Syllabus - UNIT-2

➢ Processor and Memory

• Processor and memory architecture of a computer system
• Types of processors
• Registers
• Bus interconnection

➢ Internal memory
• Semiconductor Main Memory Organization
• DRAM and SRAM
• Types of ROM
• DDR DRAM
• Flash Memory
• Newer Nonvolatile Solid-State Memory Technologies- STT-RAM, PCRAM, ReRAM

➢ External memory
• Magnetic Disk
• Magnetic Read and Write Mechanisms
• Data Organization and Formatting Physical Characteristics
• Disk Performance Parameters
• Solid State Drives
• SSD Compared to HDD
• Optical Memory
• Compact Disk Digital Versatile Disk High-Definition Optical Disks
• Magnetic Tape

➢ The evolution of intel x86 architecture

NOTE - UNIT-2
Question : Explain basic Processor & Memory Architecture of a Computer System
Computer architecture is the organization of the components which make up a computer system and the
meaning of the operations which guide its function. It defines what is seen on the machine interface, which is
targeted by programming languages and their compilers.

Modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von Neumann. In this stored-
program concept, programs and data are stored in the same memory. This novel idea meant that a computer
built with this architecture would be much easier to reprogram.
The basic structure is like this,

1. Registers
Registers refer to high-speed storage areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are fetched from the
registers. Registers are small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to store data temporarily during
program execution. There are different types of registers used in architecture:
• Accumulator Registers: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU. It holds the intermediate of
arithmetic and logical operatoins.it act as a temporary storage location or device.
• Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next instructions to be dealt with. The
PC then passes this next address to the Memory Address Register (MAR).
• Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions that need to be fetched
from memory or stored in memory.
• Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any data that is to be
transferred to, and stored in, memory.
• Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions while it is waiting to be
coded and executed.
• General-Purpose Registers: These registers can store a variety of temporary values, such as the results of
computations or the addresses of memory locations and are essential for performing arithmetic and logic
operations within the CPU.
• Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed immediately is placed in the
instruction buffer register IBR.

2. Flash Memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage medium, meaning data is retained even when power is turned off. It
is used in a variety of devices (e.g., SSDs, USB drives) for storing data persistently. It’s faster than
traditional secondary storage but slower than RAM.
3. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)
PROM is a type of ROM that can be programmed once after manufacturing. Unlike regular ROM (which is
pre-programmed during manufacturing), PROM can be written by users for specific applications, but once
written, it cannot be modified or erased.
4. Secondary Storage
This refers to external memory devices like hard drives, SSDs, or CDs, where data can be stored long-term.
Unlike RAM (which is volatile and temporary), secondary storage is non-volatile and retains data even when
powered off.
5. Instruction Sets
An instruction set is a collection of instructions that the CPU can understand and execute. It defines the set
of operations the CPU can perform, such as adding numbers, moving data, or comparing values.
6. I/O Devices (Input/Output Devices)
These devices allow communication between the computer and the external environment. Input devices
(e.g., keyboard, mouse) send data to the computer, while output devices (e.g., monitor, printer) display or
send data from the computer to the user or another device.
7. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located between the CPU and the main memory (RAM). It
stores frequently accessed data and instructions to speed up overall performance by reducing the time
needed to access data from RAM.
8. RAM - Random Access Memory
RAM is volatile memory, meaning it only stores data while the computer is powered on. It temporarily holds
data and programs that are actively being used or processed by the CPU, allowing fast access to this
information.
9. ROM (Read-Only Memory)
ROM is non-volatile memory that contains data and instructions that do not change. It typically stores
essential instructions needed for booting the computer and hardware initialization.
10. Decoders
The process of decoding involves receiving, interpreting and understanding an encoded message. In other
words, decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a message. In the communication process, it opens
in new window, and it is the message that is transferred, as meaning cannot be transferred from one person
to another.
Summary:
• Registers store temporary data.

• Flash Memory is a form of long-term storage.

• PROM is a programmable, one-time-write version of ROM.
• Secondary Storage provides long-term data storage.
• Instruction Sets define what a CPU can do.
• I/O Devices allow interaction between the computer and the external environment.
• Cache Memory speeds up access to frequently used data.
• RAM holds active data temporarily.
• ROM holds essential instructions.

Question : Explain Bus Interconnection

A bus is a collection of electrical pathways or conductors that carry data, addresses, and control signals
between different hardware components. These components are linked to the bus, allowing them to interact
and collaborate effortlessly, and these all together are called bus architecture. The width (number of data
lines), speed, and protocols of bus architectures can vary. A bus's width refers to the number of parallel data
lines it contains, which defines how much data can be sent simultaneously. A wider bus offers faster data
transfer but may require more physical connections.

Bus Structure in Computer Architecture

A system bus usually consists of a range of distinct lines, typically numbering from fifty to hundreds. Each
line is designated for a specific function, and these lines can be divided into three main functional
categories: data lines, address lines, and control lines. Let's discuss each of these in detail.
Data Lines (DL)
• Data Lines (DL) are electrical channels or conductors within a computer's bus architecture that are
specifically dedicated to transferring actual data between different computer system components.
• These lines carry binary information in the form of digital signals, such as numbers, instructions, and
other data.
• Data lines facilitate parallel data transfer, meaning multiple bits of data can be sent simultaneously.
• The width of the data bus, represented by the number of data lines, determines the quantity of data that
can be conveyed in a single operation.
• Each data line can only transmit one bit at a time. For example, a computer system with a 32-bit data
bus can transfer 32 bits of data in parallel.

