 What is Computer? Advantages and disadvantages of computer?

A computer is an electronic device that can store, manipulate, and process data according to a set of instructions.
In the modern world, computers have become an integral part of our daily lives, revolutionizing the way we work,
communicate, and entertain ourselves. From desktops to laptops, tablets to smartphones, computers come in
various forms, yet many people are still unfamiliar with their inner workings and potential.

 Definition of Computer
A computer is an electronic device wherein we need to input raw data to be processed with a set of programs to
produce a desirable output. Computers have the ability to store, process, and manipulate data. The term
“computer” is derived from the Latin word “computare,” which means “to calculate.” A computer is made to run
programs and apps by using both hardware and software. It also has a memory to store data, programs, and what
they produce. The Full form of Computer is “Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and
Educational Research.”

 10 Different Definitions of a Computer

 Electronic device: A computer in generally termed as an electronic device that transmits data
using electronic facilities and software programs.
 Data processor: The computer processes data using arithmetic, logical and input/output
operations.
 Information machine: By processing multiple algorithms and computations, a computer gets up a
meaningful definition to what we have searched.
 Digital device: A computer manipulates, stores, and retrieves data represented in binary form to
present it can understand manner for humans.
 Universal machine: A computer is also known as a universal machine as it can solve problems of
people by understanding their program and not by any other factor.
 Communication tool: Computer is a universal communication tool as it provides the facility to
connect, collaborate or transfer of messages through a network and the internet.
 Problem solver: Computers are designed to solve problems that can affect or slow down daily
human tasks, therefore, it is a problem solver.
 Multifunctional device: Multifunctionality is the power of a computer as it can perform more
than 1 task at a time and that too with utmost perfection.
 Information processor: Computers are fitted with processors that process raw data into
organized and meaningful outputs.
 Automation tool: Computers have the functionality to automate the repetitive tasks and enhance
productive by saving time.

 Characteristics of Computer
Computers are now an integral part of our daily lives, from managing student records in schools to handling
patient records in hospitals. They have significantly simplified our tasks. Now, we can quickly access stored data
and solve complex problems in just seconds. Some of the characteristics of Computers are listed below-

 Saves Time: A computer saves time by completing tasks quicker and more efficiently. For example, it
can solve big complex problems within seconds which can save many minutes of ours.
  Internet: Computers connect us to the internet which can help us to know important information from
around the world, it can connect us with people from around the world through social networking sites,
etc.
 Storage: The computer gives us enough storage space that can be used to store a large amount of data
including your projects, eBooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, etc.
 Entertainment: Computers are also a big source of entertainment as you can play games, listen to
songs, watch movies, and can also use social networking sites.
 Organized Data: It not only stores the data for you also organizes the data for you. You can create
different folders for different types of data and can easily access them when required.
 Helps the physically challenged: Computers are a big boon for the physically challenged
people as Stephen Hawking, who was not able to speak used the computer to speak. It also can be used
to help blind people by installing special software to read what is on the screen.

 Features Of Computer
We have discussed a few points that will highlight the different features of computers. These features collectively
contribute to the versatility and functionality of computers.

 Processing Power: Computers can execute instructions and perform calculations quickly.
 Storage Capacity: They can store vast amounts of data, from documents to multimedia files.
 Memory (RAM): Temporary storage used for actively running programs and processes.
 Input Devices: Keyboards, mouse, and other peripherals allow users to input data.
 Output Data: Monitors, printers, and speakers display or produce results.
 Upgradability: Components like RAM, storage, and graphics cards can be upgraded.
 Portability: Laptops and tablets offer mobility compared to desktop computers.
 User Interface: Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or command-line interfaces for interaction.
 Security Features: Passwords, firewalls, and antivirus tools protect against unauthorized access.
 Power Management: Features to optimize energy consumption.

 History of Computer
To understand the development of computers, and how they evolved from simple mechanical devices to the
complex electronic machines that we use today. The knowledge can help to appreciate the challenges that
computer scientists have faced over the years and the ingenuity they have shown in overcoming them.

Studying the history of computers can help to anticipate future developments in the field. The history of
computers can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who used the abacus to perform simple calculations. In the
17th century, Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator, which could perform more complex calculations.
In the 19th century, Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine, which is considered to be the first general-
purpose computer. By understanding the history of computers that have shaped the development in the past.

 Classification of Computers
Computers come in various types, primarily categorized by their data handling capacity and physical size. Based
on the size, computers are 5 types namely, Micro Computer, Mini Computer, Mainframe Computer, Super
Computer and Work stations. Whereas, based on data handling capacity, there are 3 types of computers namely
analogue computers, digital computers, and hybrid computers. All the different types of computers perform
different tasks and have been designed differently. For your reference, we have discussed all the types of
computers and you can scroll through the page to read them all.
  Based on Size
There are various types of computers available in the markets which are of different sizes. These computers are
different from each other with respect to the amount of work they can do or the amount of data they can hold.
Here we have classified the main 5 types of computers based on their size and have also provided the details
regarding the same.

1. Micro Computer:

Micro Computers are mainly single-user computers and have comparatively lesser storage and speed than other
computers. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit microprocessor chips as these computers use
microprocessors as CPU. Laptops, smartphones, desktop computers, etc. are all examples of microcomputers.
These computers are made for everyday tasks like browsing the web and using programs like Microsoft Office MS
Word etc.

2. Mini Computer:

Midrange computers or Mini-computers are multi-user computers designed in a way so as to entertain multiple
users simultaneously. Small businesses and firms use these computers for their specific purposes. For example- a
company or organization may use mini computers to look after the employee directory which may handle the
payment history of its employees and any schools may use them to keep records of the students or for admission
purposes.

3. Mainframe Computer:

Mainframe Computers are also not designed for single users, rather it is a multi-user computer that can handle
thousands of users all at once. Large industries and government organizations utilize these computers to facilitate
their business operations by storing substantial volumes of data. Banks and insurance companies use these
computers to store the data of their customers, their policies, etc.

4. Super Computer:

Super Computer is the fastest type of computer amongst all and is also the most expensive. They can store a
large number of data and can perform the most complex tasks within seconds. They can also execute millions of
instructions per second. These computers are designed specifically to handle specific tasks such as weather
forecasting, space research, and more. Supercomputers are also used by NASA for their Satellite launching.

5. Work Stations:

Workstations are single-user computers and have more powerful microprocessors than a microcomputer. When
it comes to speed and storage capacity, it comes between a personal computer and a mini-computer. The most
common uses of a workstation are desktop publishing, engineering designs, etc.

 Based on Data Handling Capacity

Computers can be divided into 3 types based on their data handling capacity namely, analog, digital, and hybrid
computers. These are different from each other with respect to the type of work they can do and the amount of
data they can handle. We have discussed these types of computers in detail below.

 Analogue Computer:

The main function of Analogue Computers is to process analog data. The data that changes frequently and does
not have discrete values are called data and the analogue computers are used at places where we have
approximate values e.g., speed, temperature, pressure, etc. These computers can pick data from the devices
without converting it into machine language. Some common examples of analogue computers are
speedometers, thermometers, etc.

 Digital Computer:

Digital Computers are designed in a way so that they can perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. These computers input raw data and with the help of the programs stored in their memory, it gives the
final output. Digital computers can only understand binary language i.e., 0 and 1 hence, the raw data to be given
as input is converted into 0 and 1 and then it is processed. Examples are laptops, desktops, smartphones, etc.

 Hybrid Computer:

Hybrid, as the name suggests is a mixture of both analog and digital computers. Hybrid computers are as fast as
analog computers and also have accuracy like that of digital computers. These computers can process both
continuous and discrete data as they accept analog signals and then convert them into digital signals before
processing. Some common uses of Hybrid computers are in airplanes, hospitals, etc.

 Components of a Computer
A computer mainly has two components i.e. hardware and software wherein the components of the computers
having a physical structure such as wires, transistors, circuits, and hard disk make up the hardware whereas the
programs and data make up the software. Some other important components of a computer are discussed below.

