REG 2021 - WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN BUILDINGS

UNIT 3
DRAINAGE AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT

NOTES PREPARED BY:

Ar. Manju Maathavan
MEASI Academy Of Architecture
DRAINAGE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT

Storm water drains at city level.

Types of pipe.

Storm water gutter.

Drainage systems in small building/campus.

Roof drainage.

Rain water harvesting and storage sumps.

Solid waste- types, segregation and refuse

collection.

Disposal - Incinerator, composting, vermi-

composting, sanitary land Filling, bio gas
system, modern renewable energy system.
STORMWATER DRAINAGE
SYSTEMS
STORM DRAINS
 WHAT IS A STORM DRAIN?

• Drains in the ground that conduct water that collects

during and after rain and snow storms on streets and
sidewalks to other locations to reduce puddling and
flooding.

• In Berea, our storm drains are directed into the East

Branch of the Rocky River and eventually flow into
Lake Erie.
 STORM DRAIN POLLUTION

• Our biggest water quality problems don’t

come from a discharge pipe. They come from
stormwater washing off the land—roads and
rooftops, lawns and construction sites,
parking lots and driveways.

• The problems include the flooding volumes

of water that flow off the hard, impervious
surfaces of our urban and suburban
landscapes, as well as all the pollutants that
are washed off these surfaces.
WHAT SHOULD GO DOWN A STORM DRAIN?

Stormwater, of course!
VARIOUS STYLES OF STORM DRAINS
WHAT SHOULD GO DOWN A SANITARY SEWER?

• Human waste
• Dishwater
• Laundry water
• Reasonable garbage disposal
waste
• Bath water
COMBINED STORM DRAINS & SANITARY SEWERS –
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS

Storm drain on top of sanitary sewer. Notice there is

no top to the sanitary sewer.

Storm Drain

Sanitary Sewer
RAIN WATER
HARVESTING
Harvesting System
Broadly rainwater can be harvested for two purposes-

• Storing rainwater for ready use in containers above or below ground ,

• Charged into the soil for withdrawal later (groundwater recharging)

RAIN WATER HARVESTING
TECHNIQUES :
There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.

• Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.

• Recharge to ground water. The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional
techniques and structures used were underground tanks, ponds, check dams,
weirs etc

Recharge to ground water is a new concept of rain water harvesting and the
structures generally used are :-

Pits :- Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer. These are
constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back filled with boulders,
gravels, coarse sand.

• Trenches:- These are constructed when the permeable stram is available at

shallow depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m.
long depending up availability of water. These are back filled with filter materials.

• Dug wells:- Existing dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure and water
should pass through filter media before putting into dug well.
Hand pumps :- The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the
shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass
through filter media before diverting it into hand pumps.

Recharge wells :- Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through
filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells.

Spreading techniques:-
When permeable strata starts from top then this technique is used.
Spread the water in streams by making check dams, bunds, cement plugs,
gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.

Recharge Shafts :- For recharging the shallow aquifer which are located below
clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep
are constructed and back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

Lateral shafts with bore wells :- For recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon
availability of water with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral
shafts is back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
 Reasons of Shortage of
• Water increase
Population
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
(a)Increase in per capita utilization
(b) Less peculation area
• Decrease in surface area of Lakes.
• Deforestation

1
 What is the
solution ?
• Rain water is the ultimate source of fresh
water
• Potential of rain to meet water
demand is tremendous
• Rain water harvesting helps to overcome
water scarcity
• To conserve ground water the aquifers
must be recharged with rain water
• Rain water harvesting is the ultimate
answer
 Why Rain water be
• Toharvested
conserve & augment the storage of
ground water
• To reduce water table depletion
• To improve the quality of ground water
• To arrest sea water intrusion in coastal areas
• To avoid flood & water stagnation in urban
areas

Therefore rain water harvesting is -

• It is the activity of direct collection of rain water,

• Rain water can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into
the ground water aquifer
 Rain Water Harvesting…..

•Rain Water Harvesting RWH- process of collecting,

conveying & storing water from rainfall in an area – for
beneficial use.
• Storage – in tanks, reservoirs, underground storage-
groundwater
• Hydrological Cycle
 Rain Water Harvesting…….
•RWH - yield copious amounts of water. For an
average rainfall of 1,000mm, approximately four million
liters of rainwater can be collected in a year in an acre
of land (4,047 m2), post-evaporation.
•As RWH - neither energy-intensive nor labour -
intensive
•It can be a cost-effective alternative to other water-
accruing methods.
•With the water table falling rapidly, & concrete
surfaces and landfill dumps taking the place of water
bodies, RWH is the most reliable solution for
augmenting groundwater level to attain self-sufficiency
RWH – Methodologies

•Roof Rain Water Harvesting

•Land based Rain Water Harvesting
• Watershed based Rain Water harvesting
For Urban & Industrial Environment –

Roof & Land based RWH may be used in

• Public, Private, Office & Industrial buildings
• Pavements, Lawns, Gardens & other open spaces
 Rain Water Harvesting– Advantages
1.Provides self-sufficiency to water supply
2.Reduces the cost for pumping of ground water ,

3. Provides high quality water, soft and low in minerals

4. Improves the quality of ground water through dilution when recharged,

5. Reduces soil erosion & flooding in urban areas

6.The rooftop rain water harvesting is less expensive & easy to
construct, operate and maintain,

