ECE_1071: Basic Electronics

Chapter – 3: Operational Amplifier and Applications

Module-1: Operational Amplifier

3.1.1 Introduction 2
3.1.2 Internal Block diagram of Op-amp 3
3.1.3 Op-Amp Characteristics 7
Module-2: Linear applications of Operational Amplifier
3.2.1 Inverting amplifier 11
3.2.2 Non-inverting Amplifier 12
3.2.3 Voltage follower 13
3.2.4 Inverting Summing Amplifier 13
3.2.5 Difference amplifier 14
3.2.6 Integrator 15
3.2.7 Differentiator 16
Module-3: Non-linear applications of Operational
Amplifier
1.3.1 Voltage Comparator 18
1.3.2 Square wave generator 19

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Chapter: 3

Operational Amplifier and Applications

Module-1: Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifiers, or Op-amps as they are usually called, are one of the basic building
blocks of Electronic Circuits. Op-Amps are one of the widely used ICs (Integrated Circuits) in
electronics. The very name Operational Amplifier comes from the fact that they are used to
build circuits to perform variety of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
integration, differentiation etc., Operational amplifiers exhibit properties of nearly ideal DC
amplifier and are therefore employed in a wide range of applications.

The integrated operational amplifier has gained wide acceptance as a versatile, predictable, and
economic system building block because of its small size, high reliability, and reduced cost.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Draw the internal block diagram of an OP-AMP and briefly describe the functions

2. List and define key parameters of an OP-AMP.

3. Discuss OP-AMP based amplifier topologies.

4. Design OP-AMP based circuits for simple mathematical operations.

3.1.1 Introduction

An operational amplifier is a high gain direct coupled amplifier which can amplify signals over
a wide range of frequencies. The circuit symbol of op-amp is shown in Fig. 3.1.1, which has
two inputs and a single output. The input terminal that is marked as positive is called
noninverting terminal and that marked as negative is known as inverting terminal. The output
signal of an Operational Amplifier is the amplified version of the difference between the two
signals being applied to the two inputs. One of the common IC versions of op-amp is µA741.

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Figure 3.1.2 shows the pin diagrams of different op-amp ICS.

3.1.2 Internal Block Diagram of op-amp:

The internal block schematic of op-amp is shown in Figure.3.1.3

Input stage: It is a dual input, dual output differential amplifier. Its function is to amplify the

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difference between the two input signals. It provides high differential gain, high input

impedance and low output impedance. The differential amplifier mainly helps to minimize

the effect of noise.

Intermediate stage: The overall gain requirement of an op-amp is very high. Since the input

stage alone cannot provide such a high gain, an intermediate stage is used to provide the

required additional voltage gain.

Buffer and Level shifting stage: The dc quiescent voltage level of previous stages may get

amplified and applied to the next stage causing distortion at the output. Hence the level

shifting stage is used to eliminate the dc level. Buffer is a unity voltage gain amplifier usually

used for impedance matching.

Output stage: This stage contributes to the overall gain of the op-amp and also provides low

output impedance.

The pin diagram for a typical µA741 op-amp with 8 pin DIP (Dual In-line Package) is shown

in Figure. 3.1.4.

Differential Amplifier

The circuit shown in Figure 3.15 shows a generalized form of a differential amplifier with two
inputs marked V1 and V2. The two identical transistors TR1 and TR2 are both biased at the

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same operating point with their emitters connected together and returned to the common rail, -
VEE by way of resistor RE.

The circuit operates from a dual supply +Vcc and -VEE which ensures a constant supply. The
voltage that appears at the output, VOUT of the amplifier is the difference between the two
input signals as the two base inputs are anti-phase with each other.

When the forward bias voltage of transistor, TR1 is increased, the forward bias voltage of
transistor TR2 is reduced and vice versa. Then if the two transistors are perfectly matched, the
current flowing through the common emitter resistor, Re will remain constant.

Like the input signal, the output signal is also balanced and since the collector voltages ither
swings in opposite directions (anti-phase) or in the same direction (in-phase) the output voltage
signal, taken between the two collectors is, (assuming a perfectly balanced circuit) the zero
difference between the two collector voltages.

This is known as the Common Mode of Operation with the common mode gain of the
amplifier being the output gain when the input is zero.