Address Lines (AL)

• An address line is a collection of electrical channels or conductors within a computer's bus
architecture specifically designated to carry memory addresses.
• These lines indicate the source or destination of data during memory read and write operations.
• The number of address lines in the address bus impacts the range of memory addresses that the
computer system may access.
• The bus module is determined by the higher-order bits, while the address of memory locations or I/O
ports is determined by the lower-order bits.
• When the processor needs to read a word from memory, it simply places the relevant word's address
on the address line.

Control Lines (CL)

• In bus architecture, control lines are specific lines that transmit control signals between different
computer system components.
• These control signals coordinate and govern the flow of data and instructions between various
hardware components, ensuring that actions are carried out in the correct order, and the overall system
runs smoothly.
• Control lines act as communication channels for signals that control the behavior of the computer's
internal components, such as the central processor unit (CPU), memory modules, input/output
devices, and other peripherals.
• These signals are required for memory read and write operations, input/output operations, interrupts,
and other control activities.

Some common control signals transmitted through control lines in a computer's bus architecture are as follows:

Control SignalDescription
Memory Write This command moves the data on the data bus to the addressed memory location.
Memory Read This instruction sends the data from the addressed memory location to the data bus.
I/O Read Enabling this control line sends data from the addressed I/O port to the data bus.
When a command is sent over this control line, data from the data bus is sent to the
I/O Write
designated I/O port.
The activation of this control line signifies that the component has signaled its desire
Bus Request
to take control of the bus.
The activation of this control line signifies that the bus has been allocated to the
Bus Grant
component that made the request.
Transfer ACK This control line indicates that data has been received or placed on the data bus.
Interrupt
This control line indicates that there are pending interrupts.
Request
Interrupt ACK When the pending interrupt is serviced, this control line acknowledges it.
Reset This control line's bit information initializes all modules.
Bus Timing
As observed, the control lines of the bus also convey timing details alongside commands. The methods for
obtaining timing information via the control line can be classified into two categories:
Synchronous Bus
• Timing synchronization for all connected devices or components is achieved in the synchronous bus
through a control line known as the bus clock.
• This bus clock line transmits a steady stream of alternating 1s and 0s, creating a recurring clock cycle
with specific intervals.
• Each clock cycle consists of a single transmission of the sequence 1-0. Any device or component
connected to the bus can read this bus clock line.
• Every operation, without exception, starts with the start of a clock cycle. The clock-based
synchronization ensures that the transmitting and receiving elements are precisely aligned.
• This steady clock-driven synchronization can achieve continuous data transmission. As a result, the
synchronous bus architecture can handle high-speed data transmission.
Asynchronous Bus
• The asynchronous bus configuration does not employ a clock signal to synchronize the transmitter
and receiver components. Instead, data transmission is controlled by a handshake protocol between a
master and a slave component.
• In this arrangement, the process of data transfer is initiated by the master component.
• It prepares itself for data exchange and signals its readiness by activating the master-ready line.
Concurrently, it transmits address and command details across the bus.
• Each connected component then evaluates the address provided on the address line to determine which
specific component is being addressed by the master.
• When the addressed component receives the command, it performs the required operation and notifies
the processor by activating its slave-ready line. When the slave-ready line is activated, the master
relinquishes control of the bus.
• When the addressed component receives the command, it performs the necessary function and alerts
the processor by activating its slave-ready line. The master relinquishes control of the bus when the
slave-ready line is enabled.
Question: Explain processors and its types.
A processor, also known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), is the brain of a computer that executes
instructions from programs. It performs the basic arithmetic, logical, control, and input/output (I/O) operations
specified by the instructions. The processor interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate the
computer and is essential for overall system performance.
Processors are critical to computing, executing tasks by performing billions of calculations per second. The
evolution of CPUs has been driven by the need for higher performance, greater efficiency, and the ability to
handle complex, multi-threaded tasks in today’s computing environment. The architecture, number of cores,
clock speed, and manufacturing process all contribute to how effectively a CPU can meet the demands of
modern applications.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
Definition:
CISC is a type of microprocessor architecture where single instructions can execute multiple low-level
operations (such as load, store, and arithmetic operations) or multi-step operations within one instruction.
Key Features:
• Large and complex instruction set.

• Instructions can take multiple cycles to execute.

• Instructions often include memory-to-memory operations.

• Focuses on reducing the number of instructions per program, making the hardware complex.

Advantages:
• Fewer instructions needed to perform a task, simplifying the compiler’s job.

• Reduces the need for multiple instructions in code, leading to smaller program sizes.

• Easier to optimize certain high-level programming tasks.

Disadvantages:
• Complex hardware design, which can lead to increased cost and power consumption.

• Performance can be slower because of the time required to decode and execute the complex
instructions.

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

Definition:
RISC is a microprocessor architecture that uses a small, highly optimized set of instructions, focusing on
executing each instruction in a single clock cycle.
Key Features:
• Simple and limited instruction set.

• Instructions typically execute in one clock cycle.

• Load/store architecture, meaning only load and store instructions can access memory.

• Focuses on simplifying hardware design.

Advantages:
• Faster execution of instructions due to simplified instruction set.

• Easier to design and debug the processor.