 CPU: The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of a computer, executing instructions and
performing calculations to run software and process data for overall system functionality.
 Computer Memory: Computer memory stores data for the computer to use. RAM (Random Access
Memory) is for temporary storage, and storage devices like hard drives store data permanently.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit: The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) in a computer performs mathematical and
logical operations, like addition and comparison, enabling the CPU to execute tasks and make decisions.
 Input Devices of Computer: Common computer input devices include keyboards for typing,
mouse for pointing and clicking, touchscreens for direct interaction, and microphones for voice input.
 Output Devices of Computer: Common computer output devices include monitors for
displaying information, printers for producing hard copies, speakers for audio output, and projectors for
larger visual displays.
 Motherboard: The motherboard is a computer’s main circuit board, connecting and facilitating
communication between components like CPU, RAM, and Peripherals. It provides the foundation for the
system to foundation for the system to function.

 Advantages of Computer

 Multitasking: Multitasking is one of the main advantages of computers. A person can do multiple
tasks and multiple operations at the same time, and calculate numerical problems within a few seconds.
The computer can perform millions or trillions of works in one second.
 Speed: Now the computer isn’t just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer has a vital role in human
life. One of the most advantages of computers is their incredible speed, which helps human to finish their
task in a few seconds.
 Cost-Effective Storage: Centralized databases make it possible for the user to store data without
incurring high costs through the use of computers. This also goes along with decreased requirements for
physical storage configurations.
  Accuracy: Another advantage with use of computers is that they are precise in executing
computations and in the handling of programs. This is because most of the time, errors are provoked by
improper entries inserted by the user and not the computer.
 Data Security: It is possible to use security measures with the help of which computers are
protected and do not allow malicious programs and other similar threats to access the materials.
 Increased Productivity: The fast execution of tasks a computer avails helps a user increase the
throughput since more tasks are completed within a short span of time.

 Disadvantages of Computer
 Virus and Hacking Attacks: A virus may be a worm and hacking is just unauthorized access over
a computer for a few illicit purposes. Viruses can go to another system from email attachments, viewing
an infected website advertisement, through removable devices like USBs, etc.
 Online Cyber Crimes: Online cyber-crime means computers and networks may have been utilized
in order to commit a crime. Cyberstalking and fraud are the points that come under online cyber-crimes.
 Reduction in Employed Opportunity: Mainly past generation hasn’t used the pc or they
need the knowledge of computers they faced an enormous problem when computers came into the field.
 High Cost: Computers are expensive. Even the foremost affordable computers are still very expensive
for the typical person in South Africa. Since computers empower people.
 Distractions/Disruptions: If you’ve got ever spent hours browsing the web or watching videos on
YouTube, then you recognize how distracting computers can be! Because of their high entertainment
value.
 Health Problems: Prolonged use of computers can lead to various health Hazards. Too much sitting
near the screen results in eye strain and drying up of the eyes. Also, prolonged sitting leads to neck and
back problems.

 Generations of computers
 The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your time. It had been around the 16th century
when the evolution of the computer started. The initial computer faced many changes, obviously for the
betterment. It continuously improved itself in terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to urge the form of
the fashionable day computer.

 Basic Terms Related to Computers

The basic terms related to generations of computers are listed below.

 Vacuum Tube: Vacuum tubes have the functionality of controlling the flow of
electronics in a vacuum. Generally, it is used in switches, amplifiers, radios,
televisions, etc.
 Transistor: A transistor helps in controlling the flow of electricity in devices, it works
as an amplifier or a switch.
 Integrated Circuit (IC): Integrated circuits are silicon chips that contain their
circuit elements like transistors, resistors, etc.
 Microprocessors: Microprocessors are the components that contain the CPU and its
circuits and are present in the Integrated Circuit.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is called the brain of the computer. CPU
performs processing and operations work.
 Magnetic Drum: Magnetic Drum is like a cylinder that stores data and cylinder.
 Magnetic Core: Magnetic cores are used to store information. These are arrays of
small rings.
 Machine Language: Machine Language is the language that a computer accepts
(in the form of binary digits). It is also called low-level programming language.
 Memory: Memory is used to store data, information, and program in a computer.
 Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence deals with creating intelligent
machines and behaviors.

 Phases of Computer Generations

This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases called computer
generations.
 First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
 Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)
 Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Beyond)

Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based
Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based
Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based
Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based
Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based

 First Generation Computers

The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass device, which was called a vacuum
tube. These computers were very heavy and really large. These weren’t very reliable and programming on them
was a tedious task as they used low-level programming language and used no OS. First-generation computers
were used for calculation, storage, and control purpose. They were too bulky and large that they needed a full
room and consume a lot of electricity. Punch cards were used for improving the information for external storage.
Magnetic card used. Machine and assembly language is developed.

Examples of some main first-generation computers are mentioned below.

1. ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly was
a general-purpose computer. It had been cumbersome, and large, and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
2. EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann. It could store
data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
3. UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly.

 Characteristics of First-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components
Main electronic component Vacuum tube.
Programming language Machine language.
Main memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.
Input/output devices Paper tape and punched cards.
Speed and size Very slow and very large (often taking up an entire room).
Examples of the first generation IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, etc.

 Second Generation Computers

Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum tubes. Another
feature was the core storage. A Transistors were invented in Bell Labs. The use of transistors made it possible to
perform powerfully and with due speed. It reduced the dimensions and price and thankfully the warmth too,
which was generated by vacuum tubes. Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language, and
input, and output units also came into the force within the second generation.

The programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and made programming
comparatively a simple task for programmers. Languages used for programming during this era were FORTRAN
(1956), ALGOL (1958), and COBOL (1959).

 Characteristics of Second-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components
Main electronic component
Transistor.
Programming language Machine language and assembly language.
Memory Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.
Input/output devices Magnetic tape and punched cards.
Power and size Smaller in size, had low power consumption, and generated less
heat (in comparison with the first-generation computers).
Examples of the second PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, CDC
generation 3600, etc.

 Third Generation Computers

During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated circuits, also
referred to as IC. Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors. The most
feature of this era’s computer was speed and reliability. IC was made from silicon and also called silicon chips.

The computer programs were designed to make the machine work. Operating system was a program designed to
handle a machine completely. Because of the operating system machine could execute multiple jobs
simultaneously. Integrated circuits were used to replace many transistors used in the second generation.

A single IC has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon. The value size was
reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during this generation. Programming was
now wiped-out Higher-level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
Minicomputers find their shape during this era.

 Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components
Main electronic component Integrated circuits (ICs).
Programming language High-level language.
Memory Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk.
Input/output devices Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.
Examples of the third IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500, UNIVAC 1108,
generation etc.

 Fourth Generation Computers

In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large-scale of integration LSI circuits built on one chip called
microprocessors. The advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can contain all the circuits
required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip. LSI placed thousands of transistors onto
a single chip.

The computers using microchips were called microcomputers. This generation provided even smaller size of
computers, with larger capacities. That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI
circuits. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the pc from the central
processing unit and memory to input/ output controls on one chip and allowed the dimensions to reduce
drastically. VLSI placed several hundred thousand transistors on a single silicon chip. This silicon chip is known as
the microprocessor.

Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and virtual memory made it
a more user-friendly and customary device. The concept of private computers and computer networks came into
being within the fourth generation.

 Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components
Main electronic component Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor (VLSI has
thousands of transistors on a single microchip).
Memory semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.).
Input/output devices pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
Examples of the fourth IBM PC, STAR 1000, APPLE II, Apple Macintosh, Alter 8800, etc.
generation
  Fifth Generation Computers
The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to behave like humans. It is
often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicine, and entertainment. Within the field of game
playing also it’s shown remarkable performance where computers are capable of beating human competitors.

The speed is the highest, size is the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within the fifth-
generation computers. Though not a hundred percent AI has been achieved to date but keeping in sight the
present developments, it is often said that this dream also will become a reality very soon.

To summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big improvement has been
seen so far because of the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if we mention the dimensions, it’s been
small over the years. The value is additionally diminishing and reliability is increasing.

 Characteristics of Fifth-Generation Computers

Characteristics Components
Main electronic component Based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)
technology and parallel processing method (ULSI has millions of transistors
on a single microchip and the Parallel processing method use two or more
microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously).
Language Understand natural language (human language).
Size Portable and small in size.
Input/output device Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognize
voice/speech), light scanner, printer, keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.
Example of the fifth Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
generation

 Computer Organization
Computer organization refers to the way in which the components of a computer system are organized and
interconnected to perform specific tasks. One of the most fundamental aspects of computer organization is the
set of basic computer instructions that the system can execute.

 Basic Computer Instructions

Basic computer instructions are the elementary operations that a computer system can perform. These
instructions are typically divided into three categories: data movement instructions, arithmetic and logic
instructions, and control instructions.

