DIPLOMA COMPUTER ENGINEERING

III SEMESTER / SECOND YEAR, Session 2024-25

SUBJECT DIGITAL ELECTRONICS & MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
(DCS-350)
SECTION-A (Very Short Answer Type Questions)
UNIT-I
S.No Question COURSE
. OUTCOMES
a) Convert CO1
(1101.11)2 = (11.75)10
(763.45)8 = (499.578125)10
(73.20)16 = (115.125)10
b) Convert CO1
(11101.101)2 = (29.625)10
(23.734)8 = (19.9296875)10
(ABC.75)16 = (2748.45703125) 10
c) Convert (ABC.75)16 = (2748.45703125) 10 CO2
(ABC.75)16 को डेसिमल में बदलें
d) Subtract(101.01) 2 - (1.01) 2 CO2
(101.01) 2 - (1.01) 2
e) Add (101101) 2 + (10110) 2 CO2
जोड़ें (101101) 2 + (10110) 2
f) Convert (3421)5 in to decimal CO1
(3421)5 को डेसिमल में बदलें
g) Convert (1101011.1011)2 in to Octal -------------------(153.54) CO3
(1101011.1011)2 को ऑक्टल में बदलें
h) Convert (3132.5)8 in to hexadecimal------------------------65A.A CO4
(3132.5)8 को हेक्साडेसिमल में बदलें
i) Convert (1011011.011011)2 in to Octal-------------------133.33 CO3
(1011011.011011)2 को ऑक्टल में बदलें
j) Convert (101110111.10110110)2 in to hexadecimal-------------5B.6C CO4
(101110111.10110110)2 को हेक्साडेसिमल में बदलें

UNIT-II
S.N Question COURSE
o. OUTCO
MES
a) Implement NOT, OR, AND Gate using only NOR Gate. CO1
केवल NOR गेट का प्रयोग करके NOT, OR, AND गेट लागू करें।

Implementation of NOT Gate from NOR

Gate
As discussed above, a NOR gate is a universal gate, therefore, we
can use it to realize any other type of logic gate. The
implementation of NOT gate from NOR gate is shown in Figure-3.
 Hence, to realize the NOT gate using NOR gate, we simply join all its
inputs terminals together and apply the signal to be NOTed or
inverted to this common input terminal.

b) Minimize Boolean expression Y = AB+ A(B+C)+B(B+C) CO1

बूलियन व्यंजक Y = AB+ A(B+C)+B(B+C) को न्यूनतम करें

Y = AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C) = AB + AB + AC + B + BC Since AB + AB = AB, we get:

Y = AB + AC + B (1 + C) Since 1 + X (any variable) = X, we get: Y = AB + AC + B
Y = B(1 + A) + AC Y = B + AC
c) Explain universal gates ,Write the names of universal gates CO2
universal gates को समझाइए, universal gates के नाम लिखिए
Universal Logic Gates:

1. Universal gates include NAND and NOR gates. Because

they can execute all logic functions of OR, AND, and NOT
gates, they are referred to as universal gates.
2. A universal gate is a type of logic gate that can implement
any Boolean function without the usage of any additional
logic gates. The universal gates are the NOR and NAND
gates. This means that using only NOR or NAND gates, we
can build any logical Boolean expression.
3. The inverse of the AND operation is the NAND gate. NOT
AND is represented by the abbreviation NAND.
4. The NOR gate is the polar opposite of the OR gate. The
term NOR stands for NOT OR.
d) Obtained the canonical sum of product from of the function CO3
F(A,B,C) = A + BC
F (A, B, C) = A + BC = A (B + B′) (C + C ′) + BC (A + A ′) = (AB + AB ′) (C + C ′) + ABC + A ′BC = ABC +
AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + ABC + A′BC = ABC + AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC (as ABC + ABC = ABC)
Hence the canonical sum of the product expression of the given function is F (A, B,C) = ABC +
AB′C + ABC′ + AB′C′ + A′BC

e) Obtained the canonical product of sum from of the function CO3

F(A,B,C) = (A + B) .(B + C) .(A + C)
f) Draw the symbol of OR gate CO5
OR गेट का प्रतीक बनाइए
g) Draw the symbol of AND gate CO5
AND गेट का प्रतीक बनाइए

UNIT-III
S.No. Question COURSE
OUTCOMES

a) Write full form of SSI-------- Small-Scale Integration CO1

SSI का पूर्ण रूप लिखिए
b) Write full form of MSI--------- Medium Scale Integration CO1
MSI का पूर्ण रूप लिखिए
c) Write full form of LSI------------- Large-Scale Integration CO2
LSI का पूर्ण रूप लिखिए
d) Write full form of VLSI & VVLSI--------- Very Large-Scale Integration CO4
वीएलएसआई और वीवीएलएसआई का पूर्ण रूप लिखिए
e) Write the names of popular IC’S CO3
लोकप्रिय आईसी'एस के नाम लिखिए
74XX series
This series of IC’s are handy ones to have stocked. These series
of IC’s include NAND, NOR, Hex inverter, JK, D flip-flop. XOR
gate and Decoder. The significance of this series chips is that
it operates in TTL logic levels. Below are some of the important
74xx series chips.

7400 – quad 2-input NAND gate

7401 – quad 2-input NAND gate with open collector outputs
7402 – quad 2-input NOR gate
7404 – hex inverter
7405 – hex inverter with open collector outputs
7470 – JK – Flip Flop
7479 – D – Flip Flop
7486 – XOR gate
7442 – Decoder
4XXX Chips
Similar to 74xx IC series 4xxx series includes NAND, NOR, Hex
inverter, JK, D flip flop. XOR gate and decoder. The key
difference is that 4xxx chips operate in CMOS logic levels.
Below are some of the important 4xxx worth stocking in your lab.

4012 – NAND gate

4009 – Hex Inverter
4096 – JK Flip Flop
4511 – Decoder
4076 – D Flip Flop
 4070 – XOR Flip Flop
f) Draw bipolar logic CO5
Bipolar logic बनाइए

g) Draw MOS logic CO5

Mos logic बनाइए

UNIT-IV
S.No Question COURSE
. OUTCOME
S
a) Define combinational logic Circuit. CO1
कॉम्बिनेशन लॉजिक सर्किट को परिभाषित करें।

Combinational circuits are specially designed using multiple

interconnected logic gates such that the output will be
generated by computing the logical combinations of the
present input only. No clock pulse is present here. Moreover,
no previously stored value or state is taken into consideration
here. The output is independent of previous states.
 
b) Difference between Half adder and full adder
अर्ध योजक और पूर्ण योजक के बीच अंतर लिखिए
The main difference between a half adder and a full adder is the number
of inputs and the ability to add a carry from the previous addition:
 Inputs
A half adder has two inputs, A and B, while a full adder has three inputs,
A, B, and C-in.
 Carry CO3
A half adder doesn't have an input for the carry out from the previous
column, while a full adder can add the previous carry to the current
inputs.
 Gates
A half adder has one AND gate and one EX-OR gate, while a full adder has
one OR gate, two AND gates, and two EX-OR gates.

c) Define Encoder.
एनकोडर को परिभाषित करें।
An encoder is a device that converts information from one
format to another, usually transforming physical motion into an CO1
electrical signal. Encoders are used in many industries and
are a type of position sensor
d)

Construct 2:1 multiplexer.