• More power-efficient, making it suitable for mobile devices.

Disadvantages:
 • Requires more instructions to perform complex tasks, leading to larger code size.

• More dependent on compiler optimization to achieve performance gains.

EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing)

Definition:
EPIC is an advanced microprocessor architecture that allows multiple instructions to be executed in parallel
by explicitly defining which instructions can be run simultaneously.
Key Features:
• Allows for multiple instructions to be processed in parallel.

• Relies on the compiler to schedule instructions for parallel execution.

• Uses large instruction words to encode parallelism explicitly.

Advantages:
• High performance through parallel instruction execution.

• Can take advantage of hardware resources more efficiently.

• Scalable performance, allowing it to handle large workloads.

Disadvantages:
• Complex compiler design is required to schedule instructions properly.

• Not as widely adopted as RISC or CISC.

• More difficult to program, making it less user-friendly for developers.

Multicore Processor
Definition:
A multicore processor is a single computing component with two or more independent central processing
units (CPUs) or "cores," which read and execute instructions.
Key Features:
• Multiple processing cores on a single chip.

• Each core can handle its own tasks, allowing for parallel processing.

• Cores can share memory and resources for efficiency.

Advantages:
• Improved performance for multitasking and parallel processing.

• More energy-efficient compared to using multiple separate processors.

• Ideal for modern computing tasks such as gaming, video editing, and simulations.

Disadvantages:
• Requires software to be optimized for multithreading to fully utilize the cores.

• Increased heat generation due to multiple cores operating simultaneously.

• More complex design can lead to higher production costs

Question - Explain RAM and ROM along with its types.
Memory is a fundamental component of computing systems, essential for performing various tasks
efficiently. It plays a crucial role in how computers operate, influencing speed, performance, and data
management. In the realm of computer memory, two primary types stand out: Random Access Memory
(RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM). Understanding the difference between RAM and ROM is vital for
appreciating their respective roles in a computer’s operation. While RAM enables efficient processing and
multitasking, ROM provides the necessary stability and reliability for system functions. Together, these
memory types ensure that computers can operate smoothly and effectively in a digital landscape.
Types of Memory
Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer can’t perform
simple tasks. Both types of memory (RAM and ROM) are important for the computer, but they serve
different purposes. RAM is used to store data that the computer is currently using, while ROM is used to
store data that the computer needs to boot and operate. RAM is faster than ROM, as the data stored in it can
be accessed and modified in any order, while data stored in ROM can only be read.
Computer memory is of two basic types:
1. Primary memory (RAM and ROM)
2. Secondary memory (Hard Drive, CD, etc).

Classification of Primary Memory

ROM (Read-Only Memory) (Write a note on Read Only Memory)
ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a non-volatile memory that is used to store important information
which is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the programs
and data stored on it. It is also a primary memory unit of the computer system. It contains some electronic
fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific information. The information is stored in the ROM in
binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
1. MROM (Masked read-only memory): We know that ROM is as old as semiconductor technology.
MROM was the very first ROM that consists of a grid of word lines and bit lines joined together
transistor switches. This type of ROM data is physically encoded in the circuit and only be programmed
during fabrication. It was not so expensive.
2. PROM (Programmable read-only memory): PROM is a form of digital memory. In this type of ROM,
each bit is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. The data stored in it are permanently stored and can not be
changed or erasable. It is used in low-level programs such as firmware or microcode.
3. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory): EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM
but it can be reprogrammed. The data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed again by
ultraviolet light. Reprogrammed of it is limited. Before the era of EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM
was used in microcontrollers.
4. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): As its name refers, it can be
programmed and erased electrically. The data and program of this ROM can be erased and programmed
about ten thousand times. The duration of erasing and programming of the EEPROM is near about 4ms
to 10ms. It is used in microcontrollers and remote keyless systems.
5. UVEPROM (Ultra-Violet erasable programmable read-only memory): UV EPROM is a type of erasable
programmable read-only memory (EPROM) that can be programmed with high voltage and erased using
ultraviolet (UV) light. UV EPROMs are programmed at high voltage. To erase a UV EPROM, you must
remove it from the system and place it in a UV eraser. The UV light exposes the chip and erases the data
stored on it. Most UV EPROM chips can store data for about 20 years. UV EPROM chips can
accommodate a high number of read cycles. The main difference between UV EPROM and EEPROM is
the way they are erased. UV EPROM data is erased with UV rays, while EEPROM data is erased with
electrical signals.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that is used to temporarily store data that
the computer is currently using or processing. RAM is volatile memory, which means that the data stored in
it is lost when the power is turned off. RAM is typically used to store the operating system, application
programs, and data that the computer is currently using.
• It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.
• The programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a program are stored in this
memory.
• It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the power is turned off.

Random Access Memory

Types of Random Access Memory (RAM) (Difference between SRAM and DRAM)
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

1. Static RAM: SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It is a type of semiconductor which
is widely used in computing devices and microprocessors.
Architecture: SRAM uses a flip-flop circuit to store each bit, consisting of 4-6 transistors, which retain
their state as long as power is supplied.
No Refresh: SRAM does not need to be refreshed, making it faster than DRAM.
Advantages:
Faster than DRAM because it doesn't require refreshing.
Used for cache memory in CPUs due to its speed.
Disadvantages:
More expensive and requires more physical space (lower density).
Volatile.

