Contents “chapter Signals and Systems 1 | ‘Sigal Analyse 1 | Compen Frequency 4 | Network Anabsis ; ‘Rrtnok Syathesie. 4 [Chapter 2: Signals and Waveforms 2» 21. General Characters of Sgnale » 22. General Descriptio of Signals ey | 23 ThesStp Function and Aswocsed Waveforms 28 IA The Unt pals a Chapter: The Frequency Domain: Fourler Analysis 46 3 atroduction “ 32. Orthogoa! Functions v 33. Appeonation Using Orthogonal Functions “ 34 Fourier Sein, 40 535. Evaluation of Fourier Coefileats 2 416. Evaluation of Founer Coeticients Using Unit, Temple s 37. The Fourie Inept a 318 Properties of Fourier Teansfores or contents 9 sav Contents ( | 1 Chapter As Amplitude, Phas, and Delay mn 44 Invotetion 1 4b Hmoeneos tte Dien Epps % 1 Anptte so Pas Response 22 23 Nontonogeneus Fans a | 2 ode os u 4h Sepand Impulse Reponse 3 | 85 Singleton Grcuts B 45 atone gua a | 84 Dowie Toned Crete a 6: Silanes Dien unions a | 85 Onl and Zeon ond Toe Dey 28 Cchepter 5: Network Analsst 1 1 » 1 51 eon 52. Nework Benes me 8 Network Fneons os 53 alan final Condons tos 92 Rents Bewten Toot Pantset 33 Sepand impute Raponse my 3 Trander Fenton Ug Two-Pon Puoneters 256 55. solute of Rework Equations tte 84 Inuconaston of To Pors m 5 Analy o Trastormes Be 35 Instetl tion i 8a Rony of Lader Necks ce ‘Chopar s The Laplace Transform 4 leant of Realty Theo 461 TePilospy of Tanform Metals 14 " ay Tory 2 42 The Lapae Taso ns 63 Popes of Laplace Transore ir 101, Gaui and Sottty = G4 stor tapace ansorms ws 102 arte Paypomie Fo 5 Por Fraton Expansions 1 103. Potie Rea Fanctons ~ 6 tots aed Zs is 108 lemenary Stes Proce. on 6 e 15 | chapter: synenesisof Oncor Network with Two Kinds Chepter 7s Transform Methods in Network Aras 175 of Slranes us 1A The Tewsformed Cit ns 11 Properties of 6 linn Foon, as 12 Theis and Norton's Therens ito 112 Syptbers of LC Davina immitaness 319 co U3 Proper of Rc Diving or impedances 32 13. The Sytem Fuacton 114 The Step aod Impulse Responser 1 41S. The Convolution feral ” 116 The Duhamel Superposition Integral mI 14. Sythe of RC Impalances or RL Admiances 329 IS. Properies of BL Impelances and RC Admitanes 231 6. Sythe of Cerin RL-C Funeons aCChoper 12: Elements of Transfer Function Sythesis 124 Properties of Teaser Fuetions 122 Zeror of Transsssion 123. Synths of Yu and Zy wth 21-0 Termination 14 Synthesis of Constant Reasance Networ “Topls in Fleer Design chapter YA The Fier Design Problem 13.2 The Appenimation Prot in Nework Thcory 333. The Saialy Flat Low-Poe Fier Approximation 154 Other LowrPve Fier Approsations 153 Transient Resoose of Low-Pas Fars 136A Method to Reduce Overtoot in Filters 137A Manly Fat Delay and Contlble Mapa ‘Approximation sag. Syateris of Low-Pas Fites 139. Maite and Feequeny Nocmalization 1.10 Frequesey Transformations Chapter 14s The Scattering Matrix 16.1 Tnideot and Refeted Power Flow 142 The Seatering Prantes fr a One Port Network 143 The Sateing Maat for a Two-Port Network 14k Properes of the Seteing Maze 14 Inara Low 4g Daliogons Laverton Loss Fite Sythess CChopar 15:° Computer Techniques in Circuit Analysis 182 The Ue of gil Computers ia Cicit Analyst 152. Amplitude and Phas Subrouoe 153 A'Porean Program for the Analysis of Ladder Ness 154 Progems tha Ai in Datingon Fer Synthesis a ui us a2 2s Pa rs me x ” ws » a Py a 43 as ne a oo or wee a “0 3 ‘ Contenes xt Appendix A: Introduction to Matrix Algebra 4 A Fundanenil Operont “1 2 Blmenary Conepis fe 3. Operations on Mates es [A4.Soation of Lien Eguations o ‘AS Raterencs op Matix Aletha ” ‘Appendix Bs Generalizes Functions and the Unit impulse 470 BA Generated Funtons ~ 1B Properties of te Unt Impue 6 ‘Appondix C: Elements of Complex Variables a CA. Eleentary Dfnitons and Operations a C2 Anais a (C3 Singuaries ana Resides he C4 Comour legion Pr Appendix B: Proets of Some Theorems on Positive Rea! Functions “0 Appendix Et An Aid to the Improvement of Biter Approxie toe ” 1 tnzodeion E2 Conant Loan sin Costu oe E3- Comant Pine Conour os EA Contour Diving, om ES Gonelon Peas oe 4. Soneion Newer Design i BT Contain so ausogrophy a ane nde sm Sutjecinden a chapter | Signals and systems “Tit hook am introduction to elctse network theory. The that | ofthe book i devoted to getwork anal an he remade to network Syethese and design Wint are acon spas and synthesis? Ta ¢ fneclly seeped denon of network anal and sess hee are thre ey wards the estat the etork andthe pone depict Jnfig 1. Network anal isconcersed with determing he =5p0m6, {ren te excitation abd the network. In network sath, the prolen SS design the actwork gen the exation ead the derived esponse In this chapter we wil eae some of the pblems ta be encountered in thi ook without going Into the acts dea the problems. We ‘se gic sored deintins LI SIGNAL ANALYSIS Forelaic networks, the estation and response ae sven in term af Nolte ang areas Which are fanctous of tne, IN genera these Tunas of tne areca gn Te dering sal, we wee 0 uniersl anges of clerical engineering ime ad frequency. St) Speaking 2 sgl Is fonction of time. However, the signal ean be scribed equalywellin tern of spectra ot fequnsy information As beeneen any two languages, such ab French snd Geman. nds it seeded to ade formation given in oe lnguagecompencaible tbe GLA Tease our cna12 aework aay and eyes 1a. Sinaia the easton inetd by te ir, ater tinea eee, the ain st tet Fortran he te Pa ae ans hes tera ae ooh tcmsst ramon ore agent red Ahmar dine Conder he neta a) apm Aen +00 aw here Aa te anid, ys plane ia 8 ostr ogy B83 “ . sna Te signal elated aia ime ee Tie ts a smompite denon of te sigal bie ie orig 12 Anequaly ey te c.f opis vers angle gene gel a 10198 tt pe 8 ome angle ene 2 4 Network nat ad yates pie in lg 6 cas only be deseo in terms of continuous spect rough the Furie iotegtal transform. 