2:1 मल्टीप्लेक्सर का निर्माण करें।

CO3

e) What is the truth table of Half Subtractor? CO2

हाफ सबट्रैक्टर की सत्यता सारणी क्या है?
f) What is the truth table of Half Adder? CO2
हाफ एडर की सत्यता सारणी क्या है?
g) Construct 1:2 De-multiplexers. CO3
1:2 डी-मल्टीप्लेक्सर का निर्माण करें
h) Draw 2X4 Decoder. CO5
2X4 डिकोडर बनाएं।

UNIT-V

S.No Question COURSE

. OUTCOMES
a) What is flip-flop? CO3
फ्लिप-फ्लॉप क्या है?
b) Write the excitation tables for JK flip-flop
JK फ्लिप-फ्लॉप के लिए excitation तालिकाएँ लिखें CO3

c) Write difference between Combinational & Sequential circuits? CO3

संयुक्त और अनुक्रमिक सर्किट के बीच अंतर लिखें?
d) Write the excitation tables for SR flip-flop. CO3
SR फ्लिप-फ्लॉप के लिए excitation तालिकाएँ लिखें
e) What is RAM? CO5
RAM क्या है?
f) What is the storage element for a static RAM?
(A) Diode (B) Resistor CO5
(C) Capacitor (D) Flip Flop
g) Write the different types of ROM. CO5
ROM के विभिन्न प्रकार लिखिए।
h) Define ROM. CO5
ROM को परिभाषित करें।

SECTION-B (Short Answer Type Questions)

UNIT-I

S.No Question COURSE

. OUTCOMES
a) Convert (ABC.75)16 = () 10---------------- (ABC.75)₁₆ = (10 × 16²) + (11 × 16¹) + (12 × 16⁰) + (7 × CO1
16⁻¹) + (5 × 16⁻²) = (2748.45703125)₁₀

b) Convert binary to octal CO1

(1011011.011011)2 = ()8
(11101101.10101)2 = ()8------------------------------Convert every 3 binary digits (from bit0) to octal digit (see
conversion table below):
1011011.011011
= 1 011 011.011 011
= 1 3 3.3 3
= 133.33
c) (177)D = (261 ) 8 = (10110001) 2 CO2

d) Convert binary to Hexadecimal code CO2

(10111011.1101101)2 = ()16
Convert every 4 binary digits (from bit0) to hex digit (see conversion table below):
10111011.1101101
= 1011 1011.1101 101
= B B.D A
= BB.DA
(101110111.10110110)2 = ()16
Convert every 4 binary digits (from bit0) to hex digit (see conversion table below):
101110111.10110110
= 1 0111 0111.1011 0110
= 1 7 7.B 6
= 177.B6
e) Represent decimal number 39 in octal no------------------47 CO3
दशमलव संख्या 39 को ऑक्टल में निरूपित करें
f) Convert binary to Gray code CO3
(1101)2 = (1011)Gray
(1110)2 = (1001)Gray
g) Explain term K -MAP, how many types of K- MAP? CO4
K-MAP शब्द की व्याख्या करें, K-MAP कितने प्रकार के होते हैं?

UNIT-II

S.No Question COURSE

. OUTCOMES
a) Implement NOT, OR, AND Gate using only NAND Gate. CO1
केवल NAND गेट का प्रयोग करके NOT, OR, AND गेट लागू
करें।
b) Explain law and theorem of Boolean algebra? CO1
बूलियन बीजगणित के नियम और प्रमेय की व्याख्या करें?
c) Explain D-Morgan's theorem with diagram? CO3
डी-मॉर्गन के प्रमेय को चित्र सहित समझाइए?

d) Draw OR and AND gate also write the truth table. CO2
OR और AND गेट बनाइए तथा सत्यता सारणी भी लिखिए।
e) Draw Two inputs NAND gate and also write the truth table. CO5
दो इनपुट NAND गेट बनाइए तथा सत्यता सारणी भी लिखिए।
f) Draw Two inputs NOR gate and also write the truth table. CO5
दो इनपुट NOR गेट बनाइए तथा सत्यता सारणी भी लिखिए।
g) Write example of SOP and POS equation? CO4
एसओपी और पीओएस समीकरण का उदाहरण लिखें?
h) Draw and explain half adder circuit CO4
हाफ ऐडर परिपथ का चित्र बनाइए और समझाइए

UNIT-III
S.No. Question COURSE
OUTCOMES

a) In SSI IC’s how many component there CO1

SSI IC में कितने कंपोनेंट होते हैं

Small-scale integration (SSI): Up to 100 components per chip

b) In LSI IC’s how many component there CO1

LSI IC में कितने कंपोनेंट होते हैं
Large-scale integration (LSI): 3,000 to 100,000 components per chip

c) In MSI IC’s how many component there CO2

MSI IC में कितने कंपोनेंट होते हैं

Medium-scale integration (MSI): 100 to 3,000 components per chip

d) In VLSI IC’s how many component there CO2
VLSI IC में कितने कंपोनेंट होते हैं

Very large-scale integration (VLSI): Millions of components per chip

e) List out of advantage and disadvantage of Integrated circuit CO4
 इंटीग्रेटेड सर्किट के फायदे और नुकसान की सूची बताइए

Integrated circuits (ICs) have many advantages, including:

Size: ICs are much smaller than discrete circuits
Weight: ICs are lighter than discrete circuits
Reliability: ICs are more reliable because they are less likely to have
loose connections or faulty wiring
Energy efficiency: ICs consume less power and generate less heat
Cost: ICs can be mass-produced at a lower cost, making electronic
devices more affordable
Sustainability: ICs are sustainable and can last for a longer period of
time
Ease of replacement: ICs are easy to replace
However, ICs also have some disadvantages, including:
Power handling: ICs cannot handle high power
Damage: ICs are more prone to damage from high voltage or current
Initial cost: The initial cost of designing ICs and building the factory is
high

ICs are the fundamental building block of all modern electronic

devices, including calculators, smartphones, and automotive
systems

f) What are the TTL Logic CO5

TTL लॉजिक क्या हैं?
g) What is the classification of logic family? CO5
Logic family का वर्गीकरण क्या है?

