information in this section so you don‟t make it unnecessarily too long.

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3. Literature Review

Although a research proposal doesn‟t include a full literature review, it‟s important to
include an overview of the most significant studies in your field.

The section should feature evidence and statistical data to demonstrate the significance of
your research.

Through the literature review, you can easily draw your reader‟s attention to existing
research, identify gaps in existing studies, and make your reader understand how your
proposal will contribute to the already existing research.

4. Aims and Objectives

Aims and objectives are what you wish your research proposal to accomplish. Your aims will
be your overall outcome or what you want the research to achieve.

Objectives tend to be narrower and more focused. More often than not, you need to provide
an explanation for each of your objectives to show how they will help to meet the aims of
your study.

Unless required, you don‟t really have to include a hypothesis that your research proposal
looks forward to test.

5. Research Methodology

Methodologies are simply the research methods you will use to conduct your study and they
must appear in your research proposal whether or not you‟re conducting an experimental
research.

The methodologies include analysis and sampling techniques equipment, research

approaches, and ethical concerns.

Make sure your explanation for each methodology is clear and precise. It helps to justify why
you‟ve chosen to use a certain methodology over an alternative. This will go a long way to
show that you took your time to think about your methodologies before picking them.

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It‟s important to explain how you will collect data, the sample size you plan to consider for
your research investigation, and the techniques you consider the most appropriate to analyse
the data.

6. Scope of the Research

Because you‟ll be working with limited time and resource, it‟s reasonable to include a section
on the scope of the research in your proposal. In other words, you have to show your reader
that you can start and complete your research within the constraints of these two resources.

Remember, your research will more than likely have limits, and addressing them in this
section not only shows that you have given them a thought but also makes your research
proposal strong and authentic.

Don‟t just focus on the challenges that you‟re likely to come across during your studies. You
should also propose alternative solutions that you can use and why they might help.

7. Outline and Timetable

Your professor expects to see an outline and a timetable in your research proposal so it‟s
important that you include them in your research proposal. The purpose of the outline is to
show how you plan to structure your dissertation. Briefly note what each section will cover
and explain how it all fits into the argument of your research project. The purpose of the
timetable is to show how much time you‟ll need to complete your research. In particular, you
need to make sure you mention exactly how long you expect each stage of your study to take.
Don‟t just mention how long the research process will take. Make sure you also indicate how
long you‟ll take to compile your research.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING OF RESEARCH PROJECT)

4.1 Meaning of research design

A research design is a “Blue Print” for collection, measurement and analysis of data. It
outlines how the research will be carried out. It is like glue which sticks together the entire
process of research. It provides answers to various questions like - What techniques will be
used to gather data. What kind of sampling will be used? How time and cost constraints be
dealt with? Etc.

Essentials of Research Design

1. The design should be an activity and time based plan

2. It is always based on research question
3. It guides the selection of sources and types of information
4. It indicates a framework for specifying the relationship among the study‟ s variables
5. Outlines procedures for every research activity
6. It must be appropriate, efficient and economical
7. It should be flexible 8. It must be adequate

Important concepts relevant to research design

 Dependent variable: If one variable depends upon or a consequence of the other variable is
called a dependent variable. Is a variable that is to be predicted or explained?
 Independent variable: is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent variable.
 Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of a study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable.
 Control: A good research design has to minimize the influences of extraneous variable. To do
so the researcher uses control as a remedy to minimize the effects of extraneous variable. In
experimental research control refers to restrain to experimental condition.
 Confounded relationship: When dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable, then the relationship between dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded an extraneous variable.
 Experimental and control groups: In experimental research when a group is exposed to usual
condition is called control group, but when a group is exposed to special condition is an
experimental group.

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 Treatments: The different condition under which experimental and controlled groups are put
are referred to us treatment. The usual study program and the special study program are an
example of two treatments in studying the effects new or special study program on performance
of students.
Types of Research Design

“You cannot put the same shoe on every foot” - Syrus

Although every problem and research objective may seem unique, there are usually enough
similarities among problems and objectives to allow decisions to be made in advance about
the best plan to resolve the problem. There are some basic research designs that can be
successfully matched to given problems and research objectives.

Three traditional categories of research design:

• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Causal

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The choice of the most appropriate design depends largely on the objectives of the research
and how much is known about the problem and these objectives. The overall research design
for a project may include one or more of these three designs as part(s) of it.

Further, if more than one design is to be used, typically we progress from Exploratory toward
Causal.

Basic Research Objectives and Research Design

Research Objective Appropriate Design

To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify problems and Exploratory
develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities, to develop questions to be
Answered
To describe and measure phenomena at a point In time Descriptive
To determine causality, test hypotheses, to make “if-then” Statements, to Causal
answer questions

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is most commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken

to gain background information about the general nature of the research problem.

Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the
problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent information.
Exploratory research helps diagnose the dimensions of the problem so that successive
research will be on target. It helps to set priorities for research. Exploratory research is used
in a number of situations:

To gain background information To clarify problems and hypotheses

To define terms To establish research priorities

A variety of methods are available to conduct exploratory research:

o Secondary Data Analysis

o Experience Surveys
o Case Analysis
o Focus Groups
o Projective Techniques

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Categories of Exploratory Research

• Experience Surveys: - Issues and ideas may be discussed with persons who have had
Personal experience in the field.

Secondary data analysis:- Another quick and economical source of background information is
existing literature containing data that has been compiled for some purpose other than the
purpose in hand

• Case Study method: -obtains information from one or a few situations that are similar to
the problem situation. Primary advantage is that an entire organization or entity can be
investigated in depth and with meticulous attention to detail.

• Pilot Studies are used in different types of designs. - Within the context of exploratory
research it covers some part of the research on a small scale. Major categories of pilot study
include focus group interviews, projective techniques, and depth interviews.

Categories of Pilot Studies

• Focus Group interviews: - Unstructured, free flowing, group dynamic sessions that allow
individuals the opportunity to initiate the topics of discussion. There is synergistic and
spontaneous interaction among the respondents. Found to be highly advantageous.

• Projective techniques; - An indirect means of questioning the respondents. Uses word

association tests, sentence completion test, third person test, role playing technique and
Thematic Apperception Test.

• Depth interviews: - unstructured,, extensive interviews that encourage an individual to talk

freely and in depth about atopic

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is undertaken to provide answers to questions of who, what, where,

when, and how – but not why.

Two basic classifications:

• Cross-sectional studies
• Longitudinal studies

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Descriptive Research -Cross-sectional Studies

• Cross-sectional studies measure units from a sample of the population at only one point in
time. Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a way as to
be representative of a specific population.

• On-line survey research is being used to collect data for cross-sectional surveys at a faster
rate of speed.

Descriptive Research -Longitudinal Studies

• Longitudinal studies repeatedly draw sample units of population overtime.

• One method is to draw different units from the same sampling frame.

• A second method is to use a “panel” where the same people are asked to respond
periodically.

• On-line survey research firms recruit panel members to respond to online equerries.

Research Design: Causal Research

• Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional

statements of the form “If x, then y.”

• Causal relationships are typically determined by the use of experiments, but other methods
are also used.

Experiments

An experiment is defined as manipulating (changing values/situations) one or more

independent variables to see how the dependent variable(s) is/are affected, while also
controlling the effects of additional extraneous variables.

– Independent variables: - that over which the researcher has control and wishes to
manipulate

i.e. package size, ad copy, price.

– Dependent variables: - that over which the researcher has little to no direct control, but has
a strong interest in testing i.e. sales, profit, market share.

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– Extraneous variables: - those that may affect a dependent variable but are not independent
variables.

Experimental Design

An experimental design is a procedure for devising an experimental setting such that a

change in the dependent variable may be solely attributed to a change in an independent
variable.

Symbols of an experimental design:

O = measurement of a dependent variable

X = manipulation, or change, of an independent variable
• R = random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups
• E = experimental effect
After-Only Design: X O1

One-Group, Before-After Design: O1 X O2

Before-After with Control Group:

• Experimental group: O1 XO2

• Control group: O3 O4

• Where E = (O2 – O1) – (O4 –O3)

How Valid Are Experiments?

An experiment is valid if:

• the observed change in the dependent variable is, in fact, due to the independent variable
(internal validity)

• if the results of the experiment apply to the “real world” outside the experimental setting

(External validity)

Choosing the right instrument for data collection

• The instrument you choose for data collection affects your entire study.

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• Validity is your primary concern!

• Reliability is a secondary concern

What is the Validity of a Study?

Internal Validity – The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are affected by
the manipulated independent variable. Maintaining high internal validity means controlling
for all other independent variables other than the one(s) being studied

External Validity – The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to the “real
world”. Factors that negatively affect external validity also negatively affect the
generalizability of the results

Instrument Validity

Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure? Four types of instrument

validity are as follows:

– Construct
– Criterion related
Content – Inter-rater / Intra-rater
Construct Validity
It is the most important type of validity. Construct validity is the degree to which the
instrument actually measures whether or not an underlying construct is being measured.

For example, does a math test actually measure math achievement? Does a personality test
actually measure personality?

Criterion Related Validity

Criterion Related Validity is of two types:-

i. Concurrent validity – Degree to which scores on one test are correlated with scores
on another test administered at the same time. Only one group isused.
ii. Predictive validity – Degree to which scores on one test predicts scores on a test
administered in the future. Only one group is used.

Reliability

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Reliability is the consistency with which an instrument measures the construct or content area
it is intended to measure. Reliability is established using such techniques as

o split-half,
o rationale equivalence and inter-rater

Reliability is reported as a coefficient ranging from 0.00 (low) to +1.00 (high). Anything
above .70 is considered sufficient for most cases

Measures of Reliability

• Stability (test /re-test)

• Equivalence (alternate forms)

• Equivalence and Stability Combined

• Internal consistency
• Scorer /Rater
Internal Consistency
Questions on tests should be equally difficult throughout entire instrument
 Split-half – Used with dichotomous tests
 Kuder-Richardson 20 / 21 – Improvement on split-half
 Cronbach‟s Alpha – Only used with instruments with more than two scores (e.g.,
Likert Scales)

4.2 Need for research design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations. It makes the research as efficient as possible by giving maximum information
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. For construction of a house, we need to
have a proper blueprint prepared by an expert architect. Similarly, we need a proper research
design or plan prior to data collection and analysis of our research project. Preparation of
research design should be done carefully as even a minute error might ruin the purpose of the
entire project.