12 COMPLEX FREQUENCY {this tion, we wil consider the eoncept of complex frurnsy. AS ‘we sal the compies Frequency vaible as ise gnu reguecy variable whose el pat o dei growth and ‘heap ofthe amplitudes of igals and whose imaginary pros ange snetjo ‘ he ul see Th dno comple eure ope by sxamhing he cual signal Si) = ae" oo J “ : Fie 1 Tags Sars and ysems 3 a. te, Blatt, ig. 4b. Di pepe Jet the angular equney te the independent variable. Inti ete the pais seen estou of Ayn ANd By Be shown a Fi 0, Where Eplde plese asia equeny, ana Fig 13, where phate san Is ploted. ‘Row aiprosethathe sais made-up 2+ | sinaidaleomponents in ot +9) an “rhespsraldescipton of he sgnl would ben contin 2n ines at Sata tne dtr oom EEO Sr een ot eine te cn can te il speck see a ay isnt too oy a eas net cee SATE ae wo-[Aonntrstonte 00 sr nv pine pened) 8 hp soa ae ere sip eh ss en 12 onal acs ua oe Ste eta pd ee ge Sra and tems 5 710,12, Rotaing pao. shen) is represented asa rotating phasor? as shown in Fig, 1.7 “The angular frequency w of he phasorcan then behought of ra socity ihe end ofthe phar. In pruar the veloc alvaye at ight fale to the phaser, as shown in Fig 1. Howeve, conse the geet tae when the velocity i Inline’ at uny ebay ale a8 gern Fige Is and 18 I ths ear, the velocity given bythe yal swewze hat i composed of component wat igh ange othe plasor 15 ell as componeat o, which i parlel to 8. In Fig, Las has omponent = towatd the origin. Ae the phar S spine in counter= [Sockwise fashion, the piso decrates in ampitede, ‘The elting wave fer the el and ginry pats of) ae damped stra given by ear an o ” a1 4) Roaing patch apn caren nlite. () Rotting ‘Mor wah yout wea cope “Sx pes compe une hid by gta pace aaple Nani.16 Network asian synthesis 9.49. Dane sisi Acme fb Neework arabs and ayhet asic DEFINITIONS Mr gai (owe prince of proper ome net getic mt weapons a lO ae Ghee pte at hc sow ate ye ame, ct as Sc eileen We eer et can oa Passive Nines networks sonnegaie foray a pen between 2930 al Tees i tbe ep weet or rpane oe neh ont en ents, et to ig, uh Lorem suit tener tothe eon it a ee ad eng oe te ear en extn FP ir we he pols of extain nd ed the relaonship bee vo, Rats pwsive nae Nets es of ie an ap te 28 e190, Spplsand syns 7 eh, Expo ig hich are shown ia Fig. 19, Note tht the dumped snaold as an {eponenial envelope dey, ae Ta Fig. 9, the phasor shown wih 2 poutine el component ovo 9" Therefore asthe parr spins, fe ampitade ofthe rel and imginacy parts Increase exponentially vith an envelope Ae™, as shown by im 8 Fig 1.10. rom ths Gesuson, is apparent tha he genera idl signal } St = Ae ay reribes the growth nd dey ofthe amples in ion to angular Frequency in the uel sence When 6 theaireoiundemped and ‘when = 0 the signa rae exponential sgos) Si) = ae 9 seshownin Fig 11. Finally io = fo ~ 0, thon thesia ica constant Thus we seth versal) of «comple queasy desription 3 NETWORK ANALYSIS As mentioned befor, the charetration ofthe eelton and response signs tne a regency motes up ony part of he aay prob “The othr part coasts of haracteraing the network tl fates of Lie sn frequsty, and Stermining ho the network besa gm proceset. Leu tim ou attention now to abril study ofthe properties | Sine actos sod the general characterises of sigalprossag by ‘ipa system, | Sgn and stems 9 aT cexcation and response remsios the same, Thus must be te fOr any ‘hoe of pol of exstaton and espns Causal | ‘eray a ysem cot response is nontipstory, i f a0 ter ‘ j ten nono ter oo note word, a sytem is eau befor an excitation s applied a Pr shermponse efor 05 <<. “Time invariant Acsysem tne twaron ifett)> implies that ae T) re), vwhece the symbol = mane "pierre to.” To ndetand the coactt ff ime invariance in linear system, lt ws suppose that ily the | exttion i lttogoad at =O whic gies ae to a response (0) TE the exciton were ntoduced nt 1 ~ 7, if the shape ofthe response. raver were the same asin the fe eat, but ety by a time T (ig, LID, hen we could sy tho ute ie inva Aoter Way ff looking a thi esocept trough the fac that telavacians syste: ‘ontin only elements that do nt vary nth Une It shouldbe mentioned dere tat near ste ned no be ne ea Derivative property From the ime davai property we ives te tool) tthe output CF. st (he pat hen i the input were €(,10. Neswork sass and ayethat fe} =r = et} Knee os, Sonepat ne tata ye san drive oe) th esgonta would BT poo! Nhe be rapa recone qui. BY the sin, Comer oc aster 0. Howser tt mataines gyn tiat 4 =e can hen cori tthe ery a nein prope POE ~s ney = bite + = 001 aay og eins ome van) co road comet itatoupa even ntti ssougrenes ied noel of nae systems. THE Sexe some ie seson Th si erties which sake the st ie felling a sys Bet ml poe a Necwerk ans and sybase { 1 itp 0) eee ot (8 ato ota gta 0 Am Bayar attest sate er mr es He nisiainyceceaenmens Theda The enor B ven nh we NG Sor, egress Tee ale teins pe wee srr