 What is Data Movement Instructions?

Data movement instructions are used to move data between different parts of the computer system. These
instructions include load and store instructions, which move data between memory and the CPU, and
input/output (I/O) instructions, which move data between the CPU and external devices.

 What is Arithmetic and Logic Instructions?

Arithmetic and logic instructions are used to perform mathematical operations and logical operations on data
stored in the system. These instructions include add, subtract, multiply, and divide instructions, as well as logic
instructions such as AND, OR, and NOT.

 What are Control Instructions?

Control instructions are used to control the flow of instructions within the computer system. These instructions
include branch instructions, which transfer control to different parts of the program based on specified
conditions, and jump instructions, which transfer control to a specified memory location.

The basic computer has 16-bit instruction register (IR) which can denote either memory reference or register
reference or input-output instruction.

Memory Reference – These instructions refer to memory address as an operand. The other operand is
always accumulator. Specifies 12-bit address, 3-bit opcode (other than 111) and 1-bit addressing mode for

direct and indirect addressing.

Example – IR register contains = 0001XXXXXXXXXXXX, i.e. ADD after fetching and decoding of instruction we
find out that it is a memory reference instruction for ADD operation.

Hence, DR←M[AR] AC ← AC + DR, SC ← 0

Register Reference – These instructions perform operations on registers rather than memory
addresses. The IR (14 – 12) is 111 (differentiates it from memory reference) and IR (15) is 0 (differentiates it
from input/output instructions). The rest 12bits specify register operation.

Example – IR register contains = 0111001000000000, i.e. CMA after fetch and decode cycle we find out that it
is a register reference instruction for complement accumulator.

Hence, AC ← ~AC
 Input/Output – These instructions are for communication between computer and outside environment.
The IR (14 – 12) is 111 (differentiates it from memory reference) and IR (15) is 1 (differentiates it from register
reference instructions). The rest 12 bits specify I/O operation.

Example – IR register contains = 1111100000000000, i.e. INP after fetch and decode cycle we find out that it is
an input/output instruction for inputting character. Hence, INPUT character from peripheral device.

Essential PC directions are the principal tasks that a PC can perform. These directions are executed by the focal
handling unit (central processor) of a PC, and they structure the reason for additional perplexing tasks. A few
instances of essential PC directions include:

1.Load: This guidance moves information from the memory to a computer processor register.

2.Store: This guidance moves information from a computer chip register to the memory.

3.Add: This guidance adds two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

4.Subtract: This guidance deducts two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

5.Multiply: This guidance duplicates two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

6.Divide: This guidance isolates two qualities and stores the outcome in a register.

7.Branch: This guidance changes the program counter to a predefined address, which is utilized to execute
restrictive and genuine leaps.

8.Jump: This guidance changes the program counter to a predefined address.

9.Compare: This guidance looks at two qualities and sets a banner demonstrating the consequence of the
examination.

10.Increment: This guidance adds 1 to a worth in a register or memory area.

The set of instructions incorporated in 16-bit IR register are:

1. Arithmetic, logical and shift instructions (and, add, complement, circulate left, right, etc)

2. To move information to and from memory (store the accumulator, load the accumulator)

3. Program control instructions with status conditions (branch, skip)

4. Input output instructions (input character, output character)

Hexadecimal
Symbol Code Description

AND 0xxx 8xxx And memory word to AC

ADD 1xxx 9xxx Add memory word to AC

 Hexadecimal
Symbol Code Description

LDA 2xxx Axxx Load memory word to AC

Store AC content in
STA 3xxx Bxxx
memory

BUN 4xxx Cxxx Branch Unconditionally

Branch and Save Return

BSA 5xxx Dxxx
Address

ISZ 6xxx Exxx Increment and skip if 0

CLA 7800 Clear AC

CLE 7400 Clear E (overflow bit)

CMA 7200 Complement AC

CME 7100 Complement E

CIR 7080 Circulate right AC and E

CIL 7040 Circulate left AC and E

INC 7020 Increment AC

SPA 7010 Skip next instruction if AC

 Hexadecimal
Symbol Code Description

>0

Skip next instruction if AC

SNA 7008
<0

Skip next instruction if AC

SZA 7004
=0

Skip next instruction if E =

SZE 7002
0

HLT 7001 Halt computer

INP F800 Input character to AC

OUT F400 Output character from AC

SKI F200 Skip on input flag

SKO F100 Skip on output flag

ION F080 Interrupt On

IOF F040 Interrupt Off

 Uses of Basic Computer Instructions

1. Data manipulation: Basic computer instructions are used to manipulate data stored in the
computer system, including moving data between memory and the CPU, performing mathematical
operations, and performing logical operations.
 2. Control flow: Basic computer instructions are used to control the flow of instructions within the
computer system. This includes branching to different parts of the program based on specified conditions
and jumping to a specific memory location.

3. Input/output operations: Basic computer instructions are used to transfer data between the
computer system and external devices, such as input devices (e.g. keyboard, mouse) and output devices
(e.g. display screen, printer).

4. Program execution: Basic computer instructions are used to execute computer programs and run
software applications. These instructions are used to load programs into memory, move data into and out
of the program, and control the execution of the program.

5. System maintenance: Basic computer instructions are used to perform system maintenance
tasks, such as memory allocation and deallocation, interrupt handling, and error detection and correction.

 Issues of Basic Computer Instructions

1. Complexity: Basic computer instructions can be complex and difficult to understand, particularly for
novice programmers. This can make it challenging to write efficient and effective code.

2. Limited functionality: While basic computer instructions are versatile and can perform a wide
range of tasks, they are still limited in their functionality. This can make it challenging to perform more
complex operations and can require programmers to write additional code to accomplish their goals.

3. Compatibility: Basic computer instructions can be specific to a particular computer system or

architecture, which can make it challenging to write code that is compatible with different systems. This
can require programmers to write separate code for each system, which can be time-consuming and
inefficient.

4. Security: Basic computer instructions can be vulnerable to security threats, such as buffer overflows
and code injection attacks. This can make it challenging to write secure code and can require additional
measures to be taken to protect the system.

5. Maintenance: Basic computer instructions can be difficult to maintain, particularly as systems

become more complex and code becomes more extensive. This can require significant resources to
maintain and update the code, which can be challenging for organizations with limited resources.

 Scope for computer

 Computer Science courses, particularly degree programs, release a plethora of career opportunities in
the IT sector. Companies and organisations from various industry sectors are on a constant lookout for
brilliant, innovative, and academic CS degree holders. Industries with high IT expert demand are the IT
sector itself, Engineering & Manufacturing, Automobile, Content Industry, Sales & Marketing companies,
Education Sector, Healthcare and Media Houses.

Newer technologies are evolving every minute. This not only makes it critical to stay updated with the
advanced technology for the companies but also essential for candidates to upgrade themselves. A
working professional in the IT industry, for instance, can upgrade himself with a Master’s in CS and secure
a better job position in a better company.

Candidates now also have career prospects in new avenues related to the latest technologies such as
Machine Learning, Data Science, Blockchain Development, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, Augmented
and Virtual Reality, Cloud and Big Data, Data Mining, Mobile app development, and Internet of Things
(IoT). Computer science job opportunities are projected to grow, and better rewards and pay rates are
also offered.

Since all segments of a company such as operations, production, management, finance, supply chain,
marketing, database, human resource, and security rely on technology for streamlined processes, the
future scope of computer science cannot be challenged.

Hardware and software

 In any computer system, you will find two essential elements by which the computer works. These two
parts are the Hardware and Software. You will find plenty of differences between Hardware and Software
though they both work on the system compatibility.

 What is the Computer Hardware?

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer Hardware is any part of the computer that
we can touch these parts. These are the primary electronic devices used to build up the computer. Examples of
hardware in a computer are the Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer, Keyboard, Mouse, and Central
Processing Unit.

 Different Types of Computer Hardware

 Input Devices: Input Devices are those devices through which a user enters data and information into
the computer or simply, User interacts with the computer. Examples of Input Devices are Keyboard,
Mouse, Scanner, etc.
 Output Devices: Output Devices are devices that are used to show the result of the task performed
by the user. Examples of Output Devices are Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
 Storage Devices: Storage Devices are devices that are used for storing data and they are also known
as Secondary Storage Data. Examples of Storage Devices are CDs, DVDs, Hard Disks, etc.
 Internal Component: Internal Components consist of important hardware devices present in the
System. Examples of Internal Components are the CPU, Motherboard, etc.

