The sun

Solar radiation and the Sun

Figure (2-1): Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial radiation.
 Describe the structure of the sun

The sun and its atmosphere consist of several zones or layers. From the
inside out, the solar interior consists of:
the Core (the central region where nuclear reactions consume hydrogen
to form helium. These reactions release the energy that ultimately leaves
the surface as visible light. ),
the Radiative Zone (extends outward from the outer edge of the core
to base of the convection zone, characterized by the method of energy
transport - radiation),
and the Convection Zone (the outer-most layer of the solar interior
extending from a depth of about 200,000 km to the visible surface
where its motion is seen as granules and supergranules. ).
The solar atmosphere is made up of:
the Photosphere (the visible surface of the Sun),
the Chromosphere (an irregular layer above the photosphere where the
temperature rises from 6000°C to about 20,000°C),
a Transition Region (a thin and very irregular layer of the Sun's atmosphere
that separates the hot corona from the much cooler chromosphere),
and the Corona (the Sun's outer atmosphere.).
Beyond the corona is the solar wind, which is actually an outward flow of
coronal gas. The sun's magnetic fields rise through the convection zone
and erupt through the photosphere into the chromosphere and corona. The
eruptions lead to solar activity, which includes such phenomena as
sunspots, flares, prominences, and coronal mass ejections.
 The sun data

Pc= parsec= 206264.8 au, ly = light year=9.4607×1015 m=0.306601 pc

The solar constant (sun-earth relationship)
The fiducial value solar constant = L/(4π r**2)
= (3.828*10**26 W)/(4π*(1.49597870700*10**11)**2] = 1361.2 W/m**2

The mean solar constant = 1367.6 W/m**2

astronomical unit (AU) = 1.49597870700*10**11 m
 Earth Bound Radiation
As the radiation passes
through the atmosphere the
following mechanism
determine the amount of
radiation that will reach the
Earth's surface:

Absorption – Certain
molecules in the
atmosphere posses high
photon absorption
properties. For example,
water vapour (H2O) and
CO2 absorb far infrared
radiation and ozone (O3)
absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
Energy that is absorbed
here is unavailable for use
by solar panels.
Reflection – In addition to absorption, radiation can also be reflected off
of particles in the atmosphere. Radiation that is reflected a number of times
before eventually reaching the Earth's surface is known as diffuse radiation.
A portion of the incoming radiation may also be lost completely by
reflection back into space.

No Interaction – About 70% of the incoming radiation will pass

through the atmosphere undisturbed. This is known as beam or direct
radiation.
 Solar Spectrum

The Sun emits a nearly continuous spectrum of energy, ranging from

very short wave and high energy packets of quanta, to low energy and
long wave lengths. Table lists the various wave bands that are
intercepted by Earth and their sources.
Electromagnetic spectrum of sunlight above and below the atmosphere.
 Efficiency limit in single junction solar cell
Maximum 33.7% efficiency can be attained by using single p-n junction solar
cells with Eg=1.4 eV and the solar radiation is modelled as 6000 K blackbody
radiation

23
 Extraterrestrial Irradiation
The intensity of solar irradiation directly outside the earth’s atmosphere on
a horizontal surface is almost constant at around 1,360 W/m2., the so-called
“Solar Constant”.
This entry point into the atmosphere is called “Air Mass – 0” or “AM-0”,
where “0” points out that there is no air mass.

There is a variation of solar intensity of about 1%, but this is a slow cycle.
It is so small that it is negligible for the purpose of solar power.
 Q: Describe the various instruments to measure the
sunshine duration
What is measuring of sunshine duration?
Sunshine duration is the length of time that the ground surface is irradiated
by direct solar radiation (i.e., sunlight reaching the earth's surface directly
from the sun). In 2003, World Meteorological Organization (WMO,
Geneva, Switzerland) defined sunshine duration as the period during which
direct solar irradiance exceeds a threshold value of 120 watts per square
meter (W/m2). This value is equivalent to the level of solar irradiance
shortly after sunrise or shortly before sunset in cloud-free conditions. It was
determined by comparing the sunshine duration recorded using a Campbell-
Stokes sunshine recorder with the actual direct solar irradiance.
Sunshine Duration Measuring Instruments
Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorders and Jordan sunshine recorders have
long been used as instruments to measure sunshine duration, and are
advantageous in that they have no moving parts and require no electric power.
Their disadvantages are that the characteristics of the recording paper or
photosensitized paper used in them affect measurement accuracy, differences
between observers may arise in determining the occurrence of sunshine, and
the recording paper must be replaced after sunset.
As sunshine is defined quantitatively at present, a variety of photoelectric
sunshine recorders have been developed and are used in place of these
instruments. As the threshold value for the occurrence of sunshine is defined
in terms of direct solar irradiance, it is also possible to observe sunshine
duration with a pyrheliometer.
Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorders
(1) Principles and Structure
A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder concentrates sunlight through a glass
sphere onto a recording card placed at its focal point. The length of the burn
trace left on the card represents the sunshine duration.
 Jordan Sunshine Recorders
A Jordan sunshine recorder lets in sunlight through a small hole in a cylinder or
a semi-cylinder onto photosensitized paper set inside the cylinder on which
traces are recorded. One common type has two
hollow semi-cylinders arranged back to back with their flat surfaces facing
east and west (Figure 7.2 (a)). Each flat surface has a small hole in it. The
Jordan sunshine recorder used by JMA is the same in principle, but
consists of a hollow cylinder with two holes as shown in Figure 7.2 (b).
The instrument has its cylinders inclined to the relevant latitude and their
axes set in the meridional direction. Photosensitized paper with a time
scale printed on it is set in the cylinders in close contact with the inner
surface. When direct solar radiation enters through the hole, the paper
records the movement of the sun as a line. Sunshine duration is ascertained
by measuring the length of time the paper was exposed to sunlight.