7. In desert, RWH only relief

8. In saline or coastal areas & Islands, rain water provides good
quality water
Appropriate Technology

Water conservation
and groundwater
recharge techniques

Water harvesting
cum supplementary
irrigation techniques
The roof catchment are selectively cleaner when
compared to the ground level catchment

• Losses from roof catchment are minimum

• Built & Maintained by local communities
• No Chemical contamination & only required
filtration
• Available at door step with least cost

Rain water harvesting system-

The typical roof top rain water harvesting system comprises
of – or components -
• Roof catchment
• Gutters
• Down pipe & first flushing pipe
• Filter Unit
• Storage Tank
 Size of Storage
Tank
• Based on
– No. of person in the House hold
– Per capita water requirement
– No. of days for which water is
required

24
 Water available from
Roof
Annual rainfall (in mm) x roof area (in sq. m)
x co- efficient of run off for roof
co-efficient of run off -
GI 0.9
sheet 0.8
Asbesto 0.7
s Tiled 5
Plaster on bricks/ 0.7
Concrete
25
How the problem can be
minimized
1 By providing pipe water system with source
(electric based)
(a)Surface water
(b) Deep tube wells
2 Recharging strata through rainwater
harvesting methods
(No. of villages of lower range concentration
can be decreased)
3 Storing rain water for drinking purpose
(a)In areas where electricity problem is more
(b) In areas where concentration is more
(c)In areas where dependable source is not
available
36
 Advantages of
groundwater:
• There is more ground water than surface water
• Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.
• Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
• Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
• Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
• Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
• Ground water needs little treatment before use.
• Ground water has no turbidity and colour.

• Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower
sanitary
quality surface water.
• Ground water is usually universally available.
• Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.There is no
conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.

• Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.

• Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
• Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.
 INTRODUTION

Basic terms related to solid waste

Sewer:
Sewers are under ground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to points of disposal.

Sewage:
The Liquid waste from a community is called sewage. Sewage is classified into domestic and
non- domestic sewage. The non domestic sewage is classified into industrial, commercial,
institutional and any other sewage that is not domestic.

Sewerage:
The entire system used for collection, treatment and disposal of Liquid waste. This includes
pipes, manholes, and all structures used for the above mentioned purposes.

Garbage :
Garbage is the waste produced daily in our homes. It includes different waste like vegetable
peels, chemical substances, polythenes, paper, metals, etc. Sometimes, it is also referred to
as wet waste. These waste is usually of organic nature and biodegradable meaning it
decomposes quickly.

Sullage ;
Kitchen wastes, bathroom wastes, waste water from house which does create smell.

Storm water:
Waste Rain water .
Basic terms related to solid waste

1.Ash : the non-combustible solid by-products of incineration or other burning process.

2.Bulky waste: large wastes such as appliances, furniture, and trees and branches, that
cannot be handled by normal MSW processing methods.

3. Co-disposal: the disposal of different types of waste in one area of a landfill or dump.
For instance, sewage sludges may be disposed of with regular solid wastes.

4.Biodegradable material : any organic material that can be broken down by

microorganisms into simpler, more stable com-pounds. Most organic wastes (e.g., food,
paper) are biodegradable.

5.Compost : the material resulting from composting. Compost, also called humus, is a soil
conditioner and in some instances is used as a fertilizer.

6. Composting : biological decomposition of solid organic materials by bacteria, fungi, and

other organisms into a soil-like product.

7.Disposal : the final handling of solid waste, following collection, processing, or

incineration.Disposal most often means placement of wastes in a dump or a landfill.
 Basic terms related to solid waste

10.Garbage : in everyday usage, refuse in general.

some MSWM manuals use garbage to mean "food wastes," although this usage is not
common.

11.Land filling : the final disposal of solid waste by placing it in a controlled fashion in a
place intended to be permanent. The Source Book uses this term for both controlled
dumps and sanitary landfills.

13. MSW : municipal solid waste.

14. MSWM : municipal solid waste management
15.Putrescible : subject to decomposition or decay. Usually used in reference to food
wastes and other organic wastes that decay quickly.

16.Refuse : all kinds of wastes in solid state excepting excreta from residential,
commercial and industrial area.
 Methods of carrying refuse :
➢Conservancy system
➢Water carriage system

Conservancy systems Water Carriage system

•Old system •Water medium
•Collection in separate vessels •Dilution ratio should be high
•Deposition in pools & pits •Collection in sewers through WC
•Removal once in 24 hours atleast •Garbage not permitted
•Dry system •Initial cost high
•In villages and small towns •Large amount of water required
TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM The Sewerage System can be of Following Three
Types :
1. combined system,
2. separate system
3. & partially separate system
1) COMBINED SYSTEM:
In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off resulting from storms is carried through the
same sewers of sewerage system. In countries like India where actual rainy days are very few, this system
will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing velocity in the sewers during dry season, as the sewage
discharge may be far lower as compared to the design discharge after including storm water.

Advantages and disadvantages of combined system

Advantages
• In an area where rainfall is spread throughout a year, there is no need of flushing of sewers, as self cleansing
velocity will developed due to more quantity because of addition of storm water.

• Only one set of pipe will be required for house plumbing.

• In congested areas it is easy to lay only one pipe rather than two pipes as required in
other systems.

Disadvantages
• Not suitable for the area with small period of rainfall in a year, because dry weather flow will be small due to
which self cleansing velocity may not develop in sewers, resulting in silting.

• Large flow is required to be treated at sewage treatment plant before disposal, hence resulting in higher
capital and operating cost of the treatment plant.

• When pumping is required this system is uneconomical.