2. Dynamic RAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is made of Capacitors and has
smaller data life span than Static RAM.
(Learn all the full forms)
(Question – Write a note on DRAM and its types.)
DRAM stores the binary information in the form of electric charges applied to capacitors. The stored
information on the capacitors tends to lose over a period of time and thus the capacitors must be periodically
recharged to retain their usage. DRAM requires refresh time. The main memory is generally made up of
DRAM chips.
DRAM Memory Cell
Though SRAM is very fast, it is expensive because of its every cell requires several transistors. Relatively
less expensive RAM is DRAM, due to the use of one transistor and one capacitor in each cell, as shown in
the below figure., where C is the capacitor and T is the transistor. Information is stored in a DRAM cell in
the form of a charge on a capacitor and this charge needs to be periodically recharged.
For storing information in this cell, transistor T is turned on and an appropriate voltage is applied to the bit
line. This causes a known amount of charge to be stored in the capacitor. After the transistor is turned off,
due to the property of the capacitor, it starts to discharge. Hence, the information stored in the cell can be
read correctly only if it is read before the charge on the capacitors drops below some threshold value.
Types of DRAM
a. SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory):
• Overview: SDRAM is a type of DRAM that is synchronized with the system clock, meaning it
operates in sync with the CPU, allowing it to perform faster than traditional DRAM. The memory
read/write cycles are synchronized to the clock signal, making data transfer more efficient.

• These RAM chips’ access speed is directly synchronized with the CPU’s clock. For this, the memory
chips remain ready for operation when the CPU expects them to be ready. These memories operate at
the CPU-memory bus without imposing wait states. SDRAM is commercially available as modules
incorporating multiple SDRAM chips and forming the required capacity for the modules.
• Key Features:

o Synchronous Operation: SDRAM is synchronized with the processor clock, which helps to
coordinate data processing and allows higher throughput.

o Burst Mode: Supports burst data (A temporary high-speed data transfer mode that can
transfer data at a much faster rate than nonburst technology. It's a generic electronics term
that refers to any situation where a device transmits data repeatedly without going through all
the steps for each piece of data) access, enabling multiple data transfers in rapid succession
within a single clock cycle.

o Application: Commonly used in older computing systems (pre-2000), but was later replaced
by faster DDR technologies.

b. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM):

• Overview: DDR SDRAM is an improved version of SDRAM that transfers data on both the rising
and falling edges of the clock signal, effectively doubling the data transfer rate compared to regular
SDRAM. This makes DDR memory more efficient and faster.
 • This faster version of SDRAM performs its operations on both edges of the clock signal; whereas a
standard SDRAM performs its operations on the rising edge of the clock signal. Since they transfer
data on both edges of the clock, the data transfer rate is doubled. To access the data at a high rate, the
memory cells are organized into two groups. Each group is accessed separately.
• While DDR DRAM (Double Data Rate DRAM) refers to the same underlying concept as DDR
SDRAM, the term "DDR DRAM" is more commonly used to emphasize its evolution from
traditional DRAM. It highlights its enhanced capabilities in terms of speed and data throughput by
transferring data on both edges of the clock cycle.

• Key Features:

o Double Data Rate: As the name suggests, DDR transfers data twice per clock cycle (once on
the rising edge and once on the falling edge), offering twice the bandwidth of SDRAM at the
same clock speed.

o Memory Types: Includes various versions such as DDR, DDR2, DDR3, DDR4, and DDR5,
with each successive version providing better speed, efficiency, and lower power
consumption.

o Application: Widely used in modern PCs, laptops, servers, and other devices requiring high-
speed memory access.

Question : Explain Flash Memory in detail

Flash Memory is a type of non-volatile storage that retains data even when the power is turned off. It is
commonly used in USB drives, SSDs(Solid State Drive), memory cards, smartphones, and other electronic
devices.
• Types:

o NAND Flash: The most commonly used type for data storage devices like SSDs and memory
cards. It is known for its high storage density and fast write speed.
o NOR Flash: Provides faster random access times and is used for storing firmware, such as
BIOS chips in computers.
• Characteristics:
o Non-Volatile: Retains data without the need for power, making it ideal for permanent
storage.
 o Endurance: Flash memory has a limited number of write/erase cycles, after which the
memory cells degrade. Wear leveling algorithms help extend the lifespan of flash memory by
distributing writes evenly across cells.
o Applications: Flash memory is used in a wide range of applications, from portable storage
devices (USB drives, SD cards) to embedded systems, mobile phones, and solid-state drives
(SSDs).
Question: Explain Newer Non-volatile Solid-State Memory Technologies OR Explain Nonvolatile
RAM within the Memory Hierarchy
The traditional memory hierarchy has consisted of three levels (Figure 5.18):
■ Static RAM (SRAM): SRAM provides rapid access time, but is the most expensive and the least dense
(bit density). SRAM is suitable for cache memory.
■ Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Cheaper, denser, and slower than SRAM, DRAM has traditionally been the
choice off-chip main memory.
■ Hard disk: A magnetic disk provides very high bit density and very low cost per bit, with relatively slow
access times. It is the traditional choice for external storage as part of the memory hierarchy
These memory technologies are designed to provide non-volatility with improved speed, endurance, and
scalability over traditional memory types such as DRAM and NAND flash. They are promising for next-
generation computing.

a. STT-RAM (Spin-Transfer Torque RAM):

• Overview: STT-RAM is a type of Magnetic RAM (MRAM) that uses the spin-transfer torque effect
to switch the magnetic orientation of a storage element (a magnetic tunnel junction) to store data.