aes 8) Oe ce pln Fg me have an caf eer The energy sures that caret of eae S000, ons a eal sae up the exstaton fant shown a igs 1-22 and "The polaris ‘Signals and systems 11 1015 pier wo w no, ben 11.18 Foner, 1. Amplifier: ample sales vp the mage of he apt, 10) ha are Kins constant (ig 13) 2 Dire: Th nel inal erent 4 poss eed por down (ip 110, "intr The out he tga of he np, a shown ia Pe lit ‘Te dlayr: ‘The tpt lay by an sous bat eta sae wav shape a the ip (Fg 11 Suppose we tke te transl pls in Fg 119 he inet i ‘Then he uu for each ofthe fur st J ee! ae Sen inFige Lane aod Sane snd stems 13 ol indicate forthe voltage sure and the dieton of flow forthe eurent souce are arbirrly sumed foe reference purposes only AD ial ‘og sours an ent source tt provides as pve port voltage Signal thes independent of te crrent at tbat port. we techn the srord uret™ and volage”in the last efniton, me then define 4 Heal euent source To network ants, the prncpal problem i 10 ind the slationship that eat betncen the cuvents and volar the port ofthe tat ‘Cerin spe yoltageeurent elaonships fo the etor leet fers at defini equations forthe element hemschs. For ample, ‘ben he currents andvollges eexpresed s funn fine, then the sand € cements shown in Fig 1.23, ae define by the equations ay t freee +10 ay want farae or ect OnE fires « mack Pannan Rinne nranenn FIG. () Reston (9) natn (9) Capes14 Newark assis and yh etning the Ry Ly and C elements, shown in Fig, 124 se Ggnotng fil sondage faethe moment) won © ky) Vy=s1I0) oF tonto ve Ly oe yas) Westen th tne domaine whee he independent asin NS SULA tfonpevegnenntersof Seta uo Sele ch tng inthe comple dma vol cra cate cman non cae, more easy ed tn ena stand ptr ae etna me ‘2G: Meneses secs wel eine SOM ‘when ac mn clement he eon dsb Se had te exation EU) ae elt’ byte eqation Ro) = KE) ta ncwork ays, we ae Bien Tomine monk Ouran to deere RO). La NETWORK SYNTHESIS sane to network ‘Wen away intodce sone ft bins gman ar sgn, Imetoe thes Bi ese an ‘Bin 2h and we ae required 0 sy 16 Network sa and sates ne takisto sates a gen eat othe wor in she GR ‘i From’ chur erty ofthe hse abmitane TO) we {Bata puss ston nig erat of stor of | pai wih apertura se F127 “The prt of diving pat sys, shown om te example jt in, cots of ecamposng pen imitans Fenton I Ss icobe part (chs 344) Before we proceed wih he ‘echens rocaton, ne mex at etme whee the tor {retebliny can be thse fees f pote resin, Ted cpucancr” cl be shown tha eile rg sina gto ec nov site Sinn pr: funcons Pom th popes of ps opin we cen 8 {ven diviag point function fr realeabiiy. (The Appendices present ¢ Shor inodicton to comply arabes wl as te root of soe Ceremsn poveafincins) Waa Rowe of pe. ets sreten po onto eaine spc rion funcons. Thee nde Tenn when bees wihawo ino omens onthe LC, Rand ens. "Het we prot ote eth of wane anions. Aceoning to sie IRE Sapdarde on paste Umar str» ron foton ot {Poutanen octon for ih he vas are ee (Stren por There toe any fr frms whe aa fnton tight take For eampl, conde tbe wo pot elwor in Fig 12 Tie cet) and th eoponse Mi) he aster fnaton 8 Inger ingot 249) = On TO) nt ier han it) weet entiation and 7) te sespos then ‘re mold have slope tae fson 1 M765 am re) aay) a iatreonnecton of nar eit yi ast or toe ation HS) 019 ad we ca obtain HC) iret ft Signals and systems 15 e135 sori nt syst fenton Hy = 2 ar) Since Re) an EO) re voltages or cures thn A) denoted geeraly Shan dvmione st fy en volage and BU) is a ecren, oe Ve eat 1 decing pos inmiance 5 defined to Be faction Yor Wich te “abe ae measured ae sme port. Thx dein pol! mpednce Zo aea given port he unstion 2)=¥0 OT) where th exitaton it a aren 9) and te eiponse isa yng 1 as ‘Shown in Fig, 1.25. When we rchaage the word “curet™ ad ‘Nolen east eniton, we then Dave dings admtance, ‘Am example of ving impedance he network In Fig 123, where a 29-78 [Now suppose the resistor n Fig. 28 were enone ina “lack box.” We nae no acre to thi ck Bon, ekept at tetera 1-130 Fg | 126-"Our task is to determine the networkin the Back box. Suppose we di pen the ifortion tht, for 4 given exction Te) the lage spams PG) is proportional 70) By te uation 9) = KI) 20) [An obvious solution, thovgh not unig, i tha he ntyork consi of (ay cg) a9) Fesior ef value R= Ke Suppose net tht the eration I og Vi thc eopose a cutee) and os ID a 4a _ vo TIRE Bandi on Csi “Linar Pie Notions” Pac IRE A No. 8 (sep ina, ori Hae 20 Signlsandsytams 17 1.120. Lt apa sion or wp he [As for ding-pointfanctions, thee ae eetin properties which = tera funtion must ay it order to Berea We shall ty these reaeaby conditions bd then poss! Toth stesso 01 simple rte fontons| “he most important aspect of antec Fnction sya fiter de. ‘ter defined sea ae0rk which pase eran portion oft te ‘uso sper and bloks the renin ofthe secre. hy the tern ‘Rocking we imply tat the mogatag response [ofthe fei approuitely zero for tt Sequenay range THs, a igeallsepast ier ea noivork wich passer al regents vp toa cof fequeny ‘cand bog al fequenier above wg, shown in Fig 72. “Ge aspet fit design to sate the network othe taser function HO) The other aspect cl withthe problem of obtaining 3 ‘sible transite H) ven the seston of, fr exare ‘magne charatriaticin Fg. 129. Thepartothe rye generally ered 0 asthe approcimation problem. Why the Word “appre Inalon?”Besiuse egutee responce