• During rains overflowing of sewers will spoil public hygiene.

TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

2) SEPARATE SYSTEM:
In separate system, separate conduits are used; one carrying sewage and other carrying storm water run-off.
The storm water collected can be directly discharged into the water body since the run-off is not as foul as
sewage and no treatment is generally provided. Whereas, the sewage collected from the city is treated
adequately before it is discharged into the water body or used for irrigation to meet desired standards.
Separate system is advantageous and economical for big towns.

Advantages and disadvantages of separate system

Advantages
• As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the quantity to be treated at sewage treatment plant is small,
resulting in economy of treatment.

• This system may be less costly as only sanitary sewage is transported in closed conduit and storm water
can be collected and conveyed through open drains.

• When pumping is required during disposal, this system is economical due to less flow.

Disadvantages

• Self cleansing velocity may not be developed at certain locations in sewers and hence flushing of sewers
may be required.

• This system requires laying two sets of pipe, which may be difficult in congested area.

• This system will require maintenance of two sets of pipelines and hence maintenance
cost is more
TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM

PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM:

In this system part of the storm water especially collected from roofs and paved courtyards of the
buildings is admitted in the same drain along with sewage from residences and institutions, etc. The
storm water from the other places is collected separately using separate conduits.

Advantages and disadvantages of partially separate system

Advantages

• Economical and reasonable size sewers are required.

• Work of house plumbing is reduced as rain water from roofs, sullage from baths and kitchen, etc. are
combined with discharge from water closets.

• Flushing of sewers may not be required as small portion of storm water is allowed to
enter in sanitary sewage.

Disadvantages

• Increased cost of pumping as compared to separate system at treatment plants and intermediate pumping
station wherever required.

• In dry weather self-cleansing velocity may not develop in the sewers.

PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
PERPENDICULAR PATTERN

➢ The shortest possible path is maintained for the rains carrying storm water and sewage (Figure 2.1).

➢Suitable for separate system and partially separate system.

➢This pattern is not suitable for combined system, because treatment plant is required to be installed at
many places; otherwise it will pollute the water body where the sewage is discharged.
PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM

INTERCEPTOR PATTERN

➢ Sewers are intercepted with large size sewers (Figure 2.2).

➢Interceptor carries sewage to a common point, where it can be disposed off with or without treatment.

➢Overflows should be provided to handle very large flow.

PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
RADIAL PATTERN

➢It is suitable for land disposal.

➢In this pattern sewers are laid radially outwards from the centre, hence this pattern is called as radial
pattern (Figure 2.3).

➢ The drawback in this pattern is more number of disposal works is required.

PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
FAN PATTERN

➢This pattern is suitable for a city situated at one side of the natural water body, such as river.

➢The entire sewage flows to a common point where one treatment plant is located (Figure 2.4).

➢ In this number of converging main sewers and sub-mains are used forming a fan shape.

➢Single treatment plant is required in this pattern.

➢The drawback in this pattern is that larger diameter sewer is required near to the treatment plant as entire
sewage is collected at a common point.

➢ In addition, with new development of the city the load on existing treatment plant increases.
PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM

ZONE PATTERN

➢More numbers of interceptors are provided in this pattern (Figure 2.5).

➢This pattern is suitable for sloping area than flat areas.

Composting
 Composting

Treatment and disposal of solid waste Several methods are

used for treatment and disposal. These are:

Composting

➢It is a process in which organic matter of solid waste is decomposed and

converted to humus and mineral compounds.

Compost is the end product of composting, which used as fertilizer.

Three methods of composting:

(a) composting by trenching
(b) open windrow composting
(c) mechanical composting
Composting by trenching

➢Trenches 3 - 12 m long, 2 – 3 m wide and 1- 2 m deepwith spacing 2 m.

➢Dry wastes are filled up in 15 cm. On top of each layer 5 cm thick sandwiching layer of
animal dung is sprayed in semi liquid form.

➢ Biological action starts in 2- 3 days and decomposition starts.

➢Solid waste stabilize in 4- 6 months and changed into brown colored odourless powdery
form known as humus.
➢Open windrow composting

➢Large materials like broken glass, stone, plastic articles are removed.

➢ Remaining solid wastes is dumped on ground in form of piles of 0.6 – 1 m height.

➢The width and length of piles are kept 1- 2 m and 6 m respectively.

➢Moisture content maintained at 60%.

➢ Temp. increases in side pile.

➢After pile for turned for cooling and aeration to avoid anaerobic decomposition.

➢ The complete process may take 4- 6 week.

Mechanical composting
➢It requires small area compare to trenching and open windrow composting.

➢The stabilization of waste takes 3- 6 days.

➢The operation involved are

▪reception of refuse,
▪segregation,
▪Shredding (cut or torn off),
▪Stabilization,
▪marketing the humus (darkbrown or organic substances of soil ).
 Composting

Why composting?