The design helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas, which helps to identify and correct
his/her flaws, if any. In a good research design, all the components with each other or go
together with each other in a coherent manner. The theoretical and conceptual framework

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must with the research goals and purposes. Likewise, the data collection strategy must fit
with the research purposes, conceptual and theoretical framework and approach to data
analysis.

In short, the need for research design is as follows –

 Provides firm foundation to the endeavor.

 It reduces inaccuracy. Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.
 Eliminates bias and marginal errors.
 Minimizes wastage of time.
 Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research
problem.
 Helpful for collecting research materials.
 Helpful for testing of hypothesis.
 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
time, and efforts.
 Provides an overview to other experts.
 Guides the research in the right direction.
 Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps prevent blind s 4.3
Characteristics of a good research design

Advantages of Research Design

 Helps researcher to prepare himself/herself to carry out research in a proper

and a systematic way.

 Ensures project time schedule. Consumes less time.

 Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going
on.

 Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success

from the beginning of the work of the research project.

 Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
Hence, a research design is the outline, plan, or strategy that you are going to
use to obtain an answer to your research question.

4.3 Importance of Research Design

The importance of research design lies in the fact that it makes a statement of what is to
be done in order to achieve the research objectives and how it is to be done.

It furnishes the minimum information required for planning the research project.

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 It is an expression of what is expected of the research exercise in terms of results and the analytical
input needed to convert data into research findings.

The research design furnishes a clear idea as to the activities that would need to be
undertaken in order to achieve the research objective.

It enables the researcher to have a frame of reference and prevent the study fromdeviating.

The research design helps in providing direction to the computation and interpretation process to
arrive at solution and recommendations

4.4 Feature of Good Research Design

There are following feature of good research design. Which are as follows?

1. Research Design should clarify the Particular research problem.

2. It provides guideline for specific method of data collection & Analysis.

3. Research Design should be Flexible, efficient & Economical in nature.

4. Research Design minimizes Biasness of Study.

5. Research Design must support reliability of data.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SOURCES AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTIONS

DATA AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past and present serving as bases for study and
analysis. Alternatively, data refers to measurements or observations examined and used to find out things
or to make decisions. Data serves as a basis of analysis. Without analysis of data, no inference can be
drawn on the questions under study. Otherwise, it would be an arbitrary guess or imagination of the issue
under scrutiny and hence unreliable. Besides, having data doesn„t guarantee a valid inference – the
relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a given study. Not also
that all data is not important for your analysis and I advise you to be as much precise as possible in your
data collection. If you plan seriously and design your data collection carefully, this should not be a
problem

5.1 Primary Sources

Primary Sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include
interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct
access to the subject of your research.
A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or
phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your
analysis.
If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary
sources that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters, photographs,
newspapers).
If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or
quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or
sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media
texts).
Primary sources are more credible as evidence, but good research uses both primary and
secondary sources. Methods of collecting primary data explained below.
5.1.1 Direct observation

Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior, events, or noting physical

characteristics in their natural setting. Observations can be overt (everyone knows they are
being observed) or covert (no one knows they are being observed and the observer is
concealed). The benefit of covert observation is that people are more likely to behave
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naturally if they do not know they are being observed. However, you will typically need to
conduct overt observations because of ethical problems related to concealing your
observation.

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Observations can also be either direct or indirect. Direct observation is when you watch
interactions, processes, or behaviors as they occur; for example, observing a teacher teaching
a lesson from a written curriculum to determine whether they are delivering it with fidelity.
Indirect observations are when you watch the results of interactions, processes, or behaviors;
for example, measuring the amount of plate waste left by students in a school cafeteria to
determine whether a new food is acceptable to them.

This method assumes that behavior is purposeful and expressive of deeper values and beliefs.
Observation can range from a highly structured, detailed notation of behavior structured by
checklists to a more holistic description of events and behavior.

In the early stages of qualitative inquiry, the researcher typically enters the setting with broad
areas of interest but without predetermined categories or strict observational checklists. In
this way, the researcher is able to discover the recurring patterns of behavior and
relationships. After these patterns are identified and described through early analysis of field
notes, checklists become more appropriate and context-sensitive.

Focused observation then is used at later stages of the study, usually to see, for example, if
analytic themes explain behavior and relationships over a long time or in a variety of settings.

Observation is a fundamental and highly important method in all qualitative inquiry. It is

used to discover complex interactions in natural social settings. Even in studies using in-
depth interviews, observation plays an important role as the researcher notes the
interviewee‟s body language and affect in addition to her words. It is, however, a method that
requires a great deal of the researcher. Discomfort, uncomfortable ethical dilemmas and even
danger, the difficulty of managing a relatively unobtrusive role, and the challenge of
identifying the big picture while finely observing huge amounts of fast-moving and complex
behavior are just a few of the challenges.