Ideal Operational Amplifiers also have one output (although there are ones with an additional
differential output) of low impedance that is referenced to a common ground terminal. The op-
amp rejects any common mode signals that are appearing at the inputs. That means, if an
identical signal is applied to both the inverting and non-inverting inputs then the voltage at the

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output terminals due to such inputs should be zero. This is measured by a parameter called
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differential gain to the common
mode gain of Op-Amp.

An operational amplifier only responds to the difference between the voltages applied at its
two input terminals, known commonly as the “Differential Input Voltage”. If the same voltage
is applied to both the input terminals the resultant output will be zero. An Operational
Amplifiers gain is commonly known as the Open Loop Differential Gain, and is represented
as (Ao).

Op-amp specifications:

Output offset voltage (Voo): The output voltage, when both the inputs are zero is called the
output offset voltage. It is due to input offset voltage and input bias current.

Input bias current (Ib): It is the average of the current that flows into the inverting and
noninverting input terminals when both of the two inputs are grounded.

Input offset current (Iio): It is the algebraic difference between the currents flowing into
noninverting and inverting terminals of balanced op-amp.

Input resistance (Ri): It is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting
or non-inverting terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.

Slew Rate(SR): It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit time.
i.e: SR

Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR): The change in op-amp input offset voltage caused by
variations in one of the power supply voltage is called SVRR.

Output resistance (Ro): The equivalent resistance observed between the output terminal and
the ground.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): This is a figure of merit for an op-amp. It is defined
as the ratio of the magnitude of differential gain to the common mode gain.

The CMRR in Decibels is given by

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Ac is the common-mode gain, Where A1(A2) is the voltage amplification from

input 1(2) to the output under the condition that input 2(1) is grounded. This is an important
specification, as it indicates how much of the common-mode signal Vc gets rejected from the input. A
high CMRR is desirable. The output of a differential amplifier is given by

Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc.
(3.1.1.2)

Where, Vd = (V1 – V2) and Vc = (V1 + V2) / 2 are differential and common mode inputs respectively.
Note: V1 and V2 are the non-inverting and inverting input voltages respectively.

3.1.3 Op-Amp characteristics

The characteristics of an ideal op-amp are given in the Table 3.1.1. However, it cannot be
realised in practice. As an example, an op-amp IC, μA 741 has typical values of the parameters
as given in the table.

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For ideal op-amp, the characteristic do not change with temperature. Ideally, the op-amp is perfectly
balanced, if Vo = 0, when V1 = V2

Concept of Virtual ground:

The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite (Ri =∞), that means there is no current
flowing into the op-amp. As the differential voltage gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite, V1-V2

tends to zero. This is equivalent to virtual short between two input terminals and hence if one

of the terminals is grounded the other terminal also experiences the same potential even though
they are not electrically connected. Therefore, it is called virtual ground.

Transfer Characteristics of a typical op-amp:

The transfer characteristics of op-amp is as shown in Figure 3.1.6. In the linear region, any
change in the input difference voltage, ±Vid produces a proportional output voltage. The range
of input difference voltage to operate the op-amp in linear region is approximately equal to 100
mV. Beyond 100mV of ±Vid, the output becomes ±Vsat because of very high gain offered by
the op-amp. The output will be at +Vsat if it is used in non- inverting mode or -Vsat if it is
configured in inverting mode.

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In linear applications, the op-amp is operated as a closed loop amplifier in the active region. The
difference between the input voltages is maintained around 100mV so as to produce a linear output
voltage. In nonlinear applications, the op-amp is driven to saturation either in open loop or closed loop
configuration by applying a difference input voltage exceeding 100mV.

Self test:

1.A linear integrated circuit responds to

a) Analog signal b) Digital signal c) Neither a) nor b) d) Both a)

and b)

2. An op-amp can amplify

a) only ac signals b) only dc signal c) Neither (a) nor (b) d) Both (a) and (b)

3. The ability of an op-amp to reject the common mode signal is termed as its

a) common mode gain b) differential mode gain c) offset voltage d) CMRR

4. The CMRR of an op-amp is usually expressed in

a) volts b) decibels (dB) c) volts/sec d) volts/mS

5. The potential at the virtual node w.r.t ground in an ideal op-amp is

a) 0V b) 5V c)10V d)100mV

Summary:

1. An operational amplifier is a high gain direct coupled amplifier which can amplify signals
over a wide range of frequencies.

2. The amplified output signal of an Operational Amplifier is the difference between the two
signals being applied to the two inputs. Hence it is termed as differential amplifier.