• about 70 % of municipal waste is normally organic

• organic waste can cause problems of smell, gas, and stray animals in
landfills
• recycling at source is most economic and environment friendly method
of waste management
• simple methods available
• compost is valuable resource for farmers
• composting at source keeps inorganic waste clean and makes it easier
for recycling
 Composting

Concept
• process of decomposition of organic
waste by micro-organism
• natural process (be made faster and
more effective by mixing various types
of waste and adjusting moisture,
temperature and aeration)
• contains NPK and other plant nutrients
including micro-organisms

steps of composting:
• prepaeration (converting waste into raw
material)
• production of compost
• marketing
 Composting

Preparation
• waste collection
• sorting into organic and inorganic
• reduce size if necessary
• adjust moisture content
• starters/additives
• adjust C:N ratio
 Composting

Compost preparation
• place prepared waste in piles, windrows, chamber or bins
• turn the compost regularly or arrange other ways to aerate the waste
• regularly monitor temperature & moisture

Source: adapted from ENPHO

41
 Composting

Home composting options

Source: adapted from ENPHO

42
 Composting
Composting at community & municipal
level

43
 Composting

Important points to remember

• separate waste at source. Glass in the waste can

result in injuries

• ensure proper C/N-ratio & chop waste in small pieces

• ensure proper amount of water and air to avoid smell

• prepare and implement proper marketing strategy

(most compost projects fail because of poor
marketing)

• regularly monitor composting process

44
 Vermicomposting

45
 Vermicomposting
Concept

Source: http://www.yelmworms.com/_images/vermicomposting.gif
46
 Vermicomposting

How to do at home
• prepare vessel or bin
• add 2 inches (5 cm) of bedding materials
• add worms
• cut waste into small pieces and put in the bin
• keep bin covered with a moist cloth
• put bin away from direct sunlight
• regularly check moisture
• harvest vermicompost every 3 to 4 months
• store harvested compost for 2-3 weeks and then
remove the young worms

Source: adapted from ENPHO

47
Advantages and disadvantages

Composting
Advantages: Disadvantages:
•recycling at source
•waste segregation required
•economic and environment friendly
waste management
•simple methods available
•compost is valuable resource for
gardeners/farmers

Vermicomposting

Advantages: Disadvantages:
•see above •maintain proper environmental
conditions for worms
•selling of worms

48
Vermicomposting
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
LANDFILLING
High Density Polyethylene
Biogas
 What is Biogas?
• Clean, efficient source of
renewable energy (1)
• Made from organic
waste
• Produces methane
• Anaerobic digestion (2)
• Replaces non-renewable
energy
• Digested in an airtight
container
MODERN RENEWEBLE ENERGY SYSTEM
Sewer Systems
 Contents
1. Concept
2. How it can optimise SSWM
3. Conventional Sewers
4. Separate Sewers
5. Simplified Sewers
6. Solids-free Sewers
7. Pressurised Sewers
8. Vacuum Sewers
9. Channels
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
11.Transfer and Sewer
Discharge Station
A large sewer system. Source: RiverSides (n.y.)
1. Concept

What is a Sewer System?

• A piped system to transport wastewater (and sometimes storm water)
from the source (households, industry, runoff) to a treatment facility.
• There are several designs, depending on topography, amount and kind of
wastewater, size of community, etc.

“Flush and forget”: in

many cases, sewers lead
into surface water sources
without any treatment.
Source: STAUFFER (2010)

198
1. Concept

What Kinds of Sewer Systems Exist?

•There exist several different sewer systems:

•Conventional Sewers
•Separate Sewers
•Simplified Sewers
•Solids-free Sewers
•Pressurised Sewers
•Vacuum Sewers
•Channels
•Some of them require supporting elements such as:
•Sewer Pumping Stations
•Transfer Stations
2. How it can Optimise (SSWM ) sustainable sanitation & water management

Use a Sewer System

•In many countries around the world, flush toilets and sewer systems are the
common sanitary systems.
•However, there are several possibilities to keep your wastewater low and
provide a sustainable treatment:

Simplified sewer
system
Vertical constructed wetland
Urine diversion
flush toilet
Rooftop rainwater
harvesting as a
water source.

Urine fertilisation Compost filter (pre-

treatment)
3. Conventional Sewers

Design Principle
• Large networks of underground pipes, mostly in urban areas.
• Collection of blackwater, brownwater, greywater and stormwater.
• The system contains three types of sewer lines:

o Main line (primary): the centre of

the system, all other lines empty
into it.
o Branch lines (secondary): extend
from the main.
o House laterals (tertiary): bring
wastwater from the houses to the
branch lines.

Master sewer system map.

Source: USAID (1982)
3. Conventional Sewers

Design
• Wastewater is transported to a centralised treatment facility by gravity.
• Depending on topography, sewer pumping stations are necessary.
• The lines are in a depth of 1.5 to 3 m and manholes proved access for
maintenance.
• It must be designed to maintain “self-cleansing” velocity that no particles
accumulate

Cross-section of a
conventional sewer in a
common urban set-up.
Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)
3. Conventional Sewers

Costs
Initial costs are high because:
• Excavation and refilling of trenches to lay the pipes;
• Requires specialised engineers and operators;
• Maintenance costs are high compared to decentralised systems;
• Extension of the system can be difficult and costly (redesign of the whole system)

Maintenance and
operation of the City's
water system is quite a
costly task. Source: THE CITY OF
MADERA (n.y.)
3. Conventional Sewers
Operation & Maintenance
• Maintenance should be done by professionals.
• Manholes are installed wherever there is a change of gradient or
alignment and are used for regular inspection and cleaning.
• It must be systematically planned and carefully implemented.
• Overflows are required to avoid hydraulic surcharge of treatment plants
during heavy rain events.

Sewer access manhole.