characteris of tbe RL nd C Clement ar continuous (with the etepion of Holate€ pat ealed eonance poi) x network conning these ements anno be cade? fat of aeuply tpn Fig 129. Tne, mec elie lovey ters Sich have th pnt characteris of Fig. 130. Incomnection with as a i 6,130, Rane le rae18 Neswork aly and spate fs magutae the rds probes, we wil Gc cern res ia magne a nor ts mSiing «er, we dea cee wel Oscunansc = Haesiteadotpractcl Serer ener exam R= 5000 ohms ad C = 2 pis GET ae wet ye mt oe se Pees ee a wtomed ito gph and pus tad and See thes “The mathenatal bas of th etd i let re range. Foe aes of alysis and sisi in which the ee bn rs ena of pone ater hh cee ne re Wel amin x power mates poperis of Tote nts wing sean parameters, sich desrib int {St veecedpover ofthe nte a oes ia Cate swe wl ean bone ofthe many fhe sp cone eu sg and design aon 1 8 ree ey ote tld vi ako my some specie computer Ropuinen cro al Problems 1 Draw thie pect or te la 5) esa -g) ose woesin(eod 112 Fin he rsponse fo the estaton so. sampler aloe eer kisctons whee EO in Draw he rapone 0 51 S26 1. Fd he ropons othe encanto inthe igure when he stork saleban ie ittonimor 0) a8 ts er “ 4 ihe sytem eton ofa neta gen at WO ITD, chapter 2 Signals and waveforms ‘our main concern inthis chapter isthe characteiation of sgl fuscons at tine, tw previous studies we have dealt wil d- signal Gaara Constant wih time, oe as signal whieh ware shusids of ‘Bett aplde such ss) = An (+O Tenginering pci, ‘Seta of signls encountered substantial broader fn seqpe than Tigges ote sgealo: To atlemgt to character exch member of ‘eas Totardy In view af the almost ifinite variety of signals ‘Reseed tstend, we wil deal only with tow signals hat can be ‘Hetsctreed in simple mathemati es and which serve a ung Sino for lage muse of otersigels. We wlleoneetat on orm Te sna tolt du in dseribing signal athe than del with {Ge pesntaton of spe signals Braue of tne and sce Lint {ios we lever ony spate wbick do ot exhibit random Bebevioe, a igaats whch can be expletly characterized ax fonetions of tim ‘Thue puts ae often refered to a5 derrminte gna. Let ws fst ipo cetain quate aspects of signals pene 1LI GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS 1a this section we will examine certain Sebavir patterns of signa. ‘once tes pater ae estalined, ioscan be ctssed acorn ind some Snplieations rest, The adetves which give & genera ‘uattave desertion fag are era, rmmetrica, nd contin tus dca tho eosin the gen order ‘st signals restr pot or pero. 1a sgl pi hen itis describes bythe equation AQ RMERT) ROI en) < * Sgrale and aytems 19 find he egos A) he entation 2 i, eh inp en fdr pla etek a ® aynssned ® morn 3s © aonegty w-giat a 16. Forthenevork shown, yt te msheuaioain test ie ations) the Splen egny sales ay bk 1.7 Fortin ework show, witha oqton interme lea egtion aod) compote fon I SUP nat lth pene sca ag Signs and waveorms 21 “ 1621. Sqn ae where Ts the prod ofthe pal. The sine wane, sine pera with Jeiod T= er Another example of prodigal is Ne pure nave ren in Fig 2. On the eter hand, he sigs ven ie Pig 22 ae ‘pedi, cause the ple patter do no eps ars ein fle imermal 7, Alternative, thee signal ay be coniered “pvc” th afte perio. ‘Net conider the symmetry properties of signal. The key adjectives hers er nd oh tga con cn tte odo ater ‘As oven function obey the reation onan 22 = a9) ey For example, the function in 6 od, wheres co 1 even, The sa isin Fi. 220 seven, whereas the wage pu is od (Fig. 225) ‘Observe tt signal eed not beeen or odd. Two example of Spnas ct thirtype ae abown in ge 230 and 2a, Ie is sean 1 noe however hat any signa) canbe reed into en even compoacat 40) nd an o¢d component) such tat 2) = 54004549 0 For exampl, the signals in Figs. 2.30 and 242 can be decomposed into ‘0d and even componets, as india in Figs 2.3, 2.3, 248, and 2 Foran ot ution = wo) ft. Jh. o o 110.22.) fv finn. () 08 ft,Vii 12 Necwork ans and aythet 0) o “ © Gat and ye npn, Sega nese 0 np oO pa (ovat oep finn) Pen pt of wat ep. 0) OST oaee From Bg. 24 we obevve that sepea-otsl-9 =H —640 © Cconseqety, the od and eves psf he igen e expres at 240 = 30) +401 co 340 = 106) = 4-9) Coos the sigs), sown ia ig.250, The fonction (sega swt) nace seul he Fo bata een nig 23k. Wess Shah nb and) as howa ln igs Bean espe 24 Necwork analysand spabee rat Spa ih acini 0+) 208 f0-) ae 04) = lin 0) ey 40-) in f-0 orensmpl the quae pulse in Fig. 2.7 ha ewe dsontnti, at 7 08 Tye Height ofthe acon 8 7, ar) -Mh = e109 Simul, the height ofthe continuity at 758 —K: 112 GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SiGNALS hn tselon we connie vain ine domain cin of ems ren ape meringy othe fog tes He ve ae, raed nd retfat, The ee Ce ena nets the tng ‘Sin dist oy geo sero. Tree Sema eons portant to now Bow hy ees Gee mest ofthe dey of an exponenal the Wi eton Consider th expos waveform eseibed by Wo= Ke) ew From a plot of in Fig, 28, wee that when € = T aTp= O03) en ‘Aso 161) = 0020) ey Signals an waveforms 23 “ “s 4 y ° @ 110.28. Drsipocion in da cnc fom A 48 = Now let ut tn our ateaton £9 the contnty property of eg consider thesgnlshowninFip 24 A = Ty the ipa dicots ‘The hig of he discontiniy S74) ~f(~)m A en whee sre) One) JT) = hiner) ee od «i a reat pove guantiy. 