 What is the Computer Software?

Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, and documentation that performs different tasks on a
computer system. We can say also Computer Software is a programming code executed on a computer
processor. The code can be machine-level code or code written for an operating system.

Examples of software are MS- Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google Chrome, Photoshop, MySQL, etc.

 Different Types of Computer Software

 System Software: System Software is a component of Computer Software that directly operates
with Computer Hardware which has the work to control the Computer’s Internal Functioning and also
takes responsibility for controlling Hardware Devices such as Printers, Storage Devices, etc. Types of
System Software include Operating Systems, Language processors, and Device Drivers.
 Application Software: Application Software is the software that works the basic operations of the
computer. It performs a specific task for users. Application Software includes Word Processors,
Spreadsheets, etc. Types of Application software include General Purpose Software, Customized Software,
etc.

 Difference Between Hardware and Software

Parameters Hardware Software
 Basic definition Hardware is a physical part of the Software is a set of instructions
computer that causes the that tells a computer exactly what
processing of data. to do.
Development It is manufactured. It is developed and engineered.
Dependency Hardware cannot perform any task The software can not be executed
without software. without hardware.
Process of creating Electronic and other materials are Created by utilizing a computer
used to create hardware. language to write instructions.
Tangible Hardware is tangible as hardware is Software is tangible as we can see
a physical electronic device, that and also use the software but can’t
can be touched. touch them.
Durability Hardware typically wears out over Then software does not wear out
time. with time. However, it may contain
flaws and glitches.
Types It has four main categories: It is mainly divided into
1.input devices 1.system software
2.output devices 2.application software
3.storage devices
4.internal components
Virus effect Hardware is not affected by Software is affected by computer
computer viruses. viruses.
Transfer It cannot be transferred from one It can be transferred via a network
place to another electrically means.
through the network.
Machine-level language Only machine-level language is The program accepts human-
known to be understood by readable input, interprets it in
hardware. machine-level language, and sends
it to hardware for additional
processing.
Replacements If the hardware is changed, it is If the software is damaged, its
replaced with a new one. backup copy can be reinstalled.
Failures Dust, overheating, humidity and Overloading, systematic error,
other factors are commonly major-minor version error, and
responsible for hardware failures. other factors are commonly
responsible for software failures.
Examples Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, MS word, EXCEL, PowerPoint,
CPU, Hard disk, RAM, ROM, etc. Photoshop, MySQL

 Memory
Memory is an important part of the computer which is responsible for storing data and information on a
temporary or permanent basis. Memory can be classified into two broad categories:
  Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

 What is Primary Memory?

Primary Memory is a type of Computer Memory that the Preprocessor directly accesses. It is used to store data
on which computer is currently working. It has less storage than Secondary Memory. It is basically of two types:

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Read Only Memory (ROM)

 What is Secondary Memory?

Secondary Memory is a type of Computer Memory which is used to permanently store the data and information.
It has a larger data storage capacity than Primary Memory. Secondary Memory is not directly accessible from CPU.
It is basically of four types:

 Hard Disk
 Compact Disc (CD)
 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
 Floppy Disk

Primary Memory is classified into two types: RAM and ROM. In this article, we are going to discuss the
differences between RAM and ROM.

 Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store the programs and data being used by the CPU in real time. The
data on the random-access memory can be read, written, and erased any number of times. RAM is a hardware
element where the data currently used is stored. It is a volatile memory. It is also called as Main Memory
or Primary Memory. This is user’s memory. The software (program) as well as data files are stored on the hard
disk when the software or those files are opened. They get expanded into RAM. It is the space where temporary
data are automatically stored until the user saves it into the secondary storage devices.

 Types of RAM
 Static RAM: Static RAM or SRAM stores a bit of data using the state of a six-transistor memory cell.

 Dynamic RAM: Dynamic RAM or DRAM stores a bit of data using a pair of transistors and capacitors
which constitute a DRAM memory cell.

 Advantages of RAM
 Speed: RAM is much faster than other types of memory, such as hard disk drives, making it ideal for
storing and accessing data that needs to be accessed quickly.

 Volatility: RAM is volatile memory, which means that it loses its contents when power is turned off.
This property allows RAM to be easily reprogrammed and reused.

 Flexibility: RAM can be easily upgraded and expanded, allowing for more memory to be added as
needed.
  Disadvantages of RAM
 Limited capacity: RAM has a limited capacity, which can limit the amount of data that can be stored
and accessed at any given time.

 Volatility: The volatile nature of RAM means that data must be saved to a more permanent form of
storage, such as a hard drive or SSD, to prevent data loss.

 Cost: RAM can be relatively expensive, particularly for high-capacity modules, which can make it difficult
to scale memory as needed.

 Read Only Memory

Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory where the data has been pre-recorded. Data stored in ROM is
retained even after the computer is turned off i.e., non-volatile. ROM is primary non-volatile memory. It is
generally used in Embedded Parts, where the programming requires almost no changes. It is a permanent CNO4
erasable memory gets initiated when the power is supplied to the computer ROM is a memory chip fixed on the
motherboard at the time of manufacturing. It stores a program called BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). This
program checks the status of all the devices attached to the computer.

 Types of ROM
 Programmable ROM: It is a type of ROM where the data is written after the memory chip has
been created. It is non-volatile.
 Erasable Programmable ROM: It is a type of ROM where the data on this non-volatile
memory chip can be erased by exposing it to high-intensity UV light.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM: It is a type of ROM where the data on this
non-volatile memory chip can be electrically erased using field electron emission.
 Mask ROM: It is a type of ROM in which the data is written during the manufacturing of the
memory chip.

 Advantages of ROM
 Non-volatile: ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that it retains its contents even when power
is turned off. This property makes ROM ideal for storing permanent data, such as firmware and system
software.

 Stability: ROM is stable and reliable, which makes it a good choice for critical systems and applications.

 Security: ROM cannot be easily modified, which makes it less susceptible to malicious attacks, such as
viruses and malware.

 Disadvantages of ROM
 Limited flexibility: ROM cannot be easily reprogrammed or updated, which makes it difficult to
modify or customize the contents of ROM.

 Limited capacity: ROM has a limited capacity, which can limit the amount of data that can be stored
and accessed at any given time.
  Cost: ROM can be relatively expensive to produce, particularly for custom or specialized applications,
which can make it less cost-effective than other types of computers.

 Define unit of memory?

 Units of Memory
A computer processor is made up of multiple decisive circuits, each one of which may be either OFF or ON.
These two states in terms of memory are represented by a 0 or 1. To count higher than 1, such bits (Binary
Digits) are suspended together. A group of eight bits is known as a Byte. 1 Byte can represent numbers between
zero (00000000) and 255 (11111111), or 28 = 256 distinct positions. Of course, these bytes may also be
combined to represent larger numbers. The computer represents all characters and numbers internally in the
same fashion.

In practice, memory is measured in Kilobytes (KB) or Megabytes (MB). A Kilobyte is not exactly, as one might
expect, 1000 Bytes. Rather, the correct amount is 210 i.e. 1024 bytes. Similarly, a megabyte is not 10002 i.e.
1,000,000 bytes, but instead 10242 i.e. 1, 048,576 bytes. This is a remarkable difference. By the time we reach a
gigabyte (i.e. 10243 bytes), the difference between the base two and base ten amounts is almost 71 Megabyte.

Both computer memory and disk space are measured in these units. But it’s important not to confuse these two.
“12800 KB RAM” refers to the amount of main memory the computer provides to its CPU whereas “128 MB
disk” symbolizes the amount of space that is available for the storage of files, data, and other types of
permanent information.

 Types of File Sizes

 Bit
 Kilo Byte
 Mega Byte
 Giga Byte
 Tera Byte

 Bit
In a computer, data is stored in the form of 0s and 1s. We can store each and every data in a computer with the
help of 0s and 1s. Each digit, either 0 or 1, is called a Bit. The Bit is the smallest unit of memory. Bit simply
refers to the binary digit.

 Byte
In computer systems, a unit of data that is eight binary digits long is known as a byte . A byte is a unit that
computers use to represent a character such as a letter, number, or a typographic symbol (for example, “h”,
“7”, or “$”). A byte can also grasp a string of bits that need to be used in some larger units of application
processes (e.g., the stream of bits that composes a visual image for a program that represents images or the
string of bits that composes the machine code of a computer program).