Source: USAID (1982)
3. Conventional Sewers

Applicability

• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources such a system.
• They only make sense if a centralised treatment system exists which is
able to handle big loads of waste- and stormwater.
• Sufficient water as a transport medium needs to be available.
• A professional management system must be in place.
• They provide a high level of hygiene and comfort for the user.
3. Conventional Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Convenience (minimal • High capital costs
intervention by users)
• Need a reliable supply of piped water
– Low health risk
• Difficult to construct in high-density
– No nuisance from smells, areas, difficult and costly to maintain
mosquitoes or flies
• Recycling of nutrients and energy
– Stormwater and greywater can becomes difficult
be managed at the same time
• Unsuitability for self-help, requires skilled
– No problems related to engineers and operators
discharging industrial
• Problems associated with blockages and
wastewater
breakdown of pumping equipment
– Moderate operation and
• Adequate treatment and/or disposal
maintenance costs
required
4. Separate Sewers

Design Principle

•In contrast to conventional sewer systems, wastewater (e.g. from households

or industries) and stormwater are transported separately.
➢ During heavy rains, overflow contains no harmful blackwater.
➢ Stormwater in general is less contaminated. Source:

Source: LADEN (2010)

4. Separate Sewers

Costs
• Construction costs might be higher than for the combined sewer system
because two separated networks are necessary.
• They must also be maintained and operated separately.
• A replacement of a combined system by a separated system is very costly.

Operation & Maintenance

• Same as conventional systems

Health Aspect

• More secure than a conventional system, because blackwater is

transported in a closed network.
4. Separate Sewers
Applicability
• Suitable for urban areas that have the resources to implement, operate
and maintain such systems plus provide adequate treatment to avoid
pollution at the discharge end. UNEP (2002)
• Enough water for transportation must be available.

• Especially suitable during

monsoon –> large amounts
of storm water can be
treated separately.

New construction of a separated

sewer system in Germany. Source:
VILLINGEN-SCHWENNINGEN (2010)
4. Separate Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Surface run-off, grey water • Supply of piped water
and black water can be • Difficult to construct in high-density
managed separately areas, difficult and costly to maintain
– Limited of sewage overflow • High capital costs
– Low health risk • Requires skilled engineers and
– No nuisance from smells, operators
mosquitoes or flies • Problems associated with blockages
– No problems related to and breakdown of pumping
discharging industrial equipment
wastewater • Adequate treatment and/or disposal
– Moderate operation costs required
– Surface run-off and rainwater • Higher risk of water pollution by
can be reused accidents
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Design Principle
•It is a simplified sewerage, which is technically and institutionally feasible,
economically appropriate and financially affordable sanitation option.

Source: STAUFFER (2012), adapted from TILLEY et al. (2008)

5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Design Principle

• It consists of:
• Small-diameter pipes (e.g. 100 mm).
• Inspections chambers (for maintenance).
• Every household should have a grease trap or an other appropriate pre-
treatment facility.
• Semi-centralised treatment facility or transfer/ discharge station.
 5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Design Principle
• Sewers are laid on users property:
• Higher connection rates can be achieved.
• Fewer and shorter pipes can be used.
• Less excavation is required (reduced traffic load).
• 🡒 This requires careful negotiation between stakeholders (see
stakeholder analysis), since design and maintenance must be jointly
coordinated.

A simplified sewer (condominal

sewer) network. Sewers are laid
within property boundaries rather
than beneath central roads. Source:
EAWAG and SANDEC (2008)
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Costs

•Costs are low (50 to 80 % less expensive than conventional sewerage)

because:
•Flatter gradients
•Shallow excavation depths
•Small diameter pipe
•Simple inspection units

•🡒 The costs for emptying interceptors and pre-settling units must be

considered!
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Operation & Maintenance

• All greywater should be connected to ensure adequate hydraulic loading.

• No solids should enter the system.
• The system needs to be flushed regularly.
• Interceptor tanks and pre-settlement units must be emptied periodically

A typical cleanout, also called

flushingpoint (right) and a junction
without a cleanout (left). Source: MARA
(2001)
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

Applicability
• Appropriate for dense, urban
settlements
• If ground is rocky or the
groundwater table is high
• Can be an alternative in areas with
individual soakaways

Junction chamber for

simplified sewerage using
larger diameter concrete
pipes, used in Guatamala.
Source: MARA and SLEIGH (2001)
5. Simplified and Condominal Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Can be built and repaired with • Requires water for flushing
locally available materials • Requires expert design
– Construction can provide short-term • Requires repairs and removals of blockages
employment to local labourers more frequently than a conventional sewer
– Capital costs are between 50 and 80 • Effluent and sludge requires secondary
% less than conventional gravity treatment
sewers • Overflow if not maintained properly
– Operating costs are low • Blockage because of illegal connections
– Can be extended as a community • Only suitable where there are interceptor
changes and grows tanks, septic tanks or other pre-treatment
systems
• Requires the involvement of a well-organised
sewerage department

217
6. Solids-free Sewers

Design Principle
•Solids-free sewer systems are similar to conventional systems, but the
wastewater is pre-settled and solids removed before entering the system, e.g.:
•Septic tanks
•Biogas settlers
•Anaerobic baffled reactor

The recommended pipe

diameter is 75 to 100 mm
and an depth of at lest 300
mm. (OTIS and MARA
1985)

Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)

6. Solids-free Sewers
Design Principle

•If well maintained, there is little risk of clogging, thus there is no need
of self-cleansing velocity, i.e.;
•Shallow depths
•Small or even inflective gradients
•Fewer inspection points
•Can follow topography more closely

•🡒 This results in significantly lower investment costs due to the

simplified design!
6. Solids-free Sewers
Costs

• Solids-free sewers can be built for 20% to

50% less costs than conventional
sewerage.
• Repairs and removal of a s well as costs
for emptying the pre-settling unit must
be considered.
Costs for emptying the pre-
treatment unit must be
considered (organisation and
costs): a vacuum truck empties
a pit in Bharakpur near Calcutta.
Source: EAWAG/SANDEC (2008)

220
6. Solids-free Sewers

Operation & Maintenance (TILLEY et al. 2008)

• Pre-settling unit must be maintained and emptied periodically.