25 panto, we ae conraed with iomtnetis the negaborhood of t= 0, From Hg. 26, the pots my Signlsand wavelorme 25 ‘were that he legs the tine constant, the Longer it euites forthe seaveform to reich 377 of is peak value. In dec analysis, common fie constants ae the factors RC a0 RI RMS Value “Therm 070! mua sare value of period waveform ai defined em = [20a] ew whee isthe pio, Ite waveform no erotic the try ems does otapply. Asan example, et us cleat the ms volag fr the perioie ro EL eft estat leg =viBbay ea Bec Value ‘The de rl of «waveform has meaning oly when the waveform rid. Tei th average value of the Waveform over one pe “ suo tfena en26 Network amass and ayes “0 eas Peta warm ‘The square wave in Fig. 21 Bas eo value, wheress he waveform in Fig 29 ea dovalr of wuen tft 47] --4 en Dun Fle sini othe rat ofthe tie duration ofthe pn aye arr to te pet, That =f 235) mp su win becomes iors in dealing wih WINE i fe Fig, 210, whee ox ofthe ery 6 ft The ane vlogs of he waveform “The day gel of rms a the type show ‘tated in neTow pole of nrg 21058 ee em= (fea) ew =A wp | HW { 7 2, ree wir hs ay 28 Neewrk ans and syntes Since cet factor CF = en 8 ae cra atta einer) 029) Vi Focenumple it D= 75: ore on c= Vino =T = 100 a2 ore abe ed ncn ems aes of ae era ier from sinisois i parc, gas wih Ser te oe ta he olen vale feet tr Geer fo the nan vale of D, tat, Daa = 0 (Chgy = VB a= 1 ‘Avolimatr with high ss ft ex) a THE STEP FUNCTION AND ASSOCIATED WAVEFORMS, The uit step feeton af shown in Fig. 2.12 defied 8 wao 6<0 =i 120 xiaton oresponds toa switch $, ‘Etutryof Iveta given ciel, fo whenever the en “The psi! analogy of wit ep trick coper tr = Dad connect inven in Fig 213, Note tat the wit slep is 20 0 Signe anéwavelorme 27 em i sr nal ye ‘We ce thatthe salle the duty eee the smaller the ems vote, The re raven Fig, 21 fas a 307 day yee crest factor (Cras factor i fed a the ratio ofthe pak voge ofa period srveorn oth tn vale (wth the dccomponentreoved). EX, {orany waveform wih roe suck a5 the one shown in Pip 2.11-—-crest factor, Chis eld a ea whichever greater, For the waveform i Fig. 21, the geaktorpes {olape defined a conte ean Since te wavefora a rove 1) em be, aa taP 2 a ea eal =D) e9 ra alate wari (t= pins eaters)" T 225 B=) SG faa, Spits ov Pca Jura 5 NaS ia ey Spas and warorre 29 “) Fa. Suse pale argument (1) wtia the parentheses negative, and is unity when the Sime 9 genes than mo Tha te Ft o~ 3h ee SPO Reet nano t T, that is, sane shape 5/0) $9) =f = 41) es, se desiaive (D4 the S=LWOE AMD oa) “the fotowingenample iste th pont mre cay. Fg, 2304 fhe fonction f= f= Ame) Akt ~ 8) as) edesvativeis P= AME) ABE 8) es pm cand angissown in Fig 2310, Site (Qhastwo dco sachsen Fe eiaetnpes tos pons. Tactic of feeapae cuts bin neatve Boae p= 70-)=-4 a9 i | Tt | + : gems mie Bui 40 Necwork aaa and synthesis so cone ext the case where) ‘wads ovr tention to the tg Froar-naensen om wih ool in i xe EF ne wi fom Bal prota ene. open of hs a oe uncton i) soning atc of aed mh Petits apie he fnlon ee tOrRAFEDS ay tn ne iis ode Geos Oe nt em ac emp by the fnton (0 iF 228 ‘Asa stcond example, comer the function (shown in Fig, 2.320 we obain (by pectin, and note thatthe continuity a = prodsces the impulse lag) of ren aye ow 2 gyfer pee [rom —naresen os This tgs eatly vaunted if we consider that 4 — 7) = 0 for at PAT. Texto the product ose n=0 sear om using t= (ot on ia ec nf’ ae ma=09 om Figure 239 shows f() at 3 ~ 7), where 0 continuous a = JU bas icnatnaty a! = 7, the integral [rom—ne [sot defined because the value off) i not uniguly gen. Consier the following examples, Euampte 21 fone [lee = ri =e am | pte 22 fo msinr [len ie-& am my eon | w | (1) he derive off) elute at 1 = T whee, again, we smethat/()scontasous, Equion 2.74eua be proved by ltezton types Ts, fiom na=ro4—n] [Lrom—na ay ean be shown in genera that [Lroee nao eoyen 276) wher 3 and denote mt derivatives, The igherorder dviratives of ‘Kojcan be evaluated ins fashion. Problems 2.1. Rese the wavfores inthe gre it a nd een componst | Te ee imp Tae AO ek re “ REIS are nout ooops te an oe ae amon fa ues ea 236 seer rohan leds nee 1, J Th [roe em | N ‘hae siicnt propyobedsb ; 5 . “1 7 98-942 FO am a " | | 5Signals and waveforms 43. 445. Foc the waveform (shows a the Sur, terns what vale K sez Newer anaes and seth st the Re sig sie ma Forte sertns Oo “jd =o [yee ‘ rotenone ey 1 | seesaom aninri=e a— 0 /00)7010 J foe oS ‘ | steiner an) ts a pros.23 @ Ye -1-0) o He) 28) sc otinewaefore no, 22 an siete equations © [isow-0 Lath ep endo tp neon Sf gen ine ig sk cal 28 the wasn ine figures net os jonhe-o 050s fox vabye of t > T- ~ 0, eaewbere ee ‘Show that as « +0, (9) becomes & unit impale, ‘0 m4 ‘ } ton3enot So The fagueney domain: Fourier arable 47 ofits harmon tems, eye by “Theve coef son State a feguney domain densi o th egal. Ow atk now Io Serie the equations forthe cota, in term ofthe pve signal Fanetion s) Let ws fst sus the mathemati bass of Four sees, the theory of orthogonal st chapter 3 32 ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS ‘Conse ny wo ft (and) a ae tently The frequency domain: nseir Fourier analysis [Paosoa wen ht 0 af) at report oe he intra Ta, For ‘Sample the fnadons ht and eat are orton vet ental Seer tat hin, Comte wat tt of al none Gi, Bion SA. He anctons obey the oaton oa ‘neat neon ce of penne ei nef WoMoenn is 09 a eee ae en if ae iy ett (frm