Observation is the systematic viewing of specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the
specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study.

Features of observation

o Physical & mental activity

o Selective

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o Purposive & not informal

o Grasps the significant events &occurrences
o Should be exact & based on standardized tools of research

Types of observation

1. Simple and systematic 5. Factual and inferential

2. Subjective and objective 6. Direct and indirect

3. Casual and scientific 7. Participant and nonparticipant

4. Intra subjective and inter subjective 8. Structured and unstructured

Advantages of observation

Actual or habits of person are observed

Obtain information from those who are unable to effectively communicate in
written or oral form
No better way to gather information than through observation
Most reliable method of data collection
Disadvantages of observation

o Result of observation depends on the skill of the observer

o Options and attitudes cannot be obtained by observation
o It should be expensive to tie up personnel in such tasks
o The researcher‟ s findings are limited to those observed

5.1.2 Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a set of questions (items) intended to

capture responses from respondents in a standardized manner.

Questionnaire is simply a „tool‟ for collecting and recording information about a particular
issue of interest.

Questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions. It is

a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills by
himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of

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population from which information is desired. It is mainly made up of a list of questions, and
also includes clear instructions and space for answers or administrative details.
Questionnaires should always have a definite purpose that is related to the objectives of the
research, and it needs to be clear from the outset how the findings will be used. Respondents
also need to be made aware of the purpose of the research wherever possible, and should be
told how and when they will receive feedback on the findings. The information from
questionnaires tends to fall into two broad categories – „facts‟ and „opinions‟. It is worth
stressing that, in practice, questionnaires are very likely to include questions about both facts
and opinions.

The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather information from widely scattered sources. It is
mostly used in cases where one can not readily see personally all of the people from whom he
desires responses. It is also used where there is no particular reason to see them personally.

Questions may be unstructured or structured.

Unstructured questions ask respondents to provide a response in their own words, while
structured questions ask respondents to select an answer from a given set of choices.
Subjects‟ responses to individual questions (items) on a structured questionnaire may be
aggregated into a composite scale or index for statistical analysis. Structured questionnaires
are usually associated with quantitative research, i.e. research that is concerned with numbers
(how many? how often? how satisfied?). Within this context, questionnaires can be used in a
variety of survey situations, for example postal, electronic, face-to-face and telephone. Postal
and electronic questionnaires are known as self-completion questionnaires, i.e. respondents
complete them by themselves in their own time. Face to-face (F2F) and telephone
questionnaires are used by interviewers to ask a standard set of questions and record the
responses that people give them. Questionnaires that are used by interviewers in this way are
sometimes known as interview schedules.

Question Types

Questionnaire can be of various types on the basis of its preparation. They are like:

�Structured vs.Non Structured �Single vs. multiple responses

�Closed vs.Open �Ranking and rating.
�Fact vs.Opinion

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Structured v/s Non-Structured Questionnaire:

The structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and directed questions; whereas non-
structured questionnaire is often used in interview and guide. It may consist of partially
completed questions.

Open vs. Closed Questions

Many advice against using open-ended questions and advocate using closed questions.
However, open questions can be useful. The questions that call for short check responses are
known as restricted or closed form type. For Example, they provide for marking a yes or no, a
short response or checking an item from a list of responses.

Here the respondent is not free to write of her/his own, she/he was to select from the selected
from the supplied responses. On the other hand, increase of open ended questionnaire, the
respondent is free to response in her/his own words. Many questionnaires also included both
close and open type questions. The researcher selects the type of questionnaire according to
his need of the study.

Format of Question / Response………

 Dichotomous response, where respondents are asked to select one of two possible
choices, such as true/false, yes/no, or agree/disagree. Examples of such questions are:
What is your sex? (Circle one): Male / Female
Are you married? (Circle one): yes / no.
Do you think that the death penalty is justified under some circumstances (circle one):
yes / no.
 Nominal response, where respondents are presented with more than two unordered
options. These types of questions are called open-end questions. Such as:
 What is your industry of employment? Manufacturing / consumer services / retail /
education / healthcare / tourism & hospitality / other
 What was the attitude of the authorities regarding maternity leave in your case or may
be in someone else‟s case? He readily gave maternity leave / He was hesitant to give

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maternity leave / He was terribly annoyed / He gave leave but warned / Any other,
please specify

5.1.3 Interview

Interviews are an attractive proposition for the project researcher. Interviews are something
more than conversation. They involve a set of assumptions and understandings about the
situation which are not normally associated with a casual conversion. Interviews are also
referred as an oral questionnaire by some people, but it is indeed sentimentality more than
that.

Questionnaire involves indirect data collection, whereas Interview data is collected directly
from others in face to face contact. As you know, people are hesitant to write something than
to talk. With friendly relationship and rapport, the interviewer can obtain certain types of
confidential information which might be reluctant to put in writing.