A Byte is abbreviated with a big “B” whereas a bit is abbreviated with a small “b”. Computer storage is
generally measured in multiples of the byte. For example, a 640 MB hard drive holds a nominal 640 million
bytes – or megabytes – of data. Byte multiples are made up of exponents of 2 and are generally expressed as
a “rounded-off” decimal number. For example, two megabytes or 2 million bytes are 2,097,152 (decimal)
bytes.

 Kilobyte

The kilobyte is the smallest unit of memory measurement but greater than a byte. A kilobyte is 103 or 1,000
bytes abbreviated as ‘K’ or ‘KB’. It antecedes the Mega Byte, which contains 1,000,000 bytes. One kilobyte is
technically 1,000 bytes; therefore, kilobytes are often used synonymously with kibibytes, which contain
exactly 1,024 bytes (210).
Kilobytes are mostly used to measure the size of small files. For example, a simple text document may
contain 10 KB of data and therefore it would have a file size of 10 kilobytes. Graphics of small websites are
often between 5 KB and 100 KB in size. Individual files typically take up a minimum of four kilobytes of disk
space.

 Megabyte

One megabyte is equal to 1,000 KBs and antecedes the gigabyte (GB) unit of memory measurement. A
megabyte is 106 or 1,000,000 bytes and is abbreviated as “MB”. 1 MB is technically 1,000, 000 bytes,
therefore, megabytes are often used synonymously with mebibytes, which contain exactly 1, 048, 576 bytes
(220).
Megabytes are mostly used to measure the size of large files. For example, a high-resolution JPEG image
might range in size from 1-5 megabytes. A 3-minute song saved in a compressed version may be roughly 3MB
in size, and the uncompressed version may take up to 30 MB of disk space. Compact Disk’s capacity is
measured in megabytes (approx. 700 to 800 MB), whereas the capacity of most other forms of media drives,
such as hard drives and flash drives, is generally measured in gigabytes or terabytes.
1 MB = 1024KB = 1,048,576 Bytes

 Gigabyte

One gigabyte is equal to 1,000 MBs and precedes the terabyte (TB) unit of memory measurement. A
gigabyte is 109 or 1,000,000,000 bytes and is abbreviated as “GB”. 1 GB is technically 1,000,000,000 bytes;
therefore, gigabytes are used synonymously with gibibytes, which contain exactly 1,073,741,824 bytes
(230).
Gigabytes, are sometimes also abbreviated as “gigs,” and are often used to measure a storage device’s
capacity. e.g., a standard DVD drive can hold 4.7 GB of data. Storage devices
that hold 1, 000 GB of data or more are measured in terabytes.
1 GB = 1024MB = 1,048,576 KB = 1,073,741,824 Bytes

 Terabyte

One terabyte is equal to 1,000 GBs and precedes the petabyte (PB) unit of memory measurement. A
terabyte is 1012 or 1,000,000,000,000 bytes and is abbreviated as “TB”. 1 TB is technically 1 trillion bytes,
therefore, terabytes and tebibytes are used synonymously, which contains exactly 1, 099, 511, 627, 776
bytes (1, 024 GB) (240).
Mostly the storage capacity of large storage devices is measured in Terabytes. Around 2007,
consumer hard drives reached a capacity of 1 Terabyte. Now, HDDs are
measured in Terabytes e.g., a typical internal HDD may hold 2 Terabytes of
 data whereas some servers and high-end workstations that contain multiple hard drives may even have a
total storage capacity of over 10 Terabytes.
1TB=1024GB=1,048,576
MB = 8,388,608 KB = 1,099,511,627,776 Byte
 Disk operating system
MS-DOS Operating System also called the Disk Operating system was Developed by Microsoft for x86
personal computers. It works on the phenomenon of doing less and getting more. It is a 16-bit operating
system. A closed-source model was initially released on August 12, 1981, and the final release on September
14, 2000.
It is used for many purposes:
 Education and research: It is used in the Education and research field to know how simple MS-
DOS is and how it works. The source code is available from Microsoft in two versions.
 Legacy systems: Some organizations prefer using MS-DOS because it has been used reliably over
decades whereas others don’t have the budget to upgrade the application since this process is costly.
 Embedded systems: Embedded systems are dependent on MS-DOS especially new devices with
x86 processor architecture. It is also used on legacy Embedded systems which have been used for
decades.
 Classic Computer Games: There are still some games that were developed on MS-DOS and still
support only MS-DOS.

 Features of MS-DOS Operating System

 It is a minimalist OS which means it can boot a computer and run programs.

 Still usable for simple tasks like word processing and playing games.
 The mouse cannot be used to give inputs instead it uses basic system commands to perform the task.
 It is a 16-bit, free operating system.
 It is a single-user operating system.
 It is very lightweight due to fewer features available and no multitasking.

 Working of MS-DOS

MS-DOS input and output occur at the command line in the form of issued commands and system results of
those commands. When booted, MS-DOS systems display a command prompt. MS-DOS commands are then
entered using a keyboard. Commands are either one of the standard DOS commands, implemented as part of
the OS, or they are the file name of an executable program.
Although it does not natively support a GUI, MS-DOS can run graphical programs if they are installed on a
system disk or diskette. Users enter the command for a graphical program, and the program takes control of
the input and output devices. When the program terminates, the control reverts to MS-DOS and the
command prompt reappears.

 Limitations of MS DOS Operating System

 It is not a multitasking operating system that is we cannot run too many applications in the background.
 Files on the system can be easily deleted or the system can also be easily destroyed.
 It does not provide any warning message before you delete or perform any unwanted task like in windows
or Linux.
 It is text-based and it does not have any graphical user interface.
  Not secure to be used in any kind of public network.
 Encryption is not supported.
 Difficulty in memory access.
 Mouse cannot be used to give inputs.

 Types of MS-DOS Commands

There are mainly two types of MS-DOS commands:

1. Internal Commands
Internal commands are those commands that are loaded automatically in the memory when DOS is loaded
into memory during the booting process. These commands are easier to learn and use. They require no
external files for their storage as in the case of external commands. These are for performing a basic operation
on files and in directories. They do not need any external file support. These commands are used for common
jobs such as copying and erasing files.

2. External commands
External commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do not need some external file support
as they are not stored in COMMAND.com. The external commands are used less frequently and are
stored in some external files which are stored in some secondary storage devices. Whenever an external
command is to be executed then the external file in which that particular command is stored is
transferred from the secondary storage disk to the main memory (RAM).

 How to open MS-DOS in windows?

 Step 1: Click on Windows.

 Step 2: Search for ‘Run’ or directly use (Windows key+r) to open.
 Step 3: Type ‘cmd’ in run and press ‘Enter’.
 Step 4: MS-DOS will open in many cases with default command prompt i.e. c:\>

 Basic MS-DOS Commands

Command Description Type

mem Display memory on the system. External

Command to create a new

mkdir Internal
directory.

mklink Creates a symbolic link. Internal

Command to create a new

md Internal
directory.
Command Description Type

chdir Changes directories. Internal

Check the hard drive running FAT

chkdsk External
for errors.

Check the hard drive running

chkntfs External
NTFS for errors.

Specify a listing of multiple

choice External
options within a batch file.

It Causes MS-DOS to look in other

append directories when editing a file or External
running a command.

Displays, adds and removes arp

arp information from network External
devices.

Assign a drive letter to an

assign External
alternate letter.

assoc View the file associations. Internal

Schedule a time to execute

at External
commands or programs.

Recovery console command that

Recovery
batch executes several commands in a
Console
file.

Modify the boot configuration

bcdedit External
data store.

Recovery console command that

bootcfg allows a user to view, modify, and Recovery Console
rebuild the boot.ini file.

Enable and disable the Ctrl+C

break Internal
feature.
Command Description Type

del Deletes one or more files. Internal

Recovery console command that

delete Internal
deletes a file.

Deletes one or more files or

deltree External
directories.

Recovery console command

disable that disables Windows system Recovery Console
services or drivers.

lock Lock the hard drive. Internal

 MS-DOS File and Filetypes

A computer file created by an application running under the DOS operating system. is called an MS-DOS file.
There are three main files of DOS. During the Booting process, the computer loads the operating system into
its memory.
DOS booting involves reading the following files into memory namely

IO. SYS: A hidden executable binary file that processes instructions that tell the operating system (OS) how the
computer is set up when it is booted or started. It contains the default MS-DOS device drivers (hardware
interfacing routines) and the DOS initialization program.