3. The ratio of the change to the output voltage with respect to the change in the common
mode input voltage is called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio or CMRR.

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4. The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite (Ri =∞), that means there is no current
flowing into the op-amp.

5. In linear applications, the op-amp is operated as a closed loop amplifier in the active region.

6. In nonlinear applications, the op-amp is driven to saturation either in open loop or closed
loop configuration by applying a difference input voltage exceeding 100mV.

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Module-2: Linear Applications of op-amp

Linear applications of op-amps include mathematical operations such as inversion, addition,
subtraction, integration, differentiation, and multiplication etc., some of them will be discussed
here.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

1. Discuss OP-AMP based amplifier topologies.

2. Analyze basic OP-AMP circuits.

3. Design OP-AMP based circuits for implementing simple mathematical

operations.

3.2.1 Inverting amplifier: The circuit diagram for an inverting amplifier is as shown in

Figure 3.2.1

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The negative sign indicates that there is 180° phase difference between input and output signals. The
voltage gain depends only on the resistor values as long as the op-amp is in linear region.

3.2.2 Non-inverting amplifier:

The circuit diagram for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 3.2.2

Figure. 3.2.2: Non-inverting amplifier

Since there is virtual short between inverting and non-inverting input terminals, Vin appears across
R1.

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3.2.3 Voltage follower

Voltage follower is a special case of non-inverting amplifier with unity gain as shown in
Figure 3.2.3 It has high input impedance and very low output impedance and hence it is used
as a buffer amplifier to achieve impedance matching.

3.2.4 Inverting summing amplifier

The circuit diagram for an inverting summing amplifier is shown in Figure 3.2.4

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Figure.3.2.4: Inverting summing amplifier

By applying KCL to the inverting input node and making use of the virtual ground concept,
the output voltage is,

Thus, summing amplifier produces an output voltage which is an inverted (in sign), weighted
sum of all inputs.

The circuit is therefore acts as an adder or summer. Strictly speaking, this circuit is acting as an inverting
adder.

3.2.5 Difference amplifier

The circuit configuration for a difference amplifier is shown in Figure.3.2.5 It produces an

output voltage which is proportional to the difference between the two inputs.

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3.2.6 Integrator

The circuit for an integrator is shown in Figure. 3.2.6. It produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of input voltage.

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3.2.7 Differentiator

The differentiator circuit is shown in Figure 3.2.7. It produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the differential of input voltage.

Exercises:

1. Realize each of the following equations using single OPAMP. Draw the circuit diagram.
Derive the input output relation and determine the component values. (i) Vo = -5V1

(ii) Vo = +5V1 (iii) Vo = -( 5V1 + 7V2) (iv) Vo = V1 – 0.5V2

2. Realize the equation using OPAMP V0= 3V1- 0.8V2 + 0.5V33. Sketch the output waveform
for an inverting integrator if the input signal is square wave with Amplitude is 5V and
frequency 1KHz.

4. A 200mV peak to peak sine wave form voltage is applied to an OPAMP inverting amplifier
with Rf/R1 =10. Sketch the output.

Summary:

1. The closed loop voltage gain Av = -(Rf/Ri). The negative sign indicates that there is 180°
phase difference between input and output signals.

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2. Voltage follower is a special case of non-inverting amplifier with unity gain.

3. Summing amplifier produces an output voltage which is an inverted (in sign), weighted sum
of all inputs.

4. The circuit of an integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral
of input voltage.

5. The differentiator circuit produces an output voltage which is proportional to the differential
of input voltage.

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Module-3: Non Linear Application

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students will be able to :

1. Discuss different types of OP-AMP based Comparators.

2. Draw the circuit of square wave generator using op-amp.

3.3.1 Voltage Comparator:

The op-amp in an open loop configuration is shown in Figure 3.3.1

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3.3.2 Square wave generator

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Exercises:

1. Design a square wave generator using OP-AMP for the following specifications: Frequency
of oscillation = 1KHz, V0 (p-p) = 12.4V.

2. What should be the TON and TOFF of a square wave signal of frequency 2KHz and duty
cycle of 50% ?

3. Explain the working of OP-AMP as a Comparator.

Summary:

1. An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well-balanced difference input and a very high gain.
This parallels the characteristics of comparators.

2. The output of the op-amp in a square wave circuit will be at either positive or negative
saturation voltages (±Vsat) depending on V1 and V2

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