Therefore research interview should be systematically arranged. It does not happen by

chance. The interviews are not done by secret recording of discussions. The consent of the
subject is taken for the purpose of interview. The words of the interviews can be treated as
„on the record‟ and „for the record‟. It should not be used for other purposes besides the
research purpose. The discussion therefore is not arbitrary or at the whim of one of the
parties. The agenda for the discussion is set by the researcher. It is dedicated to investigating
a given topic.

An interview is” A method of data collection in which one person (an interviewer) asks
questions of another person (a respondent): interviews are conducted either faceto-face or by
telephone.”

Importance of Interview:

Whether it is large scale research or small scale research, the nature of the data collection
depends on the amount of resources available. Interview is particularly appropriate when the
researcher wishes to collect data based on:

 Emotions, experiences and feelings.

 Sensitive issues.
 Privileged information.

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 It is appropriate when dealing with young children, illiterates, language difficulty and
limited intelligence.
 It supplies the detail and depth needed to ensure that the questionnaire asks valid
questions while preparing questionnaire.
 It is a follow up to a questionnaire and complements the questionnaire.
 It can be combined with other tools in order to corroborate facts using a different
approach.
 It is one of the normative survey methods, but it is also applied in historical research,
experimental research, case studies.

Checklist of points for explanation before an interview:

 Purpose of the interview.

 Clarification of topic under discussion.
 Format of the interview.
 Approximate length of interview.
 Assurance of confidentiality.
 Purpose of digital recorder – ask permission to use it. Explain who will listen to the
recording.
 Assure participant that he or she may seek clarification of questions.
 Assure participant that he or she can decline to answer a question.
 Assure participant that there will be opportunity during the interview to ask questions.
Requirements for a Good Interview:

As a tool of research good interview requires:

�Proper preparation.
�Skillful execution and
�Adequate recording and interpretation.

Preparation for Interview:

The follow actors need to be determined in advance of the actual interview:

 Purpose and information needed should be clear.

 Which type of interview best suited for the purpose should be decided.
 A clear outline and framework should be systematically prepared.
 Planning should be done for recording responses.

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Execution of the Interview:

 Rapport should be established.

 Described information should be collected with a stimulating and encouraging discussion.
 Recording device should lease without distracting the interviewee.

Recording and Interpreting Responses:

 It is best to record through tape recorder.

 If the responses is to be noted down, it should be either noted simultaneously or
immediately after it.
 Instead of recording responses, sometimes the researcher noted the evaluation directly
interpreting the responses.

Advantages of Interview:

An interviews technique has the following advantages:

Depth Information: Interviews are particularly good at producing data which deal with topics
in depth and in detail. Subjects can be probed, issues pursued lines of investigation followed
over a relatively lengthy period.

Types of Interview:

Interviews vary in purpose, nature and scope. They may be conducted for guidance,
therapeutic or research purposes. They may be confined to one individual or extended to
several people. The following discussions describe several types of interview.

Structured Interview:

Structured interview involves fight control over the format of questions and answers. It is like
a questionnaire which is administered face to face with a respondent.

The researcher has a predetermined list of questions. Each respondent is faced with identical
questions. The choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list. This type of
interview is rigidly standardized and formal.

Structured interviews are often associated with social surveys where researchers are trying to
collect large volumes of data from a wide range of respondents.

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Semi-Structured Interview:

In semi-structures interview, the interviewer also has a clear list of issues to be addressed and
questions to be answered. There is some flexibility in the order of the topics. In this type,
interviewee is given chance to develop his ideas and speak more widely on the issues raised
by the researcher. The answers are open-ended and more emphasis is on the interviewee
elaborating points of interest.

Unstructured Interview:

In case of unstructured interview, emphasis is placed on the interviewee‟s thoughts.

The role of the researcher is to be as un-intrusive as possible. The researcher introduces a

theme or topic and then letting the interviewee develop his or her ideas and pursue his or her
train of thought. Allowing interviewees to speak their minds is a better way of discovering
things about complex issues. It gives opportunity for in-depth investigations.

Single Interview:

This is a common form of semi structured or un-structured interview. It involves a meeting

between one researcher and one informant. It is easy to arrange this type of interview. It helps
the researcher to locate specific ideas with specific people. It is also easy to control the
situation in the part of the interviewer.

Group Interview:

In case of group interview, more than one informant is involved. The numbers involved
normally about four to six people. Here you may think that it is difficult to get people
together to discuss matters on one occasion and how many voices can contribute to the
discussion during any one interview. But the crucial thing to bear in mind is that a group
interview is not an opportunity for the researcher to questions to a sequence of individuals,
taking turns around a table. „Group‟ is crucial here, because it tells us that those present in the
interview will interact with one another and that the discussion will operate at the level of the
group. They can present a wide range of information and varied viewpoints.

According to Lewis, “Group interviews have several advantages over individual interviews.
In particular, they help to reveal consensus views, may generate richer responses by allowing
participants to challenge one another‟s views, may be used to verify research ideas of data
gained through other methods and may enhance the reliability of responses.”