• Risk of pipe clogging is relatively low.
• Sewer should be flushed once a year.
• Sewers require a constant supply of water, although less water is
needed compared to conventional sewers.

Applicability
• Well suited for areas where leaching fields/soak pits are inappropriate due
to sensitive groundwater or lack of space for on-site infiltration in growing
communities.
• In areas with a high willingness to pay (for the operation and maintenance)
and with locally available expertise and resources.
• Users should receive some basic training.
6. Solids-free Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Can be built and repaired with • Requires repairs and removals of
locally available materials blockages more frequently than a
– Capital costs are less than for conventional gravity sewer
conventional sewers • Requires expert design and
– Low operating costs if well construction supervision
maintained • Requires education and acceptance
– Can be extended as a community to be used correctly
changes and grows • Effluent and sludge (from
– Appropriate for densely populated interceptors) requires secondary
areas with sensitive groundwater or treatment and/or appropriate
no space for a soak pit or leaching discharge
field

145
7. Pressurised Sewers
Design Principle

• This system is not dependent on gravity

to move wastewater
• Shallow trenches and relatively small pipe
diameters
• Requires permanent electricity a nd
grinder pumps
A pressurised sewer
system is
independent from
land topography and
does not need deep
excavation work.
Source: ITT (n.y.)

146
7. Pressurised Sewers

Design Principle
• Wastewater is collected by gravity in a collection tank.
• A grinder pump moves it to the sewer 🡒 this transfer of wastewater
pressurises the sewer.
• Various pumps along the sewer line move the wastewater progressively.

Source: (WERF 2010)

7. Pressurised Sewers

Design Principle – Pressure Sewer Unit

• Generally pre-fabricated products.

• A collection tank including grinder and pump, non-return valve (prevents
backflow from the pressure sewer).

• The grinding allows small pipe diameters.

• Wired to the household power supply and regulated by a control panel.

• Alternative to this unit: a septic tank situated outside in the ground or in

the basement. Effluent flows into an underground holding tank containing
a pump and control devices from where it is then pumped into the
pressurised sewer. (U.S. EPA 2002)
7. Pressurised Sewers

Design Principle – Pressure Sewer Unit

A prefabricated pressure sewer unit made out of plastic for outside placement. Source: SHOALHAVEN WATER (n.y.)
149
7. Pressurised Sewers
Costs

•Costs can be devided in two major

components:
➢On-lot costs: pump, basin, controls,
building sewer, lateral piping, electrical
service, installation
➢Collection network: includes all the
piping in the utility easements that directs
the sewage to the treatment facility.

150
7. Pressurised Sewers

Operation & Maintenance

• Regular service is important for all system components.
• Electricity needs to be available all the time.
• Pumps should be checked regularly.
• Pipe connections should be controlled for leakages.

Three examples of damages on pressurised piping system. Therefore it is very important to inspect and
maintain the sewer system. This avoids high repair cost, environmental damages and public health hazard.
Source: WSAA (2003)
7. Pressurised Sewers

Applicability

• Basically, pressurised sewer systems have the same advantages as vacuum

sewers. Therefore they are used in similar surroundings;

• Flat or hilly topography: gravity systems demand installation at great

depths to maintain adequate flow or requires pumping and lift stations.

• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep

excavation difficult.

• High groundwater table.

• Densely populated areas.

7. Pressurised Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Effective wastewater • Needs expert design, high capital costs
transportation at minimum depth, • Needs a permanent energy source
minimising the excavation for the • A proper recycling of nutrients and energy
piping system becomes difficult, because all kinds of
– Gravity free; independent from wastes are mixed
land topography • Unsuitability for self-help, requires skilled
– Lower costs compared to a engineers & operators
conventional gravity sewer (pipe • It is still a flushing system which transports
size and depth requirements are wastewater away. If there is no treatment
reduced and many small pumps are plant and an unprofessional discharge it
cheaper than some large-capacity can contaminate the environment
lift stations)
• Leakages may lead to contaminations
– Requires little water only for
transporting the excreta

230
8. Vacuum Sewers
Design Principle

•A central vacuum source conveys sewage from individual households to a

central collection station. (UNEP 2002)
8. Vacuum Sewers

Design Principle

• Use of differential air pressure (“negative pressure” or “vacuum”) to move

the sewage.

• A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to

maintain vacuum.

Source: ROEDIGER (2007)

8. Vacuum Sewers

Design Principle

• Use of differential air pressure (“negative pressure” or “vacuum”) to move

the sewage.

• A central source of power to operate vacuum pumps is required to maintain

vacuum.

• At each entry point (collection chamber), an interface valve is required to

seal the lines so that vacuum can be maintained.
8. Vacuum Sewers

Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater

1. Gravity line carries wastewater from the source to the collection

chamber.
2. When a defined height is reached, the vacuum interface valves opens
and sucks the wastewater into the vacuum sewer main.
3. At the end of this main it is collected in a big tank.
4. After this tank is filled to a predetermined level, the wastewater is
transferred to a treatment plant via a conventional/separate sewer
system.
8. Vacuum Sewers

Design Principle - Piping

• Narrow and shallow trenches (1.0 to 1.2 m)
• Inspection points for pressure testing
• Small pipe diameter (80 to 250 mm)
• If a pipe is damaged, risk of leaking is low because of the negative
pressure.