• Working Principle: Data is stored in magnetic layers. By passing a spin-polarized current, the
magnetic direction can be flipped, representing binary states (0 and 1). The state is read by detecting
the resistance across the junction.

• Advantages:

o Fast Read/Write: Comparable to DRAM in terms of speed.

 o Non-Volatility: Retains data without power, unlike DRAM.

o High Endurance: No degradation due to wear, unlike flash memory.

o Low Power: Consumes less power during standby mode, ideal for energy-efficient
applications.

• Applications: Being developed for high-speed cache memory, embedded systems, and other
applications where fast, non-volatile memory is critical.

b. PCRAM (Phase-Change RAM):

• Overview: PCRAM (also known as PCM) stores data by changing the physical state of a material
(typically a chalcogenide glass) between amorphous (high resistance) and crystalline (low resistance)
phases. These two states have different electrical properties, which can be used to store binary data.

• Working Principle: When the material is heated and cooled rapidly, it transitions between the
amorphous and crystalline phases, representing 0s and 1s. Data is read by measuring the electrical
resistance of the cell.

• Advantages:

o Non-Volatile: Data is retained without power.

o Scalability: PCRAM scales well to smaller process technologies, making it suitable for
future memory architectures.

o Endurance: More durable than flash memory, with the ability to handle a larger number of
write cycles.

• Applications: PCRAM is used in storage applications requiring fast performance and non-volatility,
such as mobile devices, embedded systems, and potentially as a replacement for NAND flash.

c. ReRAM (Resistive RAM):

• Overview: ReRAM, or Resistive RAM, stores data by changing the resistance of a dielectric
material, typically an oxide. When a voltage is applied, the resistance can be set to a high or low
state, representing binary data.

• Working Principle: Data is stored in a resistive element. Applying a voltage across this element
creates conductive filaments (low resistance state, or 1) or breaks them (high resistance state, or 0).

• Advantages:

o Fast Read/Write: ReRAM offers very fast data access times, often faster than NAND flash.

o Low Power: ReRAM is highly energy-efficient, making it suitable for low-power devices
like IoT sensors and wearables.

o High Endurance: Can withstand many write/erase cycles, making it more durable than flash
memory.

o Scalability: The simple structure of ReRAM cells allows for dense packing, improving
storage capacity.
 • Applications: ReRAM is considered for storage-class memory and applications requiring both high-
speed access and low power consumption, such as embedded systems, mobile devices, and next-gen
computing.

Summary:
• SDRAM and DDR SDRAM represent synchronous, high-speed memory technologies, with DDR
evolving to increase speed and efficiency.

• Flash Memory is a widely used non-volatile storage solution found in various devices, from USB
drives to SSDs.

• Newer Non-Volatile Memory Technologies like STT-RAM, PCRAM, and ReRAM are poised to
offer faster, more reliable, and scalable memory solutions, potentially replacing or complementing
traditional memory types like DRAM and flash in high-performance applications.

Question: Write a note on types of CPU Registers

There are several types of registers available in the CPU for different purposes let’s discuss each one by one:
• Accumulator: This is the most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. It is
indifferent numbers in different microprocessors.

• Memory Address Registers (MAR): It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory.
MAR and MDR (Memory Data Register) together facilitate the communication of the CPU and the
main memory.

• Memory Data Registers (MDR): It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the
addressed location.

• General Purpose Registers: These are numbered as R0, R1, R2….Rn-1, and used to store temporary
data during any ongoing operation. Its content can be accessed by assembly programming. Modern
CPU architectures tend to use more GPR so that register-to-register addressing can be used more,
which is comparatively faster than other addressing modes.

• Program Counter (PC): Program Counter (PC) is used to keep the track of the execution of the
program. It contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched. PC points to the address
of the next instruction to be fetched from the main memory when the previous instruction has been
successfully completed. Program Counter (PC) also functions to count the number of instructions. The
incrementation of PCs depends on the type of architecture being used. If we are using a 32-bit
architecture, the PC gets incremented by 4 every time to fetch the next instruction.

• Instruction Register (IR): The IR holds the instruction which is just about to be executed. The
instruction from the PC is fetched and stored in IR. As soon as the instruction is placed in IR, the CPU
starts executing the instruction, and the PC points to the next instruction to be executed.

• Stack Pointer (SP): The stack PCs pointer points to the top of the stack, which is a part of the memory
used to store function calls and other operations.

• Flag Register: A flag register, also known as a status register or condition code register, is a special
type of register in a computer’s central processing unit (CPU) used to indicate the status of the CPU
or the outcome of various operations such as Zero Flag, Carry flag, Sign Flag, Overflow Flag, Parity
Flag, Auxiliary Carry Flag, and Interrupt Enable Flag.

• Condition code register ( CCR ): Condition code registers contain different flags that indicate the
status of any operation. For instance, let’s suppose an operation caused the creation of a negative result
or zero, then these flags are set high accordingly. and the flags are:
 1. Carry C: Set to 1 if an add operation produces a carry or a subtract operation produces a borrow;
otherwise cleared to 0.
2. Overflow V: Useful only during operations on signed integers.
3. Zero Z: Set to 1 if the result is 0, otherwise cleared to 0.
4. Negate N: Meaningful only in signed number operations. Set to 1 if a negative result is produced.
5. Extend X: Functions as a carry for multiple precision arithmetic operations.