UNIT-IV

S.No Question COURSE

. OUTCOMES
a) Design a 3 to 8 line decoder circuit. CO2
3 से 8 लाइन डिकोडर सर्किट डिज़ाइन करें।
b) Implement the following using a (4:1) multiplexer
F (A,B,C) = m(1,3,5,6).
4:1 मल्टीप्लेक्सर का उपयोग करके निम्नलिखित को CO2
कार्यान्वित करें
F(A,B,C) = m(1,3,5,6)
c) Draw Full Adder using two half adder and one OR Gate.
CO2
Two half adder और एक OR गेट का उपयोग करके पूर्ण योजक बनाएं।
d) Design a 4:1 multiplexer circuit.
CO2
एक 4:1 मल्टीप्लेक्सर सर्किट डिज़ाइन करें।
e) Implement the following Boolean function using 4:1 multiplexer
CO2
F(A,B,C) = Σ𝑚 (0,1,2,5)
f) Draw and explain half subtractor circuit CO5
हाफ सबट्रैक्टर परिपथ का चित्र बनाइए और समझाइए
g) Design a 1:4 De-multiplexer circuit. CO2

UNIT-V
S.No Question COURSE
. OUTCOMES
a) Draw & Explain the operation of JK flip-flop? CO3
JK flip-flop के संचालन का चित्र बनाएं और समझाएं?
b) Write the excitation tables for T Flip-Flop.
CO3
T Flip-Flop के लिए excitation तालिकाएँ लिखें।
c) Draw & Explain the operation of SR flip-flop? CO3
SR flip-flop के संचालन का चित्र बनाएं और समझाएं?
d) Define Flip-flop and write various types of flip flops.
फ्लिप-फ्लॉप को परिभाषित करें तथा विभिन्न प्रकार के फ्लिप CO3
फ्लॉप लिखिए।
e) Design T flip-flop using D flip-flop.
CO3
डी फ्लिप-फ्लॉप का उपयोग करके टी फ्लिप-फ्लॉप डिज़ाइन करें।
f) Draw and explain the working of SISO Shift Registers.
CO3
SISO शिफ्ट रजिस्टरों की कार्यप्रणाली बनाएं और समझाएं।
g) Write the truth table and excitation table of S-R flip flop.
CO3
S-R flip flop की सत्यता तालिका और उत्तेजना तालिका लिखें।

SECTION-C [Descriptive Answer Type Questions]

UNIT-I

S.No. Question COURSE

OUTCOMES
a) Convert Gray to binary code CO3
(11011)Gray = ()2
(101011)Gray = ()2
b) 1’s compliment of following no CO2
(i) 1011001
(ii) 1100010
c) 2’s compliment of following no CO2
(ii) 1011001
(ii) 1100010
d) Represent the decimal no 39 in CO3
(a) Binary code (ii) BCD code
e) Convert Decimal to binary code CO3
(52)10 = (110100)2
(105.15)10 = (1101001.0010011001100110011)2
f) Convert Hexadecimal to Binary code CO4
(39AE.B0D)16 = ()2
Convert each hex digit to 4 binary digits (see conversion table below):
 39AE.B0D
= 3 9 A E.B 0 D
= 11 1001 1010 1110.1011 0000 1101
= 11100110101110.101100001101
g) Convert Hexadecimal to Decimal code CO4
(A0F9.0EB)16 = ()10
(A0F9.0EB)₁₆ = (10 × 16³) + (0 × 16²) + (15 × 16¹) + (9 × 16⁰) + (0 × 16⁻¹) + (14 × 16⁻²) + (11 × 16⁻³) =

(41209.057373046875)₁₀
h) Represent the decimal no 46 in CO5
(i) Octal no ----- 56 (ii) Hexadecimal no----2E

UNIT-II

S.No. Question COURSE

OUTCOMES
a) F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,11,14) CO5
Minimize the following expression using K- map and implement the
simplified function using basic gates only
F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,11,14)
k-map का उपयोग करके न्यूनतम करें और logical सर्किट भी बनाएं।
b) Y = ∑m (3, 4, 6, 7) Write standard SOP equation using truth table. CO2
c) F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 1,3,7,11,15) + d (0,2,5)Minimize the following CO5
expression using K- map and implement the simplified function using
basic gates only
F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 1,3,7,11,15) + d (0,2,5) k-map का उपयोग करके
न्यूनतम करें और logical सर्किट भी बनाएं।
d) Y =∑m(4, 5, 9, 12, 13) minimize using k-map and also draw the logical CO3
circuit.
Y =∑m (4, 5, 9, 12, 13)k-map का उपयोग करके न्यूनतम करें और logical
सर्किट भी बनाएं।
e) Draw Two input Ex-OR gate using only NAND Gate CO1
केवल NAND गेट का उपयोग करके दो इनपुट Ex-OR गेट बनाएं
f) Draw Two input Ex-OR gate and also write the truth table. CO3
दो निवेशी Ex-OR गेट बनाइए तथा सत्यता सारणी भी लिखिए।
g) Draw Two input Ex-NOR gate and also write the truth table. CO4
दो निवेशी Ex-NOR गेट बनाइए तथा सत्यता सारणी भी लिखिए।

UNIT-III
S.No. Question COURSE
OUTCOMES

a) What do you understand by integrated circuit CO1

एकीकृत परिपथ से आप क्या समझते हैं
b) Describe difference between SSI,LSI,VLSI IC’S CO2
एसएसआई, एलएसआई, वीएलएसआई आईसी'एस के बीच अंतर का वर्णन करें
c) Draw and explain Full adder circuit CO4
हाफ ऐडर परिपथ का चित्र बनाइए और समझाइए
d) Draw and explain CMOS Inverter circuit CO5
CMOS इनवर्टर सर्किट बनाएं और समझाएं
e) Draw and explain RTL NOR Gate circuit CO5
RTL NOR Gate सर्किट बनाएं और समझाएं
 The 2-input RTL NOR gate works as; whenever both the inputs
of the circuit like A & B are at logic 0, then it is not sufficient to
activate the gates of two transistors. Thus, the two transistors
will not perform, so the +VCC voltage will appear at the ‘Y’
output. Therefore the output of this circuit is logic HIGH or logic
1 at the ‘Y’ terminal.

Whenever any one of the two inputs is given as logic 1 or HIGH

voltage, then the HIGH gate input transistor will be activated.
So this will make a lane for the voltage supply to go to the GND
throughout the RC resistor & transistor. Therefore the output of
this circuit is logic LOW or logic 0 at the ‘Y’ terminal.

Whenever both the inputs of the circuit are HIGH, then it drives
both the transistors in this circuit to activate. Thus, it will make a
lane for the voltage supply to supply to the GND throughout the
RC resistor & transistor. Therefore the output of this circuit is
logic LOW or logic 0 at the ‘Y’ terminal. The truth table of the
NOR gate is shown below.

Characteristics
The resistor transistor logic characteristics include the
following.

 The RTL fan-out – 5.