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The disadvantages of this type of interview are that the views of „quieter‟ people do not come
out. Certain members may dominate the talk. The most disadvantages are that whatever
opinions are expressed is acceptable by the group irrespective of their opinions contrary to it.
Private opinion does not given importance.

Focus Group Interview:

This is an extremely popular form of interview technique. It consists of a small group of

people, usually between six and nine in number. This is useful for non-sensitive and
noncontroversial topics. The session usually revolve around a prompt, a trigger, some
stimulus introduced by the interviewer in order to „focus‟ the discussion.

The respondents are permitted to express themselves completely, but the interviewer directs
the live of thought. In this case, importance is given on collective views rather than the
aggregate view. It concentrates on particular event or experience rather than on a general line
of equality.

5.2 Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other

researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books. A secondary
source describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyses information

from primary sources. Common examples include:

 Books, articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic

 Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
 Encyclopaedia’s and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
 Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something
When you cite a secondary source, it‟s usually not to analyses it directly. Instead, you‟ll
probably test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

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5.2.1 Sources of Secondary Data

Secondary data are basically second-hand pieces of information. These are not gathered from
the source as the primary data. To put it in other words, the secondary data are those that are
already collected. So, these are comparatively less reliable than the primary data.

These are usually used when the time for the enquiry is compact and the exactness of the
enquiry can be settled to an extent. However, the secondary data can be gathered from
different sources which can be categorized into two categories. These are as follows:

1. Published sources
2. Unpublished sources

1. Published sources

Secondary data is usually gathered from the published (printed) sources. A few major sources
of published information are as follows:

 Published articles of local bodies, and central and state governments

 Statistical synopses, census records, and other reports issued by the different
departments of the government
 Official statements and publications of the foreign governments
 Publications and reports of chambers of commerce, financial institutions, trade
associations, etc.
 Magazines, journals, and periodicals
 Publications of government organizations like the Central Statistical
Organization(CSO), National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
 Reports presented by research scholars, bureaus , economists, etc.

2. Unpublished sources

Statistical data can be obtained from several unpublished references. Some of the major
unpublished sources from which secondary data can be gathered are as follows:

 The research works conducted by teachers, professors, and professionals

 The records that are maintained by private and business enterprises

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 Statistics maintained by different departments and agencies of the central and the state
government, undertakings, corporations, etc.

5.3 Use the appropriate data collection methods

Once you have clear and focused evaluation questions, the next step is to decide from where/
whom you will get the data to answer your evaluation questions. Example data sources include
documents, individuals, and observations. Then you can decide on which data collection
methods to use and should consider the following when selecting your methods.

Purpose of the evaluation:

What method(s) seems most appropriate for the purpose of your evaluation and the
evaluation questions that you want answered?

Users of the evaluation:

Will the method(s) allow you to gather information that can be analyzed and presented in a
way that will be seen as credible by your stakeholders?

Respondents from whom you will collect the data:

Where and how can respondents‟ best be reached? What is the culturally and linguistically
appropriate method to use? Is conducting a personal interview or a survey more appropriate
for certain target populations? Do the data already exist, in program or health care data
systems?

Resources available (time, money, volunteers, travel expenses, supplies):

Which method(s) can you afford and manage? What resource allocation is feasible? Consider
when results are needed, your own abilities, costs of hiring a consultant, and other resource
issues.

Degree of intrusiveness:

Will the method(s) disrupt the program or be seen as intrusive by the respondents? Also
consider issues of confidentiality if the information you are seeking is sensitive.

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Type of Information:

Do you want representative information that applies to all participants (standardized

information, such as from a survey that will be comparable across locations)? Or, do you
want to examine the range and diversity of experiences, or tell a story about your target
population(s) or a program component?

Advantages and disadvantages of each method:

What are the key strengths and weaknesses of each? Consider issues such as time and
respondent burden, cost, necessary infrastructure, and access to records. What is most
appropriate for your evaluation needs?

Types of Data Collection Methods

There are various methods for collecting data. Some examples of data collection methods and
their advantages and disadvantages are summarized below. Data collection methods may also
include use of existing data and data sets.

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CHAPTER SIX

PROCESSING OF DATA AND ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a
scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis.

The completed instruments of data collection, viz., interview schedules/ questionnaires/ data
sheets/field notes contain a vast mass of data. They cannot straightaway provide answers to
research questions. They, like raw materials, need processing.

6.1. PROCESSING OF DATA

With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now
proceed with the explanation of all the processing operations.

Intermediate stage of work between data collection & data analysis It involves classification
and summarization of data to make them amenable to analysis Requires advance planning
at the stage of planning the research design such as categorization of variables & preparation
of dummy tables

The various steps in data processing may be stated as

• Editing the data
• Coding and classifying the data
• Transcription of data
• Tabulation of data
Editing
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing
involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done
to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. With

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regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field editing and
central editing.