These are generally decided by ALU.

So, these are the different registers that are operating for a specific purpose.

Size of CPU Register

The number and size of the register in the CPU depend on the processor design and can have an important
impact on its performance and capabilities on the CPU. Now, let’s discuss the different sizes of the register
available in the CPU:
• 8-bit registers: These can store 8 bits of data, which is the same as 1 byte. They are used for simple
arithmetic and data manipulation.
• 16-bit registers: These hold 16 bits of data, or 2 bytes. These registers are found in older processors
or certain systems that need 16-bit operations.
• 32-bit registers: These can store 32 bits of data or 4 bytes. They are common in many processors and
can handle larger data sizes and more complex calculations than 8-bit or 16-bit registers.
• 64-bit registers: These hold 64 bits of data, or 8 bytes. Modern processors often use these, providing
more computational power and better memory-addressing capabilities.

Most modern computers use 32-bit or 64-bit registers, and that’s why we call them 32-bit or 64-bit processors.
This terminology refers to the width of the processor’s registers and how much data it can handle at once.
In some specialized processors, you might see even larger registers like 128-bit or 256-bit. These are used for
specific tasks such as vector processing or cryptography where dealing with large data sets and parallel
processing is important.

Purpose of Registers
Registers play a very important role in computers, and they are used by CPU for various purposes.
• Storing Instruction: Registers are used to store the instruction from programs before the CPU follows
them. This helps the computer quickly find and follow the steps it needs to take.
• Holding Answer: When the computer does math calculations or other tasks, the register stores the
temporary answer.
• Quick Access to Important Stuff: Registers are like the computer’s quick-access shelves. They keep
important things nearby, so the computer can grab them fast without going far away to get them. It’s
like keeping your favourite tools on a shelf right next to you, instead of in a faraway closet.

So, registers are like the computer’s quick-access memory, helping it work faster and smarter.
Question : Explain Secondary Storage Memory Classification/ Secondary Storage devices

Primary memory has limited storage capacity and is volatile. Secondary memory overcomes this limitation
by providing permanent storage of data and in bulk quantity. Secondary memory is also termed external
memory and refers to the various storage media on which a computer can store data and programs. The
Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed Storage media is an internal storage medium like
a hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. A storage medium that is portable and can be taken outside the
computer is termed removable storage media.
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used for long-term storage of data and programs. It
is also known as auxiliary memory or external memory, and is distinct from primary memory, which is used
for short-term storage of data and instructions that are currently being processed by the CPU.
Secondary memory devices are typically larger and slower than primary memory, but offer a much larger
storage capacity. This makes them ideal for storing large files such as documents, images, videos, and other
multimedia content.
Some examples of secondary memory devices include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs),
magnetic tapes, optical discs such as CDs and DVDs, and flash memory such as USB drives and memory
cards. Each of these devices uses different technologies to store data, but they all share the common feature
of being non-volatile, meaning that they can store data even when the computer is turned off.
Secondary memory devices are accessed by the CPU via input/output (I/O) operations, which involve
transferring data between the device and primary memory. The speed of these operations is affected by
factors such as the type of device, the size of the file being accessed, and the type of connection between the
device and the computer.
Overall, secondary memory is an essential component of modern computing systems and plays a critical role
in the storage and retrieval of data and programs.
Uses of Secondary Media:
• Permanent Storage: Primary Memory (RAM) is volatile, i.e. it loses all information when the
electricity is turned off, so in order to secure the data permanently in the device, Secondary storage
devices are needed.
• Portability: Storage mediums, like CDs, flash drives can be used to transfer the data from one
device to another.
Fixed and Removable Storage
Fixed Storage-
Fixed storage is an internal media device that is used by a computer system to store data, and usually, these
are referred to as the Fixed disk drives or Hard Drives.
Fixed storage devices are literally not fixed, obviously, these can be removed from the system for repairing
work, maintenance purposes, and also for an upgrade, etc. But in general, this can’t be done without a proper
toolkit to open up the computer system to provide physical access, and that needs to be done by an engineer.
Technically, almost all of the data i.e. being processed on a computer system is stored on some type of a
built-in fixed storage device.
Types of fixed storage:
• Internal flash memory (rare)
• SSD (solid-state disk) units
• Hard disk drives (HDD)
Removable Storage-
Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a computer system to store data, and usually,
these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives or the External Drives.
Removable storage is any type of storage device that can be removed/ejected from a computer system while
the system is running. Examples of external devices include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray disk drives, as well as
diskettes and USB drives. Removable storage makes it easier for a user to transfer data from one computer
system to another.
In storage factors, the main benefit of removable disks is that they can provide the fast data transfer rates
associated with storage area networks (SANs)
Types of Removable Storage:
• Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs)
• Memory cards
• Floppy disks
• Magnetic tapes
• Disk packs
• Paper storage (punched tapes, punched cards)
Secondary Storage Media
There are the following main types of storage media:
1. Magnetic storage media:
Magnetic media is coated with a magnetic layer that is magnetized in clockwise or anticlockwise directions.
When the disk moves, the head interprets the data stored at a specific location in binary 1s and 0s at
reading.
Examples: hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tapes.
• Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it. It is packaged inside a
protective plastic envelope. These are one of the oldest types of portable storage devices that could
store up to 1.44 MB of data but now they are not used due to very little memory storage.
• Hard disk: A hard disk consists of one or more circular disks called platters which are mounted on a
common spindle. Each surface of a platter is coated with magnetic material. Both surfaces of each
disk are capable of storing data except the top and bottom disks where only the inner surface is used.
 The information is recorded on the surface of the rotating disk by magnetic read/write heads. These
heads are joined to a common arm known as the access arm.
Hard disk drive components:
Most of the basic types of hard drives contain a number of disk platters that are placed around a spindle
which is placed inside a sealed chamber. The chamber also includes read/write heads and motors. Data is
stored on each of these disks in the arrangement of concentric circles called tracks which are divided further
into sectors. Though internal Hard drives are not very portable and are used internally in a computer system,
external hard disks can be used as a substitute for portable storage. Hard disks can store data up to several
terabytes.