 Its Propagation delay – 25 ns
 RTL Power dissipation – 12 MW.
 Noise margin for low signal input – 0.4 v.
 Its noise immunity is poor.
 It has less speed.

f) Draw and explain DTL NAND Gate circuit CO5

DTL NAND Gate सर्किट बनाएं और समझाएं
 Whenever both the inputs of the circuits A & B are LOW, then
both D1 & D2 diodes will become forward biased, thus these
diodes will conduct within the forward direction. Thus the
current supply because of the voltage supply (+VCC = 5V) will
supply to the GND throughout the R1 resistor & the two diodes.
The voltage supply gets reduced within the R1 resistor & it will
not be enough to turn ON the Q1 transistor, thus the Q1
transistor will be in the cut-off mode. So, the o/p at the ‘Y’
terminal will be Logic 1 or HIGH value.

When any one of the inputs is LOW, then the corresponding

diode will be forward-biased so, a similar operation will happen.
As any one of these diodes is forward biased, then current will
be supplied to the ground throughout the forward-biased diode,
thus the ‘Q1’ transistor will be within cut-off mode, so the output
at the ‘Y’ terminal will be high or logic 1.

Whenever both the A & B inputs are HIGH then both the diodes
will be reverse biased, thus both the diodes will not conduct. So
in this condition, the voltage from the +VCC supply will be
sufficient to drive the Q1 transistor into conduction mode.

Therefore the transistor conducts throughout emitter & collector

terminals. The whole voltage gets reduced within the ‘R2’
resistor & the output at the ‘Y’ terminal will have LOW o/p and
is considered as low or logic 0.

g) Draw TTL NAND Gate circuit CO5

 DTL NAND Gate सर्किट बनाएं
Standard TTL circuit
The diagram below shows the internal structure and characteristics of a
standard TTL NAND gate. Its NAND gate is a four-way two-input type.
There are four 5400/740 circuits. In simple terms, this type of TTL
circuit works as follows.

Q1 shown in the diagram is a dual emitter NPN transistor, this type of NAND gate
is similar to two transistors with their base and emitter terminals connected
together. Diodes named D2 and D3 are used to limit the input voltage which is
negative in nature.

UNIT-IV

S.No. Question COURSE

OUTCOMES
a) Draw neat diagram of 4:1 MUX CO2
4:1 MUX का स्वच्छ आरेख बनाएं
b) What is the decoder? Explain 2 to 4 binary Decoder with truth table CO3
डिकोडर क्या है? 2 से 4 बाइनरी डिकोडर को ट्रुथ टेबल की सहायता से समझाइए
c) What is the multiplexer? Design a 2x1 multiplexer with truth table CO3
 मल्टीप्लेक्सर क्या है? सत्य तालिका के साथ एक 2x1 multiplexer डिज़ाइन
करें
d) Implement the following expression using 8: 1 MUX CO4
F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 0,1,4,8,12,14,15)
8:1 MUX का उपयोग करके निम्नलिखित व्यंजक को लागू करें
F(A , B , C , D ) = ∑ m ( 0,1,4,8,12,14,15)
e) Design full adder using 3 to 8 decoder.
3 to 8 डिकोडर का उपयोग करके पूर्ण योजक डिज़ाइन करें।

The truth table of a full adder is

CO2

f) Design 3-bit Binary to Grey code convertor. CO2

3-बिट बाइनरी से ग्रे कोड कनवर्टर डिज़ाइन करें।
 Formulae:-
Let b2 b1 b0 be the 3-bit binary number and g2 g1 g0 be its equivalent
gray code.
Then,
g2 = b2
g1 = b2 ⊕ b1
g0 = b1 ⊕ b0

g) Construct BCD to 7 Segment Decoder CO2

BCD to 7 Segment डिकोडर का निर्माण करें

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
BCD is the encoding scheme each of the decimal numbers(0-
9) is represented by its equivalent binary pattern(which is
generally of 4-bits).
Seven segment
Seven Segment display is an electronic device which consists
of seven Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) arranged in a some
definite pattern (common cathode or common anode type),
which is used to display Hexadecimal numerals(in this case
decimal numbers, as input is BCD i.e., 0-9). Two types of
seven segment LED display:
1. Common Cathode Type: In this type of display all
cathodes of the seven LEDs are connected together to the
ground or -Vcc(hence, common cathode) and LED displays
digits when some ‘HIGH’ signal is supplied to the individual
anodes.
2. Common Anode Type: In this type of display all the
anodes of the seven LEDs are connected to battery or
+Vcc and LED displays digits when some ‘LOW’ signal is
supplied to the individual cathodes.
But, seven segment display does not work by directly
supplying voltage to different segments of LEDs. First, our
decimal number is changed to its BCD equivalent signal then
BCD to seven segment decoder converts that signals to the
form which is fed to seven segment display. This BCD to
seven segment decoder has four input lines (A, B, C and D)
and 7 output lines (a, b, c, d, e, f and g), this output is given to
seven segment LED display which displays the decimal
number depending upon inputs.
 UNIT-V
S.No Question COURSE
. OUTCOME
S
a) Differentiate volatile and non-volatile memory.
CO5
volatile and non-volatile मेमोरी में अंतर करें।
b) Discuss in detail about various types of ROM. CO5
ROM के विभिन्न प्रकारों के बारे में विस्तार से चर्चा करें।
c) Compare the features of ROM,PROM and EPROM CO5
ROM, PROM और EPROM की विशेषताओं की तुलना करें
d) Draw and explain working of multimeter CO5
मल्टीमीटर की कार्यप्रणाली का चित्र बनाइये और समझाइये

A digital multimeter or DMM is a test equipment

used for resistance, voltage, current measurement, and
other electrical parameters as per requirement and
displaying the results in the mathematical digits form
on an LCD or LED readout. It is a type of
multimeter which functions digitally rather giving an
analog output.

Digital multimeters are widely accepted worldwide as

they have better accuracy levels and ranging from
simple 3 ½ to 4 ½ digit handheld DMM to very special
system DMM.
Features of Digital Multimeter
The Digital multimeter is the most advanced measuring
instrument that makes use of modern Integrated
circuits for making electrical measurements. Some of
its features which make it famous in the eyes of
professional technicians are:

1. It is light in weight.
2. Capable of giving more accurate readings.
3. It measures lots of physical quantities like voltage,
current, resistance, frequency, etc.
4. It is less costly.
5. It measures different electrical parameters at high
frequencies with the help of special probes.

Block diagram of Digital multimeter

The Key process that occurs within a Digital multimeter
for any measurement that takes place is that of voltage
measurement. If you measure voltage then you can
easily measure other electrical parameters with the
help of mathematical formulas.

To understand how digital multimeter works, first of all,

we have to understand this process.