MSDOS. SYS: The MSDOS.SYS file is a hidden, system, read-only file created on the root of the boot drive.
There are several configurations that can be changed using this file. Most values in the MSDOS.SYS are either 0
or 1, which is off or on.

COMMAND.COM: COMMAND.COM is the default command-line interpreter for MS-DOS. It is the default
user interface as well.COMMAND.COM is the command shell on MS-DOS and PC-DOS, as well as versions of
Windows that depend on DOS. Gives users a command line interface to DOS as well as a way to run scripts
called “batch files” with the .BAT file extension.
 Booting
Booting is basically the process of starting the computer. When the CPU is first switched on it has nothing
inside the Memory. In order to start the computer, load the Operating System into the Main Memory and
then Computer is ready to take commands from the User. Learn the types of booting.

 What happens in the Process of Booting?

Booting happens when you start the computer. This happens when we turned ON the power or the
computer restarts. The system BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) makes the peripheral devices active.
Further, it requires that the boot device loads the operating system into the main memory.

 Boot Devices
Booting can be done either through hardware (pressing the start button) or by
giving software commands. Therefore, a boot device is a device that loads the operating system.
Moreover, it contains the instructions and files which start the computer. Examples are the hard drive,
floppy disk drive, CD drive, etc. Among them, the hard drive is the most used one.

 Types of Booting
There are two types of booting:

 Cold Booting
A cold boot is also called a hard boot. It is the process when we first start the computer. In other words,
when the computer is started from its initial state by pressing the power button it is called cold boot.
The instructions are read from the ROM and the operating system is loaded in the main memory.

 Warm Booting
Warm Boot is also called soft boot. It refers to when we restart the computer. Here, the computer does
not start from the initial state. When the system gets stuck sometimes it is required to restart it while it is
ON. Therefore, in this condition the warm boot takes place. Restart button or CTRL+ALT+DELETE keys are
used for warm boot.

 Steps of Booting

We can describe the boot process in six steps:

1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies electricity to the main components like
BIOS and processor.

2. BIOS: Power on Self-Test

It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an initial check on the input/output
devices, computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc. Moreover, if any error occurs, the system produces a
beep sound.

3. Loading of OS
In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The operating system starts working
and executes all the initial files and instructions.

4. System Configuration
In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are programs that help in the
functioning of the peripheral devices.

5. Loading System Utilities

System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control, antivirus, etc. In this step,
system utilities are loaded into the memory.

6. User Authentication
If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks for user authentication. Once
the user enters the login Id and password correctly the system finally starts.
 What is Internet?

The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being used by almost
every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers, webpages, websites, and servers.
Using the internet, we can send emails, photos, videos, and messages to our loved ones. Or in other
words, the Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and electronic devices (that
support Internet). It creates a communication medium to share and get information online. If your
device is connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications, websites,
social media apps, and many more services. The Internet nowadays is considered the fastest medium for
sending and receiving information.

 History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model called ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple computers to work on a single network which
was their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET uses packet switching to communicate multiple
computer systems under a single network. In October 1969, using ARPANET first message was transferred
from one computer to another. After that technology continues to grow.

 How is the Internet Set Up?

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical Fiber data transmission cables or copper wires
and various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN, MAN, etc. For accessing the Internet even, the
2G, 3G, and 4G services and the WIFI require these physical cable setups to access the Internet. There is
an authority named ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in the USA
which manages the Internet and protocols related to it like IP addresses.

 How Does the Internet Work?

The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers. Here the client is a
laptop that is directly connected to the internet and servers are the computers connected indirectly to
the Internet and they are having all the websites stored in those large computers. These servers are
connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet Service Providers) and will be identified with the
IP address.

Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any person to always remember the long numbers
or strings. So, whenever you search for any domain name in the search bar of the browser the request will
be sent to the server and that server will try to find the IP address from the Domain name because it
cannot understand the domain name. After getting the IP address the server will try to search the IP
address of the Domain name in a Huge phone directory that in networking is known as a DNS server
(Domain Name Server). For example, if we have the name of a person and we can easily find the Aadhaar
number of him/her from the long directory as simple as that.
 So, after getting the IP address, the browser will pass on the further request to the respective server and
now the server will process the request to display the content of the website which the client wants. If
you are using a wireless medium of Internet like 3G and 4G or other mobile data then the data will start
flowing from the optical cables and will first reach towers from there the signals will reach your cell
phones and PCs through electromagnetic waves and if you are using routers then optical Fiber connecting
to your router will help in connecting those light-induced signals to electrical signals and with the help of
ethernet cables internet reaches your computers and hence the required information.

 Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

 Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life easier, e-
commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very spectacular services with just one
click and this is a great use of the Internet.
 Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to their customers
to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI
payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital payment industries are growing at a rate of 50%
every year too because of the INTERNET.
 Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational material to everyone
through any server across the web. Those who are unable to attend physical classes can choose any
course from the internet and can have point-to-point knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class
faculties are teaching online on digital platforms and providing quality education to students with the help
of the Internet.
 Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect people all over
the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, and share videos, and images with our
loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create groups for discussion or for meetings.
 Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous entertainment
options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games, listening to music, etc. You can also
download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from the internet.

 Security and the Internet

Very huge amount of data is managed across the Internet almost the time, which leads to the risk of data
breaching and many other security issues. Both Hackers and Crackers can lead to disrupting the network and can
steal important information like Login Credentials, Banking Credentials, etc.

 Steps to Protect the Online Privacy

 Install Antivirus or Antimalware.

 Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.
 Use a private browsing window or VPN for using the Internet.
 Try to use HTTPS only for better protection.
 Try to make your Social Media Account Private.
 If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS off.
 Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.
 Try to avoid accessing public WIFI or hotspots.
 Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.
 There is an element of the Internet called the Dark Web, which is not accessible from standard browsers.
To keep safe our data, we can use Tor and I2P, which helps in keeping our data anonymous, that helps in
protecting user security, and helps in reducing cybercrime.

 Social Impact of the Internet

The social impact of the Internet can be seen in both ways. Some say it has a positive impact as it helps in
gaining civic engagement, etc. whereas some say it has a negative impact as it increased the risk of getting
fooled by someone over the internet, getting withdrawal from society, etc.

Whatever the impact of social media, one thing is that it changed the way of connecting and interacting
with others in society. The number of people increasing day by day on social media platforms which helps
in constructing new relationships over social media, new communities are made on social media in the
interest of the people. Social Media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, etc are the most used
social media platform for both individual and business purposes where we can communicate with them
and perform our tasks.

 Advantages of the Internet

 Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online through the
net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the other.
 Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get more jobs via
online platforms like LinkedIn and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the other hand has helped
the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be done via the INTERNET.
 Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen to music, play
games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, YouTube itself is a hub of knowledge as
well as entertainment.
 New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital products so we are
having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social media marketing online
businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the Internet is the medium to help us to do
so.
 Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from the
Internet. You can send messages via email, WhatsApp, and Facebook. Voice chatting and video
conferencing are also available to help you to do important meetings online.
 Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things like shopping
online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal items, etc. You can book train and
plane tickets online.
 GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you are able to
find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your mobile.
Disadvantages of the Internet
 Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps and doing nothing
decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling social media apps one should utilize that
time in doing something skilful and even more productive.
  Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad impacts on your
health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more things. Looking at the screen
for a longer duration causes serious impacts on the eyes.
 Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some of the crimes which
are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the confidential data can be easily hacked
by cybercriminals.
 Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching movies, and
games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as social development.
 Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form of social
media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with very revolting and shameful
messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.

 Difference between internet and intranet?

 What is the Internet?

The Internet is used to connect the different networks of computers simultaneously. It is a public network
therefore anyone can access the internet. On the internet, there are multiple users and it provides
unlimited information to the users.

 What is an Intranet?

Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It is a private network therefore anyone can’t access
the intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of users and it provides a piece of limited
information to its users.