2. Optical storage media (This can be asked as a separate question as – Write a note on optical
memory)
In optical storage, media information is stored and read using a laser beam. The data is stored as a spiral
pattern of pits and ridges denoting binary 0 and binary 1.
Examples: CDs and DVDs
• Compact Disk: A Compact Disc drive (CDD) is a device that a computer uses to read data that is
encoded digitally on a compact disc (CD). A CD drive can be installed inside a computer’s
compartment, provided with an opening for easier disc tray access or it can be used by a peripheral
device connected to one of the ports provided in the computer system. A compact disk or CD can
store approximately 650 to 700 megabytes of data. A computer should possess a CD Drive to read
the CDs. There are three types of CDs:
CD- ROM CD-R CD-RW

It stands for Compact Disk – Read Only It stands for Compact Disk- It stands for Compact
Memory Recordable. Disk-Rewritable.

Data is written on these disks at the time of It can be read or written

Data can be recorded on
manufacture. This data cannot be changed, multiple times but a CD-
these disks but only once.
once is it written by the manufacturer, but RW drive needs to be
Once the data is written in a
can only be read. CD- ROMs are used for installed on your
CD-R, it cannot be
text, audio and video distribution like games, computer before editing
erased/modified.
encyclopaedias, and application software. a CD-RW.
 • DVD:
It stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk. It looks just like a CD and uses similar
technology as that of the CDs but allows tracks to be spaced closely enough to store data that is more
than six times the CD’s capacity. It is a significant advancement in portable storage technology. A
DVD holds 4.7 GB to 17 GB of data.
• Blue Ray Disk:
This is the latest optical storage media to store high-definition audio and video. It is similar to a CD
or DVD but can store up to 27 GB of data on a single-layer disc and up to 54 GB of data on a dual-
layer disk. While CDs or DVDs use a red laser beam, the blue-ray disk uses a blue laser to read/write
data on a disk.
3. Solid State Memories
Solid-state storage devices are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts like the reels of tape,
spinning discs, etc. Solid-state storage devices use special memories called flash memory to store data. A
solid-state drive (or flash memory) is used mainly in digital cameras, pen drives, or USB flash drives.
Pen Drives:
Pen Drives or Thumb drives or Flash drives are the recently emerged portable storage media. It is an
EEPROM-based flash memory that can be repeatedly erased and written using electric signals. This memory
is accompanied by a USB connector which enables the pen drive to connect to the computer. They have a
capacity smaller than a hard disk but greater than a CD. Pen drive has the following advantages:
• Transfer Files:
A pen drive is plugged into a USB port of the system can be used as a device to transfer files,
documents, and photos to a PC and also vice versa. Similarly, selected files can be transferred
between a pen drive and any type of workstation.
• Portability:
The lightweight nature and smaller size of a pen drive make it possible to carry it from place to place
which makes data transportation an easier task.
• Backup Storage:
Most of the pen drives now come with the feature of having password encryption, important
information related to family, medical records, and photos can be stored on them as a backup.
• Transport Data:
Professionals/Students can now easily transport large data files and video/audio lectures on a pen
drive and gain access to them from anywhere. Independent PC technicians can store work-related
utility tools, various programs, and files on a high-speed 64 GB pen drive and move from one site to
another.
•
Here are some advantages and disadvantages of secondary memory:
Advantages:
1. Large storage capacity: Secondary memory devices typically have a much larger storage capacity
than primary memory, allowing users to store large amounts of data and programs.
2. Non-volatile storage: Data stored on secondary memory devices is typically non-volatile, meaning it
can be retained even when the computer is turned off.
3. Portability: Many secondary memory devices are portable, making it easy to transfer data between
computers or devices.
4. Cost-effective: Secondary memory devices are generally more cost-effective than primary memory.
Disadvantages:
1. Slower access times: Accessing data from secondary memory devices typically takes longer than
accessing data from primary memory.
2. Mechanical failures: Some types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives, are prone
to mechanical failures that can result in data loss.
3. Limited lifespan: Secondary memory devices have a limited lifespan, and can only withstand a
certain number of read and write cycles before they fail.
4. Data corruption: Data stored on secondary memory devices can become corrupted due to factors
such as electromagnetic interference, viruses, or physical damage.
5. Overall, secondary memory is an essential component of modern computing systems, but it also has
its limitations and drawbacks. The choice of a particular secondary memory device depends on the
user’s specific needs and requirements.
Question: Write a note on Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks are a type of external memory device that stores data using magnetic charges on a disk's
surface. Common examples include hard disk drives (HDDs) and floppy disks. Magnetic disks consist of
platters coated with a magnetic material, and data is read from or written to these disks via read/write heads
that convert electrical signals into magnetic fields and vice versa.