toga tt tar 7 Ta seen ae G2) Bea eter densted by the tne prc bu). Poe camer ves tee nasa ctin eis diay. ore ge aa tl a ies rests hua Stag Tt fj roomed oe ea nde Gu$=0 ins [ov : is ao oe aaa eal ss en ene Loe iaek on gramatact tarda =((Paroa) an sir Tuscon np eo te “Th norm ofan clement in test) defined as ‘We can normale any erthogoust st (Pd) by dvdng eh Yate vr Incompac fo, te Fours ee term by enor A “vs ramp 34, Tie Lagu st? wich as en sows to be ey fl a HoH M+ Steerer + besinna 03) ENT ein ge Te a fem tht, when) expanded in ® | “VAL kaa “ri Sys he Te Doin” ou Ron Ct 1 is apparent fom Egg 32 and 3.3.4 Font sre, we cin dace (0) comple spinnin ofthe cotiients | Thay, ray 3 3 eg 8 9%48 Network analysis and synthesis tte Lapis ae Annet 44) <= 109) a =~ 267 os yt tr ata Toso ah org re eg [onus [emu ar szune on We 1 fee m4 t 2 Thy of oun =10-+@) 6] -« Mesa ot oan han tan = (flea) aun tal=([feen sen swena va 1 ot it ey that he noe of al be amet i the eae alo cualtoU/V 2s, Terr ede the Lage set eonomal, we ie ech ent 4 by IV 33 APPROXIMATION USING ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS. this section we explore some of he user of eethogooa ontions in the linear approximation of functions. The pica problem ra of ppeoninting fonction /() by a sequence ef seins) sinh hat tbe mom suaederor ox) % Since the st (6) is ontbonormay, [4 1 and by deliton, y= eg. Weebus have Network ane and eythane ost ow ‘Adaing and sbtecting $c gives ys =tt 2S 96,4 Sots Zot - 3: een ow mintedosat $e coefficients of f(t) with respect to the orthonormal set ($,(1)} Parseval’s equality (Comer /() pen in Ba. 3.18, Wesce that PusoranSe om since fare orthonormal fenctons. This res is known as Pascal's ‘quay, apis important in Seteining the energy of «psoas 34 FOURIER SERIES ‘Lett nur to the Fourie seis a eine ear inti chapter, (y= + Ze, con not + bein ma) @20 = B+ 300 sin mt ° From our cussion of approsination by ohononmal futons, we ean tes that he prod function with etod T ean be approximated by & Fourier series) sch tha (converges in the ea 04) tha, 9 — sor d+ where #8 agy ret mamber. We know, moreover, tht im sini, te Ineanagutederor [0 ~ a) minimised whe the constants 2, Ave the Fours coutcients of) with espet to the orionoemal se for kot sin kal ma aa 02 ‘The fequeney domain: Fourier anaes 49 1 When Eq 213i said, we ay tat (0) concerge the mean to 0. “To examine the concept of convergence in the meen more cosy, we mast fist conser the flowing deteons Definition 21 Given a function) and constant p> Ofor which [ora ce se sy that (0) erable LF br (3, Ty, and we write FOYE L? in i Baton 32, WADE LPi6 I, Fy a8 Osa sqvenceot a tons integrable 2 (eT wey ar Vesey tw [10 sae shen fi) converge ate mean xe pt), Spel, when eta ha 0) coomsge a hemeen Of “he principle of lat squares Nov ews cone thease wen consis of alin combination ot nboromslfncions fone, so~ 40 oy) | ox ton 0 dee te mtn 6b te ag squared error wt vant-fu0-nore as 4s minim. The prinple of lat sures ates that in ode 0 ato ‘minim squared eo, te constants tat have the values w= Pro wow Pref Westalshow hat ioe — 8 bein, we Must set a, = ¢, for every im 1,2,...,7. ie 616) UAL = CD 2G) + oS) muyir=ab ean p+ Seriar “The requene domain: Forer analyst Incxplc fom te Fourier coeicents,asording to the dfn given te, ae obi for the equations 3 [40H om an} [anenea ox na2 [osm oa Wie sould not tha because the Fourie seve) oly converge to 0) the mewn, soi 8p dt, fer ae steele) 625) AL any point hat 4) is diferentible (hot a 214i) converge to 0)" ‘Asan example us determine the Foutercoetieas of the fll rected se wave in Figs 31. Ae we observe, he pried is T= 39 {atthe fundamental Foguency iv = 2. ‘The signals gen a8 (= Aline on and ealate tween O and Using he forma jst iy continuous) Lets ates eves, we Bae a2 fownan oa oa) o30) SE IEE Da Poe Sn at rer! cn At nt52 Newyork naa and pres “Thus te Four series f he etd ine wa is nS i3 ao) oy 35 EVALUATION OF FOURIER COEFFICIENTS a thissection we wl consider oer wef foes of Fourie: srs adam wel Grannies otis inte eet UE'Pouer moeients Fiat, et us examine how the evalunon of fix iosimpied by syne considerations. From Ege 325-323 ‘Sich pve the poral frre forthe Fouiercetisients ts tae TELET ana apeseat te ner as the som of to sepa PL that, aca 2[fPiosenars[t Orme] sen 2[[Posnnears [osname] ‘Sine the variable (i the above tera i arin varia wt sobltates = Fin theater wats (0; 72) and etx = Hints Sntegils with Kits (~778: 0). Then we bave ox aad [tay + (=a) cos nom de 2 [Mun-e4a os) 2 [Mao acntan nae Suppose now the futons hats) = =~ then we see tt Berries sad [esa monde 06 ‘hinges a ft ob Friesen il otal only sine ano ote bass spose the fnton ee, 3G) Siti tient ane gat [coments 39) wk [a Cconseqeetly, the Fourier series ofa even funtion wit contain only 54 Nework ara and yah 10-34 ve funtion one tems 2 04 nie ms ey. (2) Silas eyes nd oan em We can derive he form of the Fourite cosine series by setting = C088, eo») ane ea O80 can) We then obisn Cady interes ofa, and By a6 cater 80" oF? ean, ur( we combine the cosine and sine terms ofeach barmoicin the aii set, eral obtain fom Eq 338-1 the Fourie cosine sis $0) = Gy Cou (ot + 8) + C008 204 FB) 4 CyeosCGot +0) 4°77 + Cyeos ot #0) 2° GAD) ‘The frequency domain: Fourier analysis 53 Spps nes hanson A) oth ton (ia 2)=—19 00 2 gen by the