 Difference Between the Internet and Intranet

Attributes Internet Intranet
Definition The Internet is a network of An Intranet is a private network
several computers connected of computers designed for a
worldwide using the Internet certain group of people and
protocol suite (TCP/ IP). owned by a particular firm or
organization. It can include
several local area networks and
also uses leased lines in the
wide-area network.
Users As stated above, the Internet is a Because of a limited range, the
globally connected network; total numbers of users on
users' number is comparatively Intranet are limited. When
much higher than Intranet. compared to the Internet,
Intranet has very few users.
Accessibility Anyone can access and use it. Only certain people are
authorized to use Intranet
because it is a company's
internal network, so accessible
by the employees or admin who
have login credentials.
Type of Network The Internet is a type of public The intranet is a type of private
network. network installed mainly for any
organization operations.
Security Because the internet is a public Due to limited access, there is
network, it is a considerably less no such possibility or very less
secure network. Cybercriminals possibility of cyber threats in
usually target people using the Intranet, making it more secure
Internet. compared to that of the
Internet.
Information and Data Due to a wider range, the The intranet is limited to group-
availability of information and specific information. That means
the data is unlimited. People are the Intranet information and
free to use the Internet and data are limited to any specific
their knowledge. That is why company's records, operations,
more and more data is being inventory, etc. In this case, only
added to different fields on the certain people with admin
Internet regularly. privileges are allowed to add or
modify the information.
Traffic Due to a higher number of users Intranet has limited users, and
and a public network, the total so visitor's traffic is limited and
visitor's traffic very high. It is comparatively less than the
almost uncountable. Internet. In the case of Intranet,
traffic is countable.
Characteristic The Internet includes several The intranet is like a subset of
intranets. the Internet. Intranet can only
be used using the Internet but
with certain restrictions and
security practices.
 What is Microsoft Office?

Microsoft Office, or only Office, is a family of client software, server software, and services developed by
Microsoft. Bill Gates announced on August 1, 1988, at COMDEX in Las Vegas.
Microsoft Office is one of the most popular, versatile, and complete office application suites in the world.
It is so popular that more than 80% of companies use the services of this software.

First launched for Mac in 1989 and later in 1990 for Windows. The office had its origin in a marketing
idea, that of bringing together in the same package several of the firms. Popular applications for business
and office that until then were sold separately, the idea that paid off.

 The Microsoft Office package

It is a set of applications with which we can carry out office tasks, being able to automate. And achieves
a high level of performance in these tasks, called “package”. Because, under the same name the
programs, options and features that are required to achieve an outstanding level of data compatibility are
combined.
That will allow us not to depend on several external apps that are rarely compatible with each other.

The [Microsoft Office] suite a series of leading applications in its field, and that gives the company or
individual that uses them a wide variety of advantages. Thanks to the rise of mobile devices, today, we
can count on other variants of the cloud-based Office package for different mobile operating systems such
as Android or iOS.

All the options offered by the Office package helps us to do the work incredibly fast. Not for nothing is the
office automation standard.
We also have the so-called “Subscriptions,” a way to have Office services paying monthly. This means that
we do not have to pay the cost of the entire suite, invariably high. You can consider this type of model as a
kind of “rent.”

Today, Microsoft Office is a complete office suite that covers the web platform. And can interact with
desktop versions and mobile versions. Thus, giving a comprehensive overview of services on all types of
systems.

Over the years, Microsoft has increasingly incorporated better features and programs into the suite and
has managed to modernize to always be ahead of its competitors, especially the attempts, very
commendable by the way, LibreOffice, OpenOffice and Google office applications, among others.

 What are the Office programs?

 Microsoft Word
This application developed for word processing, without a doubt, the most used around the world, and a
standard for the rest.

 Microsoft Excel
Another industry standard. Excel is an application developed to create spreadsheets with thousands of
functions and features.
  Microsoft PowerPoint
It is the most used application around the world for the creation of slides and presentations. Through
PowerPoint, we can include images, sound, text, animations, and videos to any presentation easily and
quickly.

 Microsoft Outlook
This application is for the personal information manager and default email client of the suite. It includes a
calendar, task manager, contacts calendar, and many other essential features.

 Microsoft Access
Access is a tool for editing suite databases.

 Microsoft InfoPath
It is the Default suite application for editing XML-based forms.

 Microsoft OneNote
Without a doubt, it is one of the best applications for taking notes on the market. With features superior
to other programs of its kind such as Evernote.

 Microsoft Publisher
This application helps to compete with other desktop publishing software such as InDesign. But it was
unsuccessful, limiting its use to only some companies that use it for internal designs and little else.

 Microsoft SharePoint Workspace

Tool for collaboration of working groups through P2P.

 Microsoft Lync
The app designed by Microsoft offers its customers a stable and straightforward way to manage
conferences and meetings in real-time through video and instant messaging.

 Uses of Microsoft Office

Microsoft Office is an application package that contains a series of software tools developed specifically
for the tasks that get carried out in offices and all kinds of shops. And over the years, it has become one of
the main tools of Work and education for students from various fields around the world.

Currently, carrying out any task that involves the use of mathematics or any other subject is almost
impossible. If we do not help with any of the Office applications, from writing reports to accounting,
everything can be done with Office and efficiently.

Microsoft has been as successful as possible in those SMEs or companies that do not have the budget or
do not require higher-level IT solutions. Such as ERP, CRM, and others.
For these types of companies, the Office package has become a window into the future without paying
the extraordinary sums that would mean having to develop custom software.
Undoubtedly, the greatest success of Office is in its flexibility. Since in addition to being able to be used by
companies to carry out complex tasks such as stock tracking, accounting, and other commercial uses. It
 can also be used by the student to perform their tasks, with the same options and characteristics as those
used in companies.

We can share graphics, texts, results of formulas, mathematical operations, and others among the
different apps that make up Office as if it were the same program. That is to say, without any compatibility
problem, it is perhaps one of the greatest achievements of the Office package.

It helps to share data easily between the apps in the Office. So that we can do everything we need for
the office and the school in a similar interface and with the same commands without exporting the
documents obtained in a particular app to convert to the image or other formats.

 MS Word
Since MS Word is one of the most used programs of the Office Suite, some basic information regarding its
creation and development has been given below:

 Charles Simonyi, a developer and Richard Brodie, a software engineer, were the two creators of MS Word
 This program was initially named “multi-Tool Word” but later, was renamed as MS Word
 It was introduced in 1983
 Word for Windows is available standalone or as a part of MS Office suite
 MS Word for Mac was introduced by Microsoft as Word 1.0 in 1985
 The extension for any word file is “.doc or .docx.”

 What is MS Word?

Used to make professional-quality documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word processor
developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features which allow you to format and edit your files and
documents in the best possible way.

 What are the uses of MS Word?

MS Word enables users to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc. This is one
of the most commonly used programs under the Office suite.

 How to create an MS Word document?

 To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then once the
program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This opens a new doc where something new can be
created.

 Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in colleges and for official purposes, having proper
knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must.

 Features of MS Word
Now let us read more about the features and components of an MS Word doc file in detail.
  Home
This has options like font colour, font size, font style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All the basic
elements which one may need to edit their document is available under the Home option.
 Insert
Tables, shapes, images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc. can all be entered in the
document. They are included in the “Insert” category.
 Design
The template or the design in which you want your document to be created can be selected under the
Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab will enhance the appearance of your document.
 Page Layout
Under the Page Layout tab comes options like margins, orientation, columns, lines, indentation, spacing,
etc.
 References
This tab is the most useful for those who are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy documents.
Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption, bibliography, etc. can be found under this tab.
 Review
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language, translation, comments, etc. can all be tracked
under the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get their documents reviewed on MS
Word.

Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can be set in different views and layouts, which
can be added and optimised using the View tab on the Word document. Margins and scales are also
available for the benefit of the users.

When compared with MS PowerPoint, MS Word is more of reading while PPT is more of visual and
graphical representation of data.

 Uses of MS Word

Given below are the different fields in which MS Word is used and simplifies the work of an individual:

 In Education: It is considered as one of the simplest tools which can be used by both teachers and
students. Creating notes is easier using MS Word as they can be made more interactive by adding shapes
and images. It is also convenient to make assignments on MS Word and submitting them online.

 In Workplace: Submitting letters, bills, creating reports, letterheads, sample documents, can all easily
be done using MS Word.

 Creating & Updating Resume: One of the best tools to create your resumes and is easy to edit
and make changes in it as per your experience.