Editing is a process of checking to detect and correct errors & omissions, Completeness,
Accuracy and Uniformity
• Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated and/or in
illegible form at the time of recording the respondents‟ responses. This type of editing is
necessary in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can be difficult for others
to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview,
preferably on the very day or on the next day.
While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain himself and must not correct
errors of omission by simply guessing what the informant would have said if the question
had been asked.
• Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to the office. This type of editing implies that all forms should get a thorough
editing by a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large
inquiry. Editor(s) may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place,
entry recorded in months when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the like. In
case of inappropriate on missing replies, the editor can sometimes determine the proper
answer by reviewing the other information in the schedule. At times, the respondent can
be contacted for clarification.
Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to
a small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding
decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it
possible to pre code the questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for computer
tabulation as one can straight forward key punch from the original questionnaires. But in case
of hand coding some standard method may be used. One such standard method is to code in
the margin with a coloured pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the data from the

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questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see that coding
errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
Coding process assigns numerals or other symbols to the several responses of the data set.
• Numeric Coding: Coding has to be compulsorily numeric, when the variable is to be
subject to further parametric analysis.
• Alphabetic Coding: A mere tabulation or frequency count or graphical representation
of the variable may be given an alphabetic coding.
Example for Coding
Q. No Variables Response Categories Code
1.1 Organization Private Pt
Public Pb
Cooperatives Co
3.4 Own house Yes 1
No 0
4.2 Performance Excellent 5
of Managers Good 4
Moderate 3
Bad 2
Worst 1
5.1 Age Up to 20 years 1
21-40 years 2
40-60 years 3
Above 60 years 4
5.2 Occupation Salaried S
Professional P
Technical T

Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into
homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates
classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes
on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in
one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.

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Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the
phenomenon involved:
(a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the basis of
common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.)
or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive characteristics refer to
qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their presence or
absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain
attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be
classification according to attributes.
(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the
numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through
some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this
category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class
intervals. For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form
one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another group and so
on.

Classifying responses into meaningful categories

• Several hundred responses are reduced to few appropriate categories
• When to classify:
 Can be done at any phase prior to the tabulation.
 Certain items like sex, age, and the like are structured and pre classified in the data
collection form itself
 The responses to open-ended questions are classified at the processing stage.
Categorization rules
• Link to the aim of the study
• Scheme should be exhaustive.
• Category must also be mutually exclusive.
• Number of categories must not be very few since reducing the number later is easier
than splitting

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6.2. Tabulation

Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is
referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis.
Process of summarizing raw data and displaying them on compact statistical tables for further
analysis. It involves counting of the number of cases falling into each of several categories.

Can be done both by manual or electronic

Hand tabulation – tally mark

Age Tally No. of

Groups
Below 20 marks
11 respondents
2
20-39 11111 111111111111111 111 23
40-59 11111 1111111111 15
Above 59 11111 11111 10
Total 50

Construction of table
Table provide shorthand summary of data
Components of Table
1. Heading
– Table No
– Title of the table
– Designation units
2. Body
– Sub-heading: heading of all rows or blocks of sub items
– Box-heading: headings of all columns or main captions and their sub captions
– Field or Body: the cells in rows and column
3. Notation
– Foot notes & source
– Construction of table

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Principles of Table Construction

• Every table should have a title.

• Every table should be identified by a number to facilitate easy reference

• The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.

• The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.

• Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath the
table

6.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look for patterns and relations
among data groups. By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures
along with searching for patterns or relationship that exist among the data groups.

Analysis particularly in case of survey or experimental data involves estimating the values of
unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. In
brief, analysis involves examination and evaluation of some phenomenon by dividing it into
some constituent parts and identifying the relationships among the parts in the context of the
whole.

Critical examination of assembled and grouped data to determine the patterns of relationship
among the variables. The Purpose analysis is Summarizes large mass of data into
understandable & meaningful form.

Analysis can be categorized as

1. Descriptive Analysis

2. Inferential Analysis
1. Descriptive analysis
Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Descriptive analysis
refers to the transformation of raw data into a form that will make them easy to understand
and interpret. Descriptive response or observation is typically the first form of analysis. The

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Calculation of averages, frequency distribution, and percentage distribution is the most

common form of summarizing data.

The most common forms of describing the processed data are:

• Tabulation
• Percentage
• Measurements of central tendency
• Measurements of dispersion
• Measurement of asymmetry
2. Inferential Analysis
• Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency distribution
and calculation of averages and / or dispersion.
• They frequently conduct and seek to determine the relationship between variables and
test statistical significance.
• When the population is consisting of more than one variable it is possible to measure
the relationship between them.
Graphic Representation
Graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices. These
forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly under-
stood at a glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to
grasp or retain.
The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories:
1. Line graphs or charts
2. Bar Charts
3. Segmental representations
4. Pictographs.
Line Graphs
• The line graph is useful for showing changes in data relationships over a period of
time.
• In this graph, figures are plotted in relation to two intersecting lines or axes.
• The time dimension or independent variable is represented by the X-axis and the other
variable by Y-axis.

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Histogram
• This is another form of line chart used for presenting a frequency distribution.
• It is constructed by erecting vertical lines on the limits of the class intervals marked
on the base line.
• The vertical lines so drawn from a series of contiguous rectangles or columns.
• The Width of each rectangle represents its class interval, and the height represents the
class frequency.