example in Fig, 2. Then we on show tat) contlas ‘ony odd Ramon ens, that ad oan teat [Peovnnert, nat With this koowldg of sync conto eine how we canappronnato as array tine ftir by «Four see wis ssinlenal 7 Ove th inane Posner sn (0) 08 fequte to). Conder the ig ) ng 3.3. We ct appro sins yay oe pide ion ig St Cee ‘Now econ wo ether selfs of Fou sis Theis rte Freese tres wich sted upon te genome Hey, Cyeot aor + 89) 35 cos 050, — Cy sia Sin 1133 palo be apie ‘The frequency domain: Fourier aay S$ shouldbe noted tat he eetiiens Carsales ob posite, bomever tem suc at 3 cor at eri a egaive sgy then we ct the the oquialent oor “cos 2at = 3c08 ot +2) oa orem the Fore: ses fhe lyri se wae Fg 3 o-M(u3 gem) ow sess a a Foon ri, di soa fiZ 2 reowso] os Next we consider the complex farm of Fourie series, I we exe corn nd nt of compe expen he he Fue 046 oan the te comple oo te Fourie si i 5 = Bet 30.0 + 8 = (4s) ~ Ene Wecan ren expres the cect 9 af ft of se ee HA ffeoeonat—siomna 04 1 Faoema yon 249 sometines led te dete Ferran of 40 ‘and Eq, 3.48 isthe inverse transform of flaw) =, " 0Sh Network amass and oyhas 110.28, Alte sre 1a. 34 Sac ae Network anal and sche ! to, 10.32. piers of orem Amp. (Fane Simpliyng on ep ferter, we obtain be im Ot on “The amplitude ad phase spectra af the gure wave ae given Fig 37, 1 EVALUATION OF FOURIER COEFFICIENTS USING UNF IMPULSES: / Ia his section we make use ofa base propery f impulse fenton o simpy te enelation of complex Fourier cect. This metho is tetrad to ontions which we made up of strain components onl. ‘Thus the method applies forthe aguare wave nF, 3.6. The moethod is hued onthe relation [Lron—me=se9 Le ot we this equation to eat the comple Four cote for Westie ri 3a Using Bg 3808/0) = 25 weave 69) oso) Joma deme “The frequency domain: Fourier analysis $7 (Ober that fe wal complex and can be repre ae Inomfcssint ow ‘amipuethe afc iouamaten 4300 nie! furan 089 tmp, = =! (70 sin nod f= Zffiosom a9 Wis elear that Rep sam eve anton ia m wheres Im 2 am od fuacton iam. The ample peu ofthe Fou sie is deed a8 Vaal = Reta + tmp, asp the phase spectros ined as ssotn BBs as aaa oso) ‘kis esl seen that he amplitude specu fan evn funtion andthe ue spetam iano feetonn The amp pest pro ‘Dit alae iat ato nhs nae ees ed ‘alata a good approsinaon othe ong waveform, From pot of the ampltade spectrom, meen smo pc ot by specton te om trial rms inthe ee Forth ample ps nF 33 ee thats god aprotic canbe Oban ie rgd my hemo stove he wid me ‘Avan eae, let vt abtain the complex Four cet forth square vein Fig. 16. Let rae fi he ample nd pte pects (Tin ure wane. From Fg 26, went ht) ian 0 fen Moreover, soe At — 712) = ~s) the series hat eno harmon. From By 340 we ota he cuca of he comp Furs st : jot" + » Bu Ang = 20 4m) G36) Fae ‘The equeney domala: Fourier saya 99 tay We se that the complex Fourier coef for imple function ae sind by simply subaiting the tine at which the mpais occur ito the exprention the evaluation of Fourier coeficents, we must remember that the tits forthe By intpral ce taken ver one period nly, we consi nya single pei ofthe sigan heats Comsder, an eagle, the square wave In Fig, 36. To evaluate fy we consider only a singe Prviod ofthe guaran, fom # = Ot PETasshownintig 392 Sincethesquare M0 twne ie not made up of imply, It ws Cierentite the siege period ofthe square eave to pve #(), shown in ig. 3198. We © Snow erate the complex Fousiereaet- f° [FF ‘Sets foe derivative 7), whi leary taade up of inpales alone Analytical ois gene © winS pom mn then the deviate oF 8 tg stom Znoner 069 Mer we dese vacwxapecatier YP rahmh 08) 7 he om | Xe de #10) con ie i consis of impale corsponents aloe, tea Wwe sinply evaluat yy Ast and thes obtain Blom Bq 36. For example, the decvtve tf the oguie wave yee the imple tin 10.29.) Sune wae er pie TT De reninin Fig, 994. Inthe terval (0,7), the sina (38 ven Neco aralas nd sytheis Ap 2481-2) + Ade (3.64) nomaKy-2i—Z)+ase—n ee np ite nad [eee Hh 3.65) ‘ee ei of eg ea a wo a dysentery ‘which checks with the slain obtained nthe standard way in Eq, 255 ifthe fast devrative, (0, doc aot conminimpulies, then we must cafereniate aga Yield co= 30 om where A, jr (no Ba oe For the tiangula pl in Fig. 210 the second derivative over the pei (0,715 “eae fen adi—Z}sm-n] 0m | “The coefficients A, are now obtained as | eho os 7 tote em 2 Necwork ama nd eyes secon therefore oleate doublet reve higher derivatives of impais Jn sais Condes the signal oC given in Fig. 3.1, Is eatin Sly shown io ig AID a be expres 3s woe dfoo—vfe~2)] #00240 dae on ei cn ef ngs okt or) 0-300] eoo-2-J) 07 ao k [emer on ‘The raquaney domain: Fourer arses 6 rom 4 we obila on A sgh iteuy arises if the expression for 4) contains an inpulse in addon to other staighine teams. cau of thse sige fesms we must ifeentiate once more. However, fom thi sont) sieratition, we obtain the deivatve of the impulse as well This esenis no dz, however, because we hnow that {levae—=-« ory oan flsueneme om Tete domi fori 8 ‘icmp i nto eda . ‘ a ’ a 1 G78) sagt eomen a taro ‘ voit : om In conetson itt be pointed out thatthe meted of sng implies to alae Four cofisents dacs not pve he de cee, 20 Be ‘We obtsia this coesient trough standard methods agen by Ha. 3.23 27 THE FOURIER INTEGRAL In this seton we extend our soli of signal tothe apevade cate. ‘Wersow