 For Authors: Since separate options are available for bibliography, table of contents, etc., it is the
best tool which can be used by authors for writing books and adjusting it as per the layout and alignment
of your choice. Also, creating a Doc file and converting it into PDF is a more suitable option, so it is highly
recommended.
 MS Excel
 MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record data in the form of tables. It is easy to analyse
data in an Excel spreadsheet.

 How to open MS Excel?

To open MS Excel on your computer, follow the steps given below:

 Click on Start
 Then All Programs
 Next step is to click on MS Office
 Then finally, choose the MS-Excel option
Alternatively, you can also click on the Start button and type MS Excel in the search option available.

 What is a cell?

A spreadsheet is in the form of a table comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at the
intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell.

 What is Cell Address?

The cell address is the name by which is cell can be addressed. For example, if row 7 is interested in
column G, then the cell address is G7.

 Features of MS Excel

Various editing and formatting can be done on an Excel spreadsheet. Discussed below are the various
features of MS Excel.

 Home
Comprises options like font size, font styles, font colour, background colour, alignment, formatting
options and styles, insertion and deletion of cells and editing options
 Insert
Comprises options like table format and style, inserting images and figures, adding graphs, charts and
sparklines, header and footer option, equation and symbols
 Page Layout
Themes, orientation and page setup options are available under the page layout option
 Formulas
Since tables with a large amount of data can be created in MS excel, under this feature, you can add
formulas to your table and get quicker solutions
 Data
Adding external data (from the web), filtering options and data tools are available under this category
 Review
Proofreading can be done for an excel sheet (like spell check) in the review category and a reader can
add comments in this part
  View
Different views in which we want the spreadsheet to be displayed can be edited here. Options to
zoom in and out and pane arrangement are available under this category

 Benefits of Using MS Excel

Ms Excel is widely used for various purposes because the data is easy to save, and information can be
added and removed without any discomfort and less hard work.

Given below are a few important benefits of using MS Excel:

 Easy To Store Data: Since there is no limit to the amount of information that can be saved in a
spreadsheet, MS Excel is widely used to save data or to analyse data. Filtering information in Excel is easy
and convenient.
 Easy To Recover Data: If the information is written on a piece of paper, finding it may take longer,
however, this is not the case with excel spreadsheets. Finding and recovering data is easy.
 Application of Mathematical Formulas: Doing calculations has become easier and less
time-taking with the formulas option in MS excel
 More Secure: These spreadsheets can be password secured in a laptop or personal computer and
the probability of losing them is way lesser in comparison to data written in registers or piece of paper.
 Data at One Place: Earlier, data was to be kept in different files and registers when the paperwork
was done. Now, this has become convenient as more than one worksheet can be added in a single MS
Excel file.
 Neater and Clearer Visibility of Information: When the data is saved in the form of a
table, analysing it becomes easier. Thus, information is a spreadsheet that is more readable and
understandable.

 MS PowerPoint
MS PowerPoint is a program that is included in the Microsoft Office suite. It is used to make presentations
for personal and professional purposes.

Given below are a few important things that one must know about the development and introduction of
Microsoft PowerPoint:

 The program was created in a software company named Forethought, Inc. by Robert Gaskins and Dennis
Austin.
 It was released on April 20, 1987, and after 3 months of its creation, it was acquired by Microsoft.
 The first version of this program, when introduced by Microsoft was MS PowerPoint 2.0 (1990).
 It is a presentation-based program that uses graphics, videos, etc. to make a presentation more
interactive and interesting.
 The file extension of a saved PowerPoint presentation is “.ppt”.
 A PowerPoint presentation comprising slides and other features is also known as PPT.

Gradually, with each version, the program was more creative and more interactive. Various other features
were added in PowerPoint which massively increased the requirement and use of this MS Office program.

 How to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer?

 Follow the steps below to open MS PowerPoint on a personal computer:

1. Click on the start button

2. Then choose “All Programs”
3. Next step is to select “MS Office”
4. Under MS Office, click on the “MS PowerPoint”

A blank presentation is open on the screen. According to the requirement, a person can modify the
template for a presentation and start using the program.

 Features of MS PowerPoint

There are multiple features that are available in MS PowerPoint which can customise and optimise a
presentation. The same have been discussed below.

 Slide Layout
Multiple options and layouts are available based on which a presentation can be created. This option is
available under the “Home” section and one can select from the multiple layout options provided.

 Insert – Clipart, Video, Audio, etc.

Under the “Insert” category, multiple options are available where one can choose what feature they want
to insert in their presentation. This may include images, audio, video, header, footer, symbols, shapes,
etc.

 Slide Design
MS PowerPoint has various themes using which background colour and designs or textures can be added
to a slide. This makes the presentation more colourful and attracts the attention of the people looking at
it.
This feature can be added using the “Design” category mentioned on the homepage of MS PowerPoint.
Although there are existing design templates available, in case someone wants to add some new texture
or colour, the option to customise the design is also available. Apart from this, slide designs can also be
downloaded online.

 Animations
During the slide show, the slides appear on the screen one after the other. In case, one wants to add some
animations to the way in which a slide presents itself, they can refer to the “Animations” category.
Apart from all these options; font size, font style, font colour, word art, date and time, etc. can also be
added to a PPT.

 Uses of PowerPoint Presentation

PowerPoint presentations are useful for both personal and professional usage. Given below are a few of
the major fields where PPT is extremely useful:

 Education – With e-learning and smart classes being chosen as a common mode of education today,
PowerPoint presentations can help in making education more interactive and attract students towards the
modified version of studying
  Marketing – In the field of marketing, PowerPoint presentations can be extremely important. Using
graphs and charts, numbers can be shown more evidently and clearly which may be ignored by the viewer
if being read

 Business – To invite investors or to show the increase or decrease in profits, MS PowerPoint can be
used

 Creating Resumes – Digital resumes can be formed using MS PowerPoint. Different patterns,
photograph, etc. can be added to the resume

 Depicting Growth – Since both graphics and text can be added in a presentation, depicting the
growth of a company, business, student’s marks, etc. is easier using PPT

 Difference between WordPad and Notepad:

Note Pad WordPad

It is a simple and easy tool for basic plain text entry It is simple and easier than MS Word

It can be used for doing a couple of different ways It is an easy tool for doing simple tasks

It is made for formatting and printing the

It is made for to create the documents only
documents

It is a text editor program It is a word processor program

It helps in creating the documents which

It is just a simple text editor that does not include
include graphics and various text
any formatting options into it.
formatting options into it

It is a text editor that is included with the windows It is also a text editor which is included
operating system with the windows operating system.

It was launched by Microsoft along with

It was launched by Microsoft in the year 1983
Windows 95

Notepad is a text editor WordPad is a basic word processor.

 Note Pad WordPad

Notepad can only save text as it is better for creating It helps in saving the text with the basic
webpages formatting like font styles and sizes etc.

It can be saved as .txt and .rtf Rich Text

It can only save documents as .txt files only
Format files both

Images and other graphics options are not added to Images and other graphic options can be
this added to this.

The files like Rich text formats WordPad are cannot

Any notepad file can be opened with this
be opened into it

It includes the options like files, edit, view, format, It includes more options which are easily
and helps options only into it available in it

It does not include any formatting options as no

It includes the formatting options into it
formatting of the text is done into it. It only focuses
like italic, bold, font style and size, etc.
on creating the text files only.

It is a good choice for creating webpages or HTML

It is a good choice for writing papers or
documents and writing the basic computer programs
creating documents that you want to print
also

It is also helpful for removing formatting from the

As it supports the bullets into it which is
text which is copied and which you wanted to paste
helpful for making lists
somewhere else as a plain text

You can use WordPad to open an

Just paste the text into Notepad, copy it again from
unformatted text document and add
Notepad, and you have completely unformatted text
whatever formatting you want
  Differences between WordPad and Microsoft Word:
S.No: Microsoft Word WordPad
1 Microsoft Word is word-processing WordPad is a simple word processing
computer software that has been built by software/text editor built by Microsoft.
Microsoft.
2. It is a paid software with a trial version for It is free software that comes with
users to check the functionality. Windows operating system.
3. It supports Windows 7 and higher. It supports Windows 95 and higher.
4. It comes with Ms office. It is not a part of Ms office.
5. It has features like spell check and It lacks features of spell check and
grammar check. grammar check.
6. It can save files in .docx format. It does not have a .docx file saving option.
7. It has a number of formatting options for There are not many formatting features
text. available.
8. Default file format is .doc The default file format is rich Text
Format(.rtf)