As we know, Digital multimeters gave output in

numeric form due to ADC registers present inside these
multimeters. One that is most widely used in digital
multimeters, DMMs is known as the successive
approximation register or SAR. For better accuracy,
these SAR ADCs may have resolution levels of 12 bits.

Generally, a Digital multimeter has resolution levels of

16 bits with speeds of 100k samples per second. These
levels of speed are more than adequate for most DMM
applications, that’s why we are using these registers
depending upon the requirement.

Operation of Digital multimeter

The flow chart given below shows the operation flow of
the digital multimeter.
Working Principle of Digital Multimeter
As shown in the block diagram, in a typical Digital
multimeter the input signal i.e. ac or dc voltage,
current, resistance, temperature, or any other
parameter is converted to dc voltage within the range
of the ADC. The analog to digital converter then
converts the pre-scaled dc voltage into its equivalent
digital numbers which will be displayed on the display
unit.

Sometimes, a digital controller block is implemented

with a microcontroller or a microprocessor to manage
the flow of information within the instrument. This block
will coordinate all the internal functions as well as
transferring information to external devices such as
printers or a personal computer.

In the case of some handheld multimeter, some or all of

these blocks may be implemented in a VLSI circuit
while the A/D converter and display driver can be in the
same IC.
e) Write a short note on RAM. CO5
RAM पर एक संक्षिप्त टिप्पणी लिखें।
f) Define the Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
CO5
स्टेटिक रैम और डायनामिक रैम को परिभाषित करें।
g) Draw and explain block diagram of CRO CO5
CRO का ब्लॉक आरेख बनाएं और समझाएं

Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The construction of cathode ray consist of the following
components:
 Cathode Ray Tube
 Electronic Gun
 Deflecting Plate
 Fluorescent Screen For CRT
 Glass Envelope
Cathode Ray Tube
The CRO is the vacuum tube and the fundamental capability
of this gadget is to change the sign from electrical to visual.
This cylinder incorporates the electron weapon as well as the
electrostatic avoidance plates. The primary purpose of this
electron gun is to produce a focused, high-frequency
electronic ray. The upward redirection plate will turn the beam
up and down while the flat beam moved the electrons radiates
from the passed on side to the right side. The ray can be
positioned anywhere on the monitor because these actions
are independent of one another.
Electronic Gun
The fundamental capability of the electron firearm is to
transmit the electrons to frame them into a beam. This weapon
for the most part incorporates a radiator, a lattice, cathode,
and anodes like speeding up, per-speeding up and centering.
At the cathode end, the strontium and barium layers are
stored to get the high electrons outflow of electrons at the
moderate temperature, the layers of barium, and are kept
toward the finish of the cathode. After electrons are produced
from the cathode grid, they travel through the control grid,
which is typically a nickel cylinder, via a coaxial axis located in
the center of the CRT. In this way, it controls the strength of
the created electrons from the cathode.
At the point when electrons stream all through the control
lattice then it advances with the assistance of a high certain
potential which is applied to the per-speeding up or speeding
up hubs. The electron beam is focused on anodes to stream
all through the avoidance plates like flat and vertical and
supplies on to the fluorescent light. The anodes like speeding
up and per-speeding up are associated with 1500v and the
centering terminal can be associated with 500v. The electron
beam can be centered around utilizing two procedures like
Electrostatic and Electromagnetic centering. Here, a cathode
beam oscilloscope uses an electrostatic centering tube.
Deflecting Plate
When the electron beam leaves the electron weapon then this
beam will pass all through the two arrangements of the
avoiding plate. This set will produce the upward diversion that
is known as Y plate's generally vertical diverting plate. The
arrangement of the plate is utilized for a level diversion which
is known as X plate's generally even redirection.
Fluorescent Screen of CRT
In the CRT, the front face is known as the face-plate, For the
CRT screen, it is level and its size is around 100mm×100mm.
For larger displays, the CRT screen is slightly bent, and the
face plate can be formed by pressing molten glass into a
shape and then heating it.
The inward essence of the face-plate is covered by utilizing
phosphor precious stone to change the energy from electrical
to light. When a hardware beam hits phosphor precious stone,
the energy level can be upgraded and subsequently light is
created all through phosphorous crystallization, so this event
is known as fluorescence.
Glass Envelope
It is an incredibly cleared cone shaped type of development.
Within countenances of the CRT among the neck as well as
the showcase are covered through the aqua-dag. This
material is conductive and functions like a high-voltage
electrode. The outer layer of the covering is associated
electrically toward the speeding up anode to assist the
electron with being the middle.
Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
The CRO working principle relies upon the electron ray
movement as a result of the electrostatic force. When an
electron ray hits a phosphor face, then, at that point, it makes
a splendid spot on it. A Cathode ray Oscilloscope applies the
electrostatic energy on the electron beam from two vertical
ways. The spot on the phosphor screen goes because of the
impact of these two electrostatic forces which are opposite
together. It moves to make the important waveform of the
input signal.

 Vertical Deflection System : The primary capability of this

amplifier is to amplify the weak signal so the amplified
signal can create the ideal signal. To analyze the input
signals are entered to the vertical deflection plates through
the info attenuate and the quantity of amplifier stages.
 Horizontal Deflection System : The vertical and even
 framework comprises of flat intensifiers to enhance the frail
info signals, however it is not quite the same as the upward
avoidance framework. The flat diversion plates are entered
by a range voltage that gives a period base. The saw-tooth
wave generator is triggered by the synchronizing amplifier,
as shown in the circuit diagram, while the sweep selector
moves into the internal position. So the trigger saw tooth
generator gives the contribution to the even enhancer by
following the system. Here we will examine the four kinds of
sweeps.
 Recurrent Sweep : As the name, itself says that the saw-
tooth is individual that is another scope is begun indecently
toward the finish of the previous sweep.
 Triggered Sweep : In some cases the waveform ought to
be seen that it may not be anticipated hence, the ideal that
the compass circuit stays out of commission and the scope
ought to be started by the waveform under the assessment.
In these cases, we will utilize the triggered sweep.
 Driven Clear : As a rule, the drive sweep is utilized when
the sweep is free-running yet it is triggered by the signal
under the test.
 Non-Saw Tooth Sweep : The purpose of this sweep is to
determine the difference between the two voltages. Non-
Saw Tooth Sweep By utilizing the non-saw tooth clear we
can analyze the frequency of the input voltages.
 Synchronization : The synchronization is finished to
create a fixed example. The synchronization is between the
sweep and the signal should measure. There are a few
wellsprings of synchronization that can be chosen by the
synchronization selector. Which are discussed below.
 Internal : In this, the signal is estimated by the upward
enhancer and the trigger is avoided by the signal.
 External : In the outer trigger, the outside trigger ought to
be available.
 Line : The line trigger is delivered by the power supply.
 Intensity Modulation : This modulation is delivered by
embedding the signal between the ground and cathode.
This modulation causes by lighting up the display.
 Positioning Control : By applying the little autonomous
inner direct voltage source to the recognizing plates
through the voltmeter the position can be controlled and
furthermore we have some control over the place of the
sign.
 Intensity Control : The intensity has a distinction by
changing the network potential as for the cathode.
Controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
 The fundamental controls of CRO primarily incorporate
position, brightness, focus, astigmatism, blanking and
calibration.
 Position : In the oscilloscope, the position control handle is
mostly utilized for position control of the serious spot from
the passed on side to the right side. By directing the
handle, one can essentially control the spot from passed on
side to the right side.
 Calibration Circuit : A calibration circuit for an
oscilloscope requires an oscillator. Notwithstanding, the
oscillator which is utilized ought to create a square
waveform for preset voltage.
 Focus : By controlling the applied voltage in the direction
of the CRO's center anode, focus can be controlled. The
center and different anodes in the district of it can shape
the electrostatic focal point. As a result, the voltage across
the center anode can be adjusted to change the main
length of the lens.
 Blanking Circuit : The time base generator present in the
oscilloscope created the blanking voltage.
 Brightness : The ray's brightness mainly relies upon the
power of the electron. The electron intensity of the electron
ray is controlled by the control grids. As a result, the
electron ray brightness can be adjusted to control the grid
voltage.