though split argument tat geal spenoae gals ‘avecontavour amplitude and phase spectra, Inooriusson of Founer {tts the compler coef fy for poe signals wa la ald he ‘dure Fourier rom isan om sn in tr = 5 pea a Gan From the disrcte Fourier transform we obtin ample and phase festa which consi of dre lines. The spacing betwee cet ies inte spectrum is afm oo th om ‘Ar the period T becomes age, he pasa betwen the harmonies in the spectram become salle” For speioic signa, we et Pappa laity so that inthe Hint the date spetrum becomes ntinca,Gh Nework ara and sates ene dfn the Fowler mera ot trasorm Panera ox) “The inves trasform is so= [sunray ex 13m) and 384 ar somes ale he Fre ofr Par uations 35 2 pein For susan and 9-4 sin=o-40 aso s)= FP) outro 5) cps a ca’ ene 8 ner te Fo : " sip= Resp 4/195) a8 -rne sen prof SU) bane rough ie Frm si)= Hs + 9D Res) = USD _ icon2aft andthe nape pat hou 1 os msi = E18) -D insipe 3 ) won = [aon oe anpitde pcr of Ss eed at en nes IMS os svsvmpiest sn «oo HD) = me a the Fou aso, te ‘ing temple nd phe dfn of abe ttarm cna be cores 8 x0~ [Anes ah = HOE ean), et ws examine one xm ce Neon at nd yt feu tere ton ay : r a } 0 ond Ste eae . tte “a wanin Tenge | Mena cree ro, 2 mate fe poy ftp fee ie dion ‘The frequency domain: Fourier ansips 65. 1.41%, Anis at pe pm of At =. AK 10 sip = [Adenoma denen oo sangha pee is ee ee, aOn4 ax a = 99) shown Fig 42. ample 33, Nest comer tbe ranger fneon plot ia Fig. 313 Formal, we see tention eth et fneon wt we = a9 a wt ‘ete nai et te ae pea Si one - [re nap 099) —n eas as teense eee ea a ene ee ere Sees etitrenasinie, amie SaEeee “The frequency domains Fourer anes 67 From the plot of snc in Fig, 2.4 we te that si ls des" with ares at = mF, m2, 3,."+ We ao note that ost of Ye oegy ofthe sige ie coacutrted Between he ole 1) <0 Lats ete the ne duro of 8 gl at thst poi Deon wh ‘the amplitude never greater tha 2 seced vale, for era We ‘hs ellectveyregad th tine duration ofthe sine funtion 4 = 21), ‘The value WF, a we se from Fig. 313, 5 the spec Bando of the fest fonotion | We sce tat sf faces, decrees, The Pesding ‘Soop illostates the releealrationip Between te ne Corton ha signal and te sexta Candldih of ts Fowre rast TRS onept i quite fundamental It iustats yin pole tranemislon, ‘row polos, i, thove wit smal time duration, can ot be rane. ited through irs wit eae bands, wherens pulses ith longer tie dueatins do not rege such wide Bandwidth, 36 Istted Ia Pip 35, Tn this wetion we conde some important properties of Fourier seandore, ™ Linearity “The linearity property of Fourier transforms sates thatthe Fosse transfor fs of te signal the su of tar nda Fourier transforms, that is es(0 + 6440 Diflereniatio “This property states thatthe Four tanform ofthe deivaive of signal tte tes the Fourie teasform ofthe sgl sl FO =f 699 F 5) = (PHN 99) “The proofs obtained by taking the derivative ofboth sds of he averse teastonn deliton, aSD+asiN — 9) or mote general, £[ scnemnay wt oft prsnena 01098 Newwork anal and ethos ows that the trastorm of he tga of 0) i s[f_woe]=ggan- om Si, 8 easly ‘Consider the following ea = eH) or) ts Fourie tensor i sne[Leruoeta <1 -—— at Heo at pinf e+ iS G.105) FEET ay props of Fou transforms sites that “ ov “This pope fellows Sel fom the symetical mature of 8 Foie ‘cantor pir ia Eas. 389 and 388 ample 34, om he essing selon, we how hat sinc = 1h 0109 14s ten singe show hat Forte nef) ae a0) sec conforms the saeco te ayy ropa Cons et Wie em ofthe unt nb, 7-88) = 1 rom th smey prsessress ore ap eno sxsw in £6, 36, Th foraging earl ea a exten Fe eS oa nad beth spots sdatlombp, Tay tl 20 of te tin sr oft banat In the egarcy Gos vi a etg0/coespnds one ie drain. 70. Neer sma and yates “The proot flows dell from the dition ofthe Four astm. ‘Anccample aew-n=-a aun teu age ¢ Per he ely ae dlayed by an amount inthe tie dai, the ome anesthe tguecy domain to mali etantor be Ratayedsgnl by "7% ati Fue = 101 = MS) or) For exam ‘en neti 619) Moanin TeMnhaion or fraiecy shift property of Four wansfoons sot ita Four aso shied i ngeney by an 00 fe ae tea nd eect tine i deseobed by multiplying We orginal SSaaney em tha mis fol= es e129) Exampt 25. Given Si) jn Fig 31a Ht ld the iene van of Siting 3b eso) = FEU We know tat Sip = sf +51 + 10 om wt ia o 10.317 Deis of ptt mda, 10216 Four tao ff0)= 10 Seale change ‘The wtoennege property deeibes the Simedurtion and. Randwidth fenjeoiy wtonbip Te states that 5 [{2)] -iisen ean pla Me ove hp sa egh e re a Pesen= nif sonra 0x asia oi hen Fal sir91 = laf” sipyeree 0 ox ‘Asan example, consider “ uy = . MeO Bee au shen stetwo) = itl (MO) el F eas a ou hase iar Feng ope state ot Ft oun “The frequency domain: Fouret amas 71 Then FAS mela) HERMAN erKDexeDel CLE) ‘esr ingly nt veto Sorat stn fe feon svt af suas SERS tp pena oe cy oye Parsevas theorem ‘impr thar wich ets coy the sean ees dtomine Pare theorem, which sae hat esieay [o woaar [scsi ‘anny ‘he prot hl ey gy foes [lxosinara [nal sinetar Sr ee [Lsosene In partis, when (9 — 540, we have cola of Parieva Known as Placer core. [Leen [sure ons 1F 0 sequal to the cute tug or the voltage Aeros a reso, the total ear ohm [ava We sce from Eg 5125 thatthe tal energy alo equal tothe area under the euve of ({/) Thus [SI is sometines called an energy deny or enry spec, Problems BL Show thatthe st (i