Local workers at
construction of a shallow
vacuum sewer system.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
8. Vacuum Sewers

Costs

It is a high-tech system, thus it is costly. But in comparison with a

conventional sewer system, it is cheaper:
• Small Pipes (less material)
• Shallow trenches (no heavy machinery)
• Independent from topography
• Large amounts of flushing water can be saved (economical and ecological
reasonable)

🡒 Permanent source of electrical power can increase the costs!

8. Vacuum Sewers

Operation & Maintenance

• Risk of clogging is low; almost no cleaning/emptying
• Periodically pressure testing
• Complex and/or technical problems are in the responsibility of the
manufacturer.

Construction of a
sewer at the left
side and
pressure testing
et the right side.
Source: ROEDIGER (2007)
8. Vacuum Sewers

Applicability

• Flat topography: gravity systems demand installation at great depths to

maintain adequate flow (pump stations, lift stations).

• Rock layers, running sand or a high groundwater table make deep

excavation difficult.

• Areas short of water supply or poor communities that must pay for water,
but cannot afford great amounts of water necessary for operation of
gravity systems.

• Areas that are ecologically sensitive.

• Areas where flooding can occur.

• Areas with obstacles to a gravity sewer route.

• Installation of a new fresh water network, allowing sewerage pipe
installation in the same trench.
8. Vacuum Sewers

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Requires less flushing water • Needs expert design
– Considerable savings in • Needs energy to create the
construction costs permanent vacuum
– Shallow and narrow trenches, • Relatively high capital costs
small diameter pipelines, • Recycling of nutrients and
flexible pipeline construction energy becomes difficult
– Sewers and water mains can • Unsuitability for self-help,
be laid in a common trench requires
– Closed systems with no skilled engineers operators
leakage or smell • It is still a flushing system. If there
– No manholes along the is no treatment plant and an
vacuum sewers unprofessional discharge it can
– One central vacuum station contaminate the environment
can replace several pumping
239
stations
9. Open Channels and Drains

Design Principle

•Separately collected storm water has high potential for increasing agricultural
production in rural areas. 🡒 The most basic way to drain off rain and storm
water is via open channels.
•It consists of a secondary drainage system, with a network of small drains
attached (micro-drainage).
•Each serves a small catchment area that ranges from a single property to
several blocks of houses.
•The small drains bring the water to a primary drainage system, composed of
main drains (also called interceptor drains), which serve large areas of the city.
•The main drains are generally connected with natural drainage channels such
as rivers or streams.
9. Open Channels and Drains
Design Principle Case
•‘El Gran Canal’ in Mexico City used as primary drainage system. The water in
this canal, which also transports rain and stormwater, is heavily polluted with
litter and untreated wastewater.

Source: WALDWIND (n.y.)

164
9. Open Channels and Drains

Design Principle – Steep Terrain

•A return period of 5-years is widely used to
design primary drainage systems in tropical
cities, for micro-drainage 3-year or less.
•On steep terrain, uncontrolled velocities can
lead to erosion, therefore several designs
exist:
a.Baffles
b.Steps
c.Checkwalls
•They are all built into the drain to slow down
the water flow for unlined drains. The water
deposits silt behind each checkwall, gradually

Source: WHO (1991)§

building up a stepped drain. The checkwalls
should be buried well into the ground.

165
9. Open Channels and Drains

Design Principle – Flat Terrain

•The central channel or “cunette” with a narrow bottom carries the flow in dry
weather and moderate rain.
•The outer channel facilitates for the occasional heavy flood flow. The outer
channel floor should preferably slope gently down to the central channel.
•If not properly design or clogged 🡒 risk of puddling and mosquito breeding
9. Open Channels and Drains

Design Principle – Transport of Wastewater

•Could be a temporary solution – but is NOT a satisfactory technology:

•People can easily come into contact with the wastewater, with its potentially
high pathogen content.

•If there is a storm event, flooding and spreading of pathogens and other
pollutants can occur. (WORLDBANK 2011)

•Very often open drains/channels are misused for depositing litter and excrete.
(CORCORAN et al. 2010)

•Household sewer lines are sometimes illegally connected to open drainage

systems. (CORCORAN et al. 2010)
9. Open Channels and Drains

Costs

• Compared to underground sewer systems.

• Price depends on:
o Steep terrain (extra construction to slow down velocity)
o Flat terrain (deep or wide excavation)
o Costs for material
• Consideration of community participation could have a positive offset on
the overall costs (O&M).
• A typical value for the annual cost of maintenance would be about 8% of
the construction cost of the system.
9. Open Channels and Drains

Operation & Maintenance (WHO 1991)

•The main duties and responsibilities for O&M are:
•Routine drain cleaning and repairs
•Semiannual inspection, reporting of defects and blockages
•Payment for maintenance
•Passing of by-laws regarding the use of drains
•Enforcement of by-laws.