Flip Flop
A flip-flop in digital electronics is a circuit with two stable states that can be
used to store binary data. The stored data can be changed by applying
varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of
digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many
other types of systems. Both are used as data storage elements.

Flip Flop Types

There are 4 types of flip-flops in digital electronics:
1. SR Flip-Flop
2. JK Flip-Flop
3. D Flip-Flop
4. T Flip-Flop
Let’s understand each Flip-flop one by one.

1. SR Flip Flop

This is the most common flip-flop among all. This simple flip-flop circuit has
a set input (S) and a reset input (R). In this system, when you Set “S” as
active, the output “Q” would be high, and “Q‘” would be low. Once the
outputs are established, the wiring of the circuit is maintained until “S” or
“R” goes high, or power is turned off.

As shown above, it is the simplest and easiest to understand. The two

outputs, as shown above, are the inverse of each other. The truth table of
SR Flip-Flop is highlighted below.

S R Q Q’

0 0 0 1

0 1 0 1

1 0 1 0

1 1 ∞ ∞

2. JK Flip-Flop
Due to the undefined state in the SR flip-flops, another flip-flop is required in
electronics. The JK flip-flop is an improvement on the SR flip-flop where
S=R=1 is not a problem.

JK Flip Flop Circuit

The input condition of J=K=1 gives an output inverting the output state.
However, the outputs are the same when one tests the circuit practically.

In simple words, If J and K data input are different (i.e. high and low), then
the output Q takes the value of J at the next clock edge. If J and K are both
low, then no change occurs. If J and K are both high at the clock edge, then
the output will toggle from one state to the other. JK Flip-Flops can function
as Set or Reset Flip-flops.

JK FF Truth Table:
J K Q Q’

0 0 0 0
 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1

0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0

3. D Flip-Flop

D flip-flop is a better alternative that is very popular with digital electronics.

They are commonly used for counters, shift registers, and input
synchronization.

D Flip-Flop

In the D flip-flops, the output can only be changed at the clock edge, and if
the input changes at other times, the output will be unaffected.

Truth Table:
Clock D Q Q’

↓»0 0 0 1

↑»1 0 0 1

↓»0 1 0 1
 ↑»1 1 1 0

The change of state of the output is dependent on the rising edge of the
clock. The output (Q) is the same as the input and can only change at the
rising edge of the clock.

4. T Flip-Flop

A T flip-flop is like a JK flip-flop. These are single-input versions of JK flip-

flops. This modified form of the JK is obtained by connecting inputs J and K
together. It has only one input along with the clock input.

T flip flop

These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because of their ability to complement

their state i.e. Toggle, hence they are named Toggle flip-flops.

Truth Table:
T Q Q (t+1)

0 0 0

1 0 1

0 1 1

1 1 0
Applications
These are the various types of flip-flops being used in digital electronic
circuits and the applications of Flip-flops are as specified below.