Frequency Polygons
• The frequency of each class is located at the midpoint of the interval and the plotted
points are then connected by straight lines.
• The frequency polygon is particularly appropriate for portraying continuous series.

Pie or Circle Charts

• The circle or pie chart is a component parts chart.
• The component parts form the segments of the circle.
• The circle chart is usually a percentage chart.

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• The data are converted to percentage of the total; and the proportional segments,
therefore, give a clear picture of the relationship among the component parts.

Inferential Analysis
Here, we may as well talk of correlation and regression analysis.

Correlation is one of the most common forms of data analysis because it underlies many other
analyses. Correlations measure the linear relationship between two variables (a joint variation of two or
more variables for determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables). According to
(Hewitt and Cramer, 2008), correlation coefficient has a value ranging from -1 to 1. Values that is closer
to the absolute value of 1indicate that there is a strong relationship between the variables being
correlated, whereas values closer to 0 indicate that there is little or no linear relationship.

The sign of a correlation coefficient describes the type of relationship between the variables being
correlated. A positive correlation coefficient indicates that there is a positive linear relationship between
the variables: as one variable increases in value, so does the other. Partial Correlation: Partial correlation
measures separately the relationship between two variables in such a way that the effects of other
related variables are eliminated. In other words, in partial correlation analysis, we aim at measuring the
relation between a dependent variable and a particular independent variable by holding all other
variables constant.

Simple Linear Regression

- Simple linear regression refers to the linear relationship between two variables
- We usually denote the dependent variable by Y and the independent variable by X.
- A simple regression line is the line fitted to the points plotted in the scatter diagram, which would describe
the average relationship between the two variables. Therefore, to see the type of relationship, it is advisable to
prepare scatter plot before fitting the model.
- The linear model is:

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 Multiple regressions
Multiple linear regression analysis to determine the cause-effect relationship between the independent
variable and dependent variables. In a multiple relationship, called multiple regressions, two or more
independent variables are used to predict one dependent variable.

6.4 Meanings and Technique of Interpretation

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after analytical
or experimental study.
The task of interpretation has two parts or has two major aspects
1. The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study
with those of others.
2. The establishment of explanatory concept.
Why Interpretation?
• It will lead to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for
further research study.
• It opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more
knowledge.

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• It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath (beyond) his findings.
Precaution in interpretation
• The data reflect good homogeneity (no extreme) and proper analysis has been done
through statistical or any other methods.
• The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results.
Error can arise due to
 False generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such
as:
 The application of findings beyond the rang of observation
Broad generalization must be avoided, because the coverage restricted to a particular time, a
particular area and particular condition. Such restriction, if any, must invariably be specified
and the result must be framed within their limit.
6.5. Drawing Conclusions and Recommendations
The researcher summarizes the main findings of his study and the implications. Conclusions
summarize the main results of the research and describe what they mean for the general field.
Briefly describe what you did, consider suggesting future research to follow up where your
research ended.
6.6. Research Report
Research report is a formal statement of the research process and its results
It narrates the problem studied, method used, the findings and conclusion of the study
Characteristics of Report
 Narrative but authoritative document
 Presents highly specific information
 It is a simple readable and accurate form of communication
o The key to scientific writing is clarity.
 Scientists are required to write in clear and simple terms.
 Ideas should be explained in simple language and short, coherent sentences. The
personal pronouns are avoided by the use of such expressions as the researcher or the
investigator.
 Concepts and definitions must be sufficiently described depending upon the type and
capability of the target audience.

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 The past tense should be used in describing research procedures that have been
completed.
Functions of Research Report
 Serve as a means of presenting the problem studied
 Basic reference for future use
 Means for judging the quality of the research
 Means for evaluating the researcher‟s ability & competence
 Provides factual base for formulating policies
 Provides knowledge on problems and issues analyzed

Format of the Research Report/ Guidelines for preparing the research report
A. Preliminary section
1. Title page:
• The title page usually includes:
– The name of the topic
– The name of the author
– The relationship of the report to a course or degree requirement
– The name of the institution where the report is submitted
– The date and place of the presentation
2. Acknowledgement (if any)
3. Table of contents:
The relationship between principal and minor divisions is indicated by capitalization of
chapter numbers and titles, with subheadings in small letters and with capitalized principal
letters.
Research Report Format
• Preliminary items
– Title page – Table of contents
– Research‟s declaration – List of tables
– Certificate – List of graphs & charts
– Preface/acknowledgement – Abstract or synapsis
Body of the report
– Introduction – Statement of the problem
– Theoretical background of – Review of literature
the topic – scope of the study

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– Objectives – Definition of concepts

– Hypothesis – Model if any
• Design of the study
• Methodology
• Sources of data
• Sampling plan
• Data collection instruments
• Data processing & analysis plan
• Limitation of the study
• Findings & discussion
• Conclusion & recommendation
Bibliography
Appendix
– Copies of data collection instrument
– Complex tables
– Glossary of new terms
– Case study if any

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