Cleaning out open drains is difficult

to organise but utterly necessary.
Blockages can cause spill-over and
cause flooding. A solution could be
to cover it with concrete slabs. Source:
SANIMAS (2005)
9. Open Channels and Drains

Health Aspect
Open drains bear a high health risk, because water in open channels
can contain all sorts of contaminants and pathogens
•Ponding enforces mosquito breeding
•Illegal disposal of solid waste leads to clogging
•Defecation into these channels is not an unusual habit
Children tend to play in such channels

Grey water from laundry (left) and

solid garbage which is disposed in
open drains (right) pollute water
and cause health hazards.
Bangalore, Nepal. Source: BARRETO (2009)
9. Open Channels and Drains

Applicability
• It can be constructed in almost all types of settlements (urban or rural),
but enough land area is required to build a reasonable construction.

• Scheduled maintenance is necessary to prevent clogging

• In general, they bear many risk for public health

• If possible, they should be applied only where an adequate wastewater

treatment and collection systems for sewage sludge as well as a solid
waste management are provided.
9. Open Channels and Drains
•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Low-cost drain-off solution if drains • High health risk due to risk illegal
already exist discharge of wastewaters and solid
waste
– Simple to construct
• Blockages can cause spill-over and
– Construction materials are often
flooding
locally available
• Foul odour source establishment
– Creates employment (construction
and maintenance) • Breeding ground for insects and
pests
• Regular cleaning service required to
remove solids
10. Sewer Pumping Stations

Design Principle
•They are used to move wastewater to higher elevations. In general, the need
for sewer pumping stations arises when:

•The existing topography and required minimum sewer grades create deep
sewers that have high construction costs. The sewage is raised and then
conveyed by gravity.

•Basements are too low to discharge sewage to the main sewer.

•Sewage must be conveyed over a ridge.

•The sewage must be raised to get head for gravity flow through a treatment
plant.

•Discharge outlets are below the level of the receiving body of water.
•An existing gravity system is not yet available. A pumping station will enable
development and growth in accordance with the applicable community plan.
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
Design Principle

1. Sewage is fed into and stored in an underground pit (wet well).

2. When the level rises to a predetermined point, a pump will be started to
lift the sewage upward through a pressurised pipe system (sewer force
main or rising main).
3. From there it is discharged into a gravity manhole again.

A sewer pumping station

in Germany with the
pump shaft and the
electricity/control unit.
Source: MAW (2010)
10. Sewer Pumping Stations

Costs
A pumping station is always in
combination with a (on-site or semi-
centralised) treatment plant and/or a
sewer system.
• High costs for construction material,
electricity, maintenance and of
course expert design.
• Construction and installation costs
are high.

A fibreglass tank for single households with an

integrated sewage pump The sewage is pumped
up to council sewer or on site treatment plant.
Source: FTM (2010)
10. Sewer Pumping Stations

Operation & Maintenance

• The system is mostly computer- or electronically monitored.
• Sensors check the sewage level of the wet wells and start/stop the
pumps.
• The pumps and its monitoring unit should be maintained periodically by
the supplier.
• Overflows of wet wells should be avoided and it is important that there is
a treatment plant at the end of every sewer system.
10. Sewer Pumping Stations
Applicability
•Pumping stations become necessary as soon as sewage has to be lifted from a
lower part to a higher part.
➢ A well constructed piping system (e.g. conventional sewer system) and a
treatment plant is necessary.
➢Construction material and spare parts is expensive and might be difficult to
acquire locally.

•Advantages: Disadvantages:
– Sewage can be pumped • Very costly
automatically to higher • Local availability of
elevations
construction material and
– No contact with spare parts
wastewater is necessary
• Needs expert design
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations

Design Principle
• Transfer stations act as intermediate dumping points for faecal sludge/black
water when it cannot be easily transported to a treatment facility. It is
emptied by a vacuum truck.
• A sewer discharge station is directly connected to the sewer system.
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
Design Principle
• The dumping point at the transfer station should be built low enough to
minimise spills when labourers are manually emptying their sludge carts.

• It should include a vent, a trash screen to remove large debris (garbage) and
a washing facility for vehicles.
• It should be well protected and maintained to prevent random dumping into
the sewer and to ensure the safety of the users.

Costs

•The moderate capital costs may be offset with access permits and the
construction and maintenance can create local income.
•The system for issuing permits or charging access fees must be carefully
designed so that those who most need the service are not excluded because
of high costs.
•Costs for maintenance, observation and operation of the facility must be
considered.
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations
Operation & Maintenance (TILLEY et al. 2008)

• Racks (screens) must be cleaned frequently.

• Sand and grit must be periodically removed.
• The pad and loading area should be cleaned regularly to minimise odours.
• Sludge from transfer or sewer discharge stations is treated in an appropriate
secondary treatment facility and not be illegally dumped.

If there is no opportunity to dispose sludge,

disposal sites which are unhygienic and
hazardous for local residents are often the
only solution. Source: SuSanA on Flickr (2011)
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations

Applicability (TILLEY et al. 2008)

• Especially appropriate for dense, urban areas where there is no

alternative discharge point.
• For a sewer discharge station, a connection to a sewer main must be
possible.
• The site for the transfer station should be easily accessible, conveniently
located, and easy to use.
• A proper legal and institutional framework is required as well.
11. Transfer and Sewer Discharge Stations

• Advantages: Disadvantages:
– May reduce illegal dumping of • Requires expert design and construction
faecal sludge supervision
– Moderate capital and operation • May cause blockages and disrupt sewer
costs flow (sewer discharge station)
– Potential for local job creation and • Sludge requires secondary treatment
income generation and/or appropriate discharge
– Reduces transport distance and • Requires an institutional framework
may encourage more community- taking care of access fees, connection
level emptying solutions to sewers or regular emptying and
maintenance
• Requires expert design and construction
supervision