 Counters
 Frequency Dividers
 Shift Registers
 Storage Registers

Logic families are different types of technologies being used to build different logic
gates. Logic gates are digital circuits that perform basic logic operations like AND,
OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR. In other words, it is a group of compatible ICs with the
same logic levels and supply voltages fabricated for performing various logical
functions. Here, when we say that ICs have the same logic level, we are referring
to two types of logic levels that exist -
 In positive logic, 0 is formed by a low voltage level, and a high voltage level
forms 1. It means the ON state refers to high voltage as input or output while
OFF means low voltage as input or output.
 In negative logic, 0 is formed by a high voltage level, and 1 is formed by a low
voltage level. Here, the situation is reversed to that of positive logic. ON means
a low voltage input or output while OFF means high voltage as input or output.
Unipolar Logic Families
Unipolar means having a single type of charge carrier. This logic family uses
transistors that have either electrons or holes(not both) as charge carriers. The
most commonly used technology is Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor(MOS). A common
example is Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic.
NMOS (N-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
NMOS transistors conduct when a positive charge is applied to the gate terminal.
A nChannel Metal-oxide-semiconductor(MOS) transistor is one in which n-type
dopants are used in the gate region(channels). A positive voltage on the gate turns
the device ON.NMOS is built on a p-type substrate with an n-type source and drain
diffused on it. In NMOS, electrons are the majority carriers. When a high voltage is
applied to the gate, the conduction starts. A negative supply stops the conduction
and thus switches OFF the device. These are generally considered faster to pMOS
as the charge carriers here are electrons which are twice as fast as holes.
PMOS (P-channel Metal Oxide Semiconductor Battery-Powered)
PMOS transistors conduct when a negative charge is applied to the gate terminal.
A p-channel Metal-oxide-semiconductor(MOS) transistor is one in which p-type
dopants are used in the gate region(channels). A negative voltage on the gate
turns the device ON.
p-channel MOSFETs consist of a p-type source and drain diffused on a N-type
substrate. Holes are the majority of charge carriers here. That means the high
voltage supplied to the gate turns the device OFF. Similarly, a low voltage starts
the conduction and in turn, switches ON the device. They are more immune to
noise fluctuations compared to NMOS devices.
CMOS(Complementary MOS)
In CMOS technology, both n-type and p-type transistors are used to design logical
functions. The same signal which turns ON one transistor is used to turn OFF the
other transistor. These characteristics of CMOS make it compatible for designing
logic devices using only simple switching elements, without the need for a pull-up
resistor.
Characteristics of CMOS
Characteristics of CMOS are listed below :
 Low power consumption - CMOS circuit consumes very low power, making them
ideal for battery-powered devices.
 Low cost - The CMOS fabrication process is relatively simpler compared to
other semiconductor technologies.
 High reliability and noise immunity - They are considered to have a high noise
margin and thus are good for circuits that require high tolerance to noise.
 Limited Voltage Swing - They have a low voltage range of operation, making
them less suitable for high voltage operations.
 Process Variation - The CMOS fabrication process is highly dependent on
process conditions, leading to variations that can affect the performance and
reliability of the final product.
 Vulnerability to electrostatic discharge - CMOS is greatly affected by electrostatic
discharge leading to permanent device damage on exposure.
Bipolar Logic Families
In bipolar devices, the conduction happens due to both charge carriers - electrons
and holes. Bipolar logic families use semiconductor diodes and bipolar junction
transistors as the basic building blocks of logic circuits. The simplest bipolar logic
elements use diodes and resistors to perform logic operations; this is called diode
logic. Most TTL logic gates use diode logic internally and boost their output drive
capability using transistor circuits. Some TTL gates use parallel configurations of
transistors to perform logic functions. ECL gates use transistors as current
switches to achieve very high speed.
There are further classifications of the bipolar logic family in two types
Saturated
In this logic, the bipolar junction transistors(BJTs) used are operated in saturated
regions. This means that both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are
forward-biased, allowing maximum current flow through the transistor.
Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families
Characteristics of Saturated Logic Families are listed below :
 Can allow relatively higher current through transistors
 Very fast state switching
 Higher power consumption than non-saturated logic families.
 Better noise immunity
 Examples include Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), Diode Transistor Logic
(DTL), and Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL). TTL is the most popular category in
this classification.
Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is a digital logic family employing bipolar junction
transistors (BJTs) to uphold logic states and facilitate switching operations.
Introduced in 1961 by James L. Buie of TRW, TTL remains prevalent in various
electronic devices and systems. Renowned for its remarkable performance and
adaptability, TTL finds widespread application in logic gates, memory circuits, and
microprocessors.
Characteristics of TTL
Characteristics of TTL are listed below :
 Logic Voltage Levels: TTL logic inputs are classified as logical high when they
fall between 2V and 5V, and logical low when within the range of 0V to 0.8V.
 Propagation Delay: TTL stands out for having the minimal propagation delay
among digital integrated circuits (ICs).
 Power Dissipation: A standard TTL device consumes approximately 10mW of
power.
 Noise Margin: TTL boasts a noise margin of about 0.4V
 Fan Out: Typically, TTL exhibits a fan-out capability of 10.
 Supply Voltage: TTL necessitates a supply voltage ranging between 4.75 V and
5.25 V.
 Speed: TTL is renowned for its rapid switching speed.
 Compatibility: TTL devices are compatible with other TTL devices.
Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
In Diode Transistor Logic, diodes are used for AND and OR operations while
transistors are used for logical inversion and amplification. DTL is used to design
and fabricate digital circuits that use diodes in the input stage and BJTs at the
output stage. DTL is a type of circuit used in current digital electronics for
processing electrical signals.
Characteristics of DTL
Characteristics of DTL are listed below :
 Noise margin: DTL circuits have better noise performance than that of RTL due
to high noise margin
 Fan-out: DTL circuits typically have High fan-out.
 Logic low level: 0 or 0.2V
 Logic high level: 5V
 Average propagation delay: Average delay is of 9ns which lies between that of
RTL and TTL
 Power dissipation : A few milliwatts to about 50 mW
Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
Being the pioneering logic family adopted in integrated circuits, RTL (Resistor-
Transistor Logic) circuits consist of resistors and transistors, with resistors
positioned at the inputs and transistors at the output. NPN transistors serve as
switches, while resistors either regulate current or introduce voltage drops. Initially
developed with discrete components, it wasn't until 1961 that RTL circuits marked
the advent of the first digital logic family fabricated as a monolithic integrated
circuit. These integrated circuits found application in significant systems like the
Apollo Guidance Computer, which debuted in 1966. The fundamental RTL device
is the NAND gate.
Characteristics of RTL
Characteristics of RTL are listed below :
 High packing density: It means more numbers of RTL circuits can be
implemented over chipset
 Logic low level: 0.7V
 Logic high level: 3.5V
 Power Dissipation: Power dissipation is high compared to DTL and TTL
 Noise margin: RTL has poor noise margin with noise immunity being around
30% of supply voltage.
 Propagation delay: Delay is high resulting in low speed.
Non-saturated
In non-saturated bipolar logic, the bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are operated
in the active or linear region and not in the saturation region. In other words, the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased, limiting the current flow through the
transistor.
Characteristics of Non-Saturated Logic Families
Characteristics of non-saturated Logic Families are listed below :
 Comparatively lower current flow than the saturated logic family's transistors
 Slower switching speed
 Lower power consumption
 Examples include Emitter Coupled Logic(ECL) and Schottky TTL.
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) family
Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a bipolar transistor logic family that is considered to
be the fastest logic available. It was invented in 1956 at IBM by Hannon S. Yourke.
ECL is also known as current-steering logic (CSL), current-mode logic (CML), or
current-switch emitter-follower (CSEF) logic. The key to reducing propagation
delay in a bipolar logic family is to prevent a gate’s transistors from saturating, we
learned how Schottky diodes prevent saturation in TTL gates.
ECL is used in high-performance applications, such as: Clock-distribution circuits,
High-frequency-based applications, Fiber-optic transceiver interfaces, Ethernet,
and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) networks.
Characteristics of ECL logic family
Characteristics of ECL Logic Families are listed below :
 Power noise: ECL circuits generate relatively little power noise
 Propagation time : The propagation time for ECL can be less than a nanosecond
 Small voltage swing: ECL achieves its high-speed operation by employing a
relatively small voltage swing and preventing the transistors from entering the
saturation region
 No external inverters: ECL devices operate without the need for any external
inverters to simultaneously create the true and complementary output of the
desired function at the outputs
 Small voltage swing: ECL has a small swing which generally varies with
difference of 0.8V
Schottky TTL
Schottky TTL employs an internal architecture akin to standard TTL, with the
notable inclusion of Schottky transistors. These transistors are essentially
conventional bipolar transistors augmented with a Schottky diode bridging the
base-collector junction. A Schottky diode, characterized by its semiconductor-
metal composition, boasts a notably low cut-in voltage of typically 300 millivolts, in
contrast to the 600 mV threshold of other prevalent semiconductor diodes. This
low cut-in voltage restricts the base-collector voltage to approximately 400 mV,
effectively preventing the transistor from entering saturation. Consequently, this
limitation mitigates the transition time required for the transistor to shift from
saturation to cutoff state.
Characteristics of Schottky TTL logic family
 Low power consumption: They basically operate in non-saturated region so
usually have less power consumed compared to normal TTL family.
 Reduced switching time: Schottky diodes have a low forward voltage drop, often
between 0.3 and 0.5 volts, which enables quicker switching time. In other
words, Schottky TTL is faster.
 Reduced propagation delay time: By preventing saturation of transistors, it
reduces the propagation delay.
 Simple Circuit design: It has low complexity compared to ECL family.