JMA= Japan Meteorological Agency

Rotating mirror sunshine recorder
A rotating mirror sunshine recorder is an application of the scanning method presented
in the CIMO Guide. A rotating mirror is used to reflect sunlight onto the photosensor,
and the occurrence of sunshine is detected by measuring the intensity of the light
received. The rotating mirror sunshine recorder used by JMA has a mirror that rotates
once every 30 seconds and a photosensor to receive the reflected sunlight. Once the
instrument is set to an angle corresponding to the latitude at the site by adjusting the
scale on the body at installation, the double-surfaced mirror reflects sunlight as
required throughout the year regardless of changes in the sun’s elevation. Although
the radiation received by the photosensor contains both direct solar radiation and
diffuse sky radiation, the latter is removed by differentiating the output signal for time
electrically, and only direct solar radiation can be detected at the peak of the
maximum differential coefficient. The instrument emits a pulse when the signal
exceeds the threshold value of 120 W/m2 corresponding to the definition of direct
solar irradiance, and the processing unit counts two minutes of sunshine for every four
pulses. Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation (CIMO)
Solar-cell-type sunshine recorder
A solar-cell-type sunshine recorder is an application of the contrast method presented
in the CIMO Guide. It uses solar cells and determines the occurrence of sunshine
from the intensity of their output.
The device is equipped with three solar cells on a triangular prism oriented toward the
celestial north pole –one on top and one on each of the southeast and southwest faces.
The output of the solar cells on each of the southeast and southwest faces includes
direct solar irradiance and diffuse sky radiation. As the solar cell on the top is shaded
from direct sunlight, its output can be considered equivalent to the level of diffuse sky
radiation. By taking the difference between these outputs, an output value equivalent
to the level of direct solar irradiance can be obtained. Solar-cell-type sunshine
recorders are somewhat inferior in terms of accuracy to rotating mirror sunshine
recorders; they are known to underestimate the sunshine duration in the morning and
evening, during cloudy weather, and in the summer season when the sun’s elevation is
high.
Q: Describe the different instruments to measure the solar
radiation
 A radiometer absorbs solar radiation at its sensor, transforms it into heat
and measures the resulting amount of heat to ascertain the level of solar
radiation. Methods of measuring heat include taking out heat flux as a
temperature change (using a water flow pyrheliometer, a silver-disk
pyrheliometer or a bimetallic pyranograph) or as a thermoelectromotive
force (using a thermoelectric pyrheliometer or a thermoelectric
pyranometer).

Pyrheliometers: i) Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometer

ii) silver-disk pyrheliometer
iii) thermoelectric pyrheliometer
A pyrheliometer is used to measure direct solar radiation from the sun and its
marginal periphery. To measure direct solar radiation correctly, its receiving
surface must be arranged to be normal to the solar direction. For this reason, the
instrument is usually mounted on a sun-tracking device called an equatorial
mount.
Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometer

This is a reliable instrument used to observe direct solar radiation, and has
long been accepted as a working standard. However, its manual operation
requires experience.
This pyrheliometer has a rectangular aperture, two manganin-strip sensors
(20.0 mm × 2.0 mm × 0.02 mm) and several diaphragms to let only direct
sunlight reach the sensor. The diaphragms are the same as those in the
silver-disk pyrheliometer in Figure 7.7 and in the thermoelectric
pyrheliometer in Figure 7.8. The sensor surface is painted optical black and
has uniform absorption characteristics for short-wave radiation. A copper-
constantan thermocouple is attached to the rear of each sensor strip, and the
thermocouple is connected to a galvanometer. The sensor strips also work as
electric resistors and generate heat when a current flows across them (see the
principle drawing in Figure 7.6 (b)).
 Figure 7.6 Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometer
(a) Structure (b) Circuit
A: Aperture B: Battery C: Sensor surface D: Cylinder P: Switch R: Variable resistor
S: Shutter T: Thermocouple G: Galvanometer mA: Ammeter
When solar irradiance is measured with this type of pyrheliometer, the
small shutter on the front face of the cylinder shields one sensor strip from
sunlight, allowing it to reach only the other sensor. A temperature
difference is therefore produced between the two sensor strips because
one absorbs solar radiation and the other does not, and a
thermoelectromotive force proportional to this difference induces current
flow through the galvanometer. Then, a current is supplied to the cooler
sensor strip (the one shaded from solar radiation) until the pointer in the
galvanometer indicates zero, at which point the temperature raised by
solar radiation is compensated by Joule heat. A value for direct solar
irradiance is obtained by converting the compensated current at this time.
If S is the intensity of direct solar irradiance and i is the current, then
S = Ki2
where K is a constant intrinsic to the instrument and is determined from
the size and electric resistance of the sensor strips and the absorption
coefficient of their surfaces. The value of K is usually determined
through comparison with an upper-class standard pyrheliometer.
 silver-disk pyrheliometer
This instrument was developed as a portable version of a water flow
pyrheliometer, which was the former primary standard.
 The sensing element is a silver disk measuring 28 mm in diameter with a
thickness of 7 mm that is painted black on its radiation-receiving side. It
has a hole from the periphery toward the center to allow insertion of the
bulb of a high-precision mercury-in-glass thermometer. To maintain good
thermal contact between the disk and the bulb, the hole is filled with a
small amount of mercury. It is enclosed outside by egfad Figure 7.7
Silver-disk pyrheliometer a heat-insulating wooden container. The stem
of the thermometer is bent in a right angle outside the wooden container
and supported in a metallic protective tube. A cylinder with diaphragms
inside is fitted in the wooden container to let direct solar radiation fall
onto the silver disk. There is a metallic-plate shutter at the top end of the
cylinder to block or allow the passage of solar radiation to the disk.
During the measurement phase, the disk is heated by solar radiation and
its temperature rises. The intensity of this radiation is ascertained by
measuring the temperature change of the disk between the measurement
phase and the shading phase with the mercury-in-glass thermometer.
thermoelectric pyrheliometer
This instrument uses a thermopile at its sensor, and continuously delivers
a thermoelectromotive force in proportion to the direct solar irradiance.
While Angstrom electrical compensation pyrheliometers and silver-disk
pyrheliometers have a structure that allows the outer air to come into
direct contact with the sensor portion, this type has transparent optical
glass in the aperture to make it suitable for use in all weather conditions.
It is mounted on a sun-tracking device to enable outdoor installation for
automatic operation by JMA.
 There are several types of thermoelectric pyrheliometer, but their
structures are similar. Figure 7.8 shows the structure of the one used by
JMA. Copper-plated constantan wire is used as the thermopile in the
sensor portion, which is attached to the bottom of the cylinder at right
angles to the cylinder axis. The cylinder is fitted with diaphragms to
direct sunlight to the sensor portion. It is made of a metallic block with
high heat capacity and good thermal conductivity, and is enclosed in a
polished intermediate cylinder and a silver-plated outer brass cylinder
with high reflectivity to prevent rapid ambient temperature changes or
outer wind from disturbing the heat flux in the radiation-sensing element.
The cylinder is kept dry using a desiccant to prevent condensation on the
inside of the aperture window.
 There are several types of thermoelectric pyrheliometer, but their
structures are similar. Figure 7.8 shows the structure of the one used by
JMA. Copper-plated constantan wire is used as the thermopile in the
sensor portion, which is attached to the bottom of the cylinder at right
angles to the cylinder axis. The cylinder is fitted with diaphragms to
direct sunlight to the sensor portion. It is made of a metallic block with
high heat capacity and good thermal conductivity, and is enclosed in a
polished intermediate cylinder and a silver-plated outer brass cylinder
with high reflectivity to prevent rapid ambient temperature changes or
outer wind from disturbing the heat flux in the radiation-sensing element.
The cylinder is kept dry using a desiccant to prevent condensation on the
inside of the aperture window.
 In this pyrheliometer, a temperature difference is produced between the
sensor surface (called the hot junction) and the reference temperature
point, i.e., the metallic block of the inner cylinder (called the cold
junction). As the temperature difference is proportional to the intensity of
the radiation absorbed, the level of solar radiation can be derived by
measuring the thermoelectromotive force from the thermopile. Since
this type of pyrheliometer is a relative instrument, calibration should be
performed to determine the instrumental factor through comparison with a
standard instrument. As the thermoelectromotive forceoutput depends on
the unit’s temperature, the temperature inside the cylinder should be
monitored to enable correction.