Characteristics of a Logic Family

 Operating Speed: This refers to the time taken for the output voltage to change
in response to a change in the input voltage. It is desirable for this time to be
minimized.
 Fan-in: This denotes the number of inputs connected to a logic gate. For
instance, in an AND gate, the fan-in is 2, whereas in a NOT gate, it's 1.
 Fan-out: Fan-out indicates the total number of outputs that a gate can manage
without significant alteration in output voltage.
 Noise Immunity: Noise immunity gauges the capacity of a circuit to endure noise
or electrical interference without causing a notable deviation in the output.
 Power Dissipation: Power dissipation refers to the power required for operation.
When a circuit transitions from one state to another, power is dissipated.
Typically, there are two forms of dissipation: static power dissipation, which is
the power consumed when the circuit's state remains unchanged, and dynamic
power dissipation, which is the power utilized during state transitions.
Comparison of a Logic Family
The following table presents a comprehensive comparison of popular logic families
on various parameters
Parameters TTL CMOS ECL RTL

Basic Transistors, MOSFETs Resistor resistor and

Parameters TTL CMOS ECL RTL

diodes, and
element and transistors transistors
resistors

Fan out moderate highest(~50) high low

Propagation
10ns 70ns 2ns 12ns
Delay

Noise
moderate high low poor
margin

Power
10mW 0.1mW 40-50mW 30mW
dissipation

Circuit moderately
complex complex simple
complexity complex

Basic gate NAND gate NAND/NOR OR/NOR NOR gate

battery-powered
circuits due to low practically
Oscilloscopes, high-speed
power obsolete due
Application measurement switching
consumption, to poor
devices application
mobile noise margin
equipments

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Logic

Families
The following table classifies the major benefits and limitations of the three most
common logic families - Complementary - MOS (CMOS) family, Transistor-
Transistor Logic (TTL) family, and Emitter-Coupled-Logic(ECL) family.
Advantages of CMOS
 Extremely low power consumption
 High fan-out (~50)
 Can operate in wider temperature ranges( -55 to 125 degree C)
 No static power dissipation. Power is dissipated only for switching MOSFETs.
 Best Noise Immunity
Disadvantages of CMOS
 Slow speed of operation
 Propagation delay time is around 50ns while this is around 10-12ns in TTL
Advantages of TTL
 Least susceptible to electrical damage
 Noise immunity is better than ECL but less than CMOS
 Compatible with other logic families
 Lesser propagation delay than CMOS
 Better switching speed
Disadvantages of TTL
 Moderate power consumption.
 Prone to temperature variations
 Large power dissipation
 Poor noise immunity
Advantages of ECL
 Fastest speed
 Lesser temperature interference
Disadvantages of ECL
 Power consumption is higher than TTL and CMOS
 Lower operating voltage
 Very low noise immunity
Applications of the Logic Gate
Given below are the Applications of the Logic gate
Applications of CMOS
 Digital ICs: Microprocessors, Microcontrollers, Memory chips
 Embedded systems: Robotics, Automotive electronics
 Signal Processing: Analog-to-digital converters(ADCs) , filters, amplifiers
 Medical devices: MRI scanners, Pacemakers
Applications of TTL
 Legacy systems: Industrial plants having legacy systems implanted
 Testing instruments: Oscilloscopes, Logic analyzers, signal generators
Applications of ECL
 High-speed computing: In legacy mainframe and super-computers
 Telecommunications: High-speed switches, routers and communication
interfaces
 Military and Aerospace: Radars, Missile guidance sys
What is a Multiplexer?
The multiplexer is a device that has multiple inputs and single line output. The select
lines determine which input is connected to the output, and also increase the
amount of data that can be sent over a network within a certain time. It is also called
a data selector.

Multiplexer Types
Multiplexers are classified into four types:
 2-1 multiplexer ( 1select line)
 4-1 multiplexer (2 select lines)
 8-1 multiplexer(3 select lines)
 16-1 multiplexer (4 select lines)
4-to-1 Multiplexer
The 4X1 multiplexer comprises 4-input bits, 1- output bit, and 2- control bits. The
four input bits are namely 0, D1, D2, and D3, respectively; only one of the input bits
is transmitted to the output. The o/p ‘q’ depends on the value of control input AB.
The control bit AB decides which of the i/p data bit should transmit the output. The
following figure shows the 4X1 multiplexer circuit diagram using AND gates. For
example, when the control bits AB =00, then the higher AND gates are allowed
while remaining AND gates are restricted. Thus, data input D0 is transmitted to the
output ‘q”

8-to-1 Multiplexer
The 8-to-1 multiplexer consists of 8 input lines, one output line, and 3 selection
lines.

8-1 Multiplexer Circuit

For the combination of a selection input, the data line is connected to the output line.
The circuit shown below is an 8*1 multiplexer. The 8-to-1 multiplexer requires 8
AND gates, one OR gate, and 3 selection lines. As an input, the combination of
selection inputs is giving to the AND gate with the corresponding input data lines.

In a similar fashion, all the AND gates are given connection. In this 8*1 multiplexer,
for any selection line input, one AND gate gives a value of 1 and the remaining all
AND gates give 0. And, finally, by using OR gates, all the AND gates are added;
and, this will be equal to the selected value.

What is Demultiplexer?
De-multiplexer is also a device with one input and multiple output lines. It is used to
send a signal to one of the many devices. The main difference between a
multiplexer and a de-multiplexer is that a multiplexer takes two or more signals and
encodes them on a wire, whereas a de-multiplexer does reverse to what the
multiplexer does.
Types of Demultiplexer
Demultiplexers are classified into four types

 1-2 demultiplexer (1 select line)

 1-4 demultiplexer (2 select lines)
 1-8 demultiplexer (3 select lines)
 1-16 demultiplexer (4 select lines)
1-4 Demultiplexer
The 1-to-4 demultiplexer comprises 1- input bit, 4-output bits, and control bits. The
1X4 demultiplexer circuit diagram is shown below.

1-8 Demultiplexer
The demultiplexer is also called a data distributor as it requires one input, 3 selected
lines, and 8 outputs. De-multiplexer takes one single input data line and then
switches it to any one of the output lines. The 1-to-8 demultiplexer circuit diagram is
shown below; it uses 8 AND gates for achieving the operation.

The input bit is considered as data D and it is transmitted to the output lines. This
depends on the control input value of the AB. When AB = 01, the upper second gate
F1 is enabled, while the remaining AND gates are disabled, and the data bit is
transmitted to the output giving F1= data. If D is low, the F1 is low, and if D is high,
the F1 is high. So the value of the F1 depends on the value of D, and the remaining
outputs are in the low state.