Components of Magnetic Disks:

• Platters: Circular disks made of metal or glass, coated with magnetic material.
• Spindle: The platters are mounted on a spindle, which rotates them at high speeds.
• Read/Write Heads: Located close to the platters to read from and write to the surface.
• Actuator Arm: Moves the read/write heads over the disk surfaces.

Magnetic Read and Write Mechanisms

The read/write mechanism in magnetic disks relies on the manipulation of magnetic fields:

• Writing: Data is written to a magnetic disk by altering the orientation of magnetic particles on the
surface. A write head generates a magnetic field that aligns these particles in specific patterns to
represent binary data (0s and 1s).
• Reading: During reading, a read head senses the orientation of these particles to retrieve the stored
data. Changes in the magnetic field induce electrical currents in the read head, which are converted
into the original binary data.

Data Organization and Formatting

Data on magnetic disks is organized in sectors and tracks:

• Tracks: Concentric circles on the surface of the disk.

 • Sectors: Divisions of tracks into smaller, addressable units, usually of a fixed size (e.g., 512 bytes or
4096 bytes).
• Cylinders: A collection of tracks located at the same position on multiple platters.

Before data can be written to a disk, the disk must be formatted, a process that prepares the surface by
organizing it into sectors and tracks. Logical formatting (or partitioning) creates a file system (e.g., NTFS,
FAT32), allowing the operating system to manage files on the disk.

Physical Characteristics of Magnetic Disks

Key physical characteristics include: (Learn all the definitions)

• Rotational speed: Measured in revolutions per minute (RPM), typically ranging from 5400 to 7200
RPM in consumer HDDs.
• Area density: The number of bits stored in a given area on the disk's surface.
• Platter size: Commonly 2.5 inches for laptops and 3.5 inches for desktops.
• Access time: The time taken to read or write data, consisting of seek time (moving the actuator arm
to the correct track) and rotational latency (waiting for the desired sector to rotate under the
read/write head).

Disk Performance Parameters

Key performance parameters for magnetic disks include:

• Data transfer rate: The speed at which data is read from or written to the disk, typically measured
in megabytes per second (MBps).
• Seek time: The time it takes for the read/write head to move to the correct track, usually measured in
milliseconds (ms).
• Rotational latency: The delay caused by the rotation of the disk, which is dependent on the RPM.
• Access time: The total time taken to retrieve data, including both seek time and rotational latency.
Some important differences:
1. Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is not accessed directly by the

Central Processing Unit(CPU). Instead, data
Primary memory is directly accessed by the
accessed from a secondary memory is first loaded
Central Processing Unit(CPU).
into Random Access Memory(RAM) and is then
sent to the Processing Unit.

RAM provides a much faster-accessing speed to

data than secondary memory. By loading Secondary Memory is slower in data accessing.
software programs and required files into primary Typically primary memory is six times faster than
memory(RAM), computers can process data secondary memory.
much more quickly.

Primary memory, i.e. Random Access Secondary memory provides a feature of being non-
Memory(RAM) is volatile and gets completely volatile, which means it can hold on to its data with
erased when a computer is shut down. or without electrical power supply.

2. Difference between DRAM and SRAM

Feature DRAM (Dynamic RAM) SRAM (Static RAM)

Cell Structure Consists of a capacitor and a transistor. Data Consists of 6 transistors. Data is stored
is stored as charge in the capacitor. using flip-flops.
Data Storage Stores data as electrical charges in Stores data as voltage levels in flip-flops.
capacitors.
Refresh Requires periodic refresh to maintain data as Does not require a refresh; retains data as
Requirement capacitors leak charge. long as power is supplied.
Speed Slower access time due to charge refresh Faster access time compared to DRAM
(~50-70 ns). (~10 ns).
Density Higher density; more bits can be stored per Lower density; fewer bits stored per unit
unit area. area.
Power Higher power consumption due to refresh Lower power consumption since no
Consumption cycles. refresh is required.
Cost Less expensive due to simpler design and More expensive due to complex structure
higher density. and lower density.
Capacity Typically used for large memory capacities Typically used for smaller memory
(GBs). capacities (MBs).
Usage Mainly used as main system memory Used in cache memory (L1, L2, L3) in
(RAM) in computers, smartphones, etc. CPUs, registers, and other high-speed
applications.
Volatility Volatile (data lost when power is turned off). Volatile (data lost when power is turned
off).
Performance Slower, suitable for large memory Faster, ideal for quick-access, high-
requirements. performance tasks.
3. Difference between HDD and SSD

Feature HDD (Hard Disk Drive) SSD (Solid-State Drive)

Technology Uses spinning magnetic disks and read/write Uses NAND flash memory with no
heads moving parts
Speed Slower (80-160 MB/s typical) Much faster (up to 500 MB/s or more)
(Read/Write)
Durability Less durable (mechanical parts prone to More durable (no moving parts)
failure)
Power Higher power consumption due to spinning Lower power consumption
Consumption disks
Noise Can be noisy (spinning disks and moving Completely silent
parts)
Data Access Slower (mechanical seek time and rotational Faster (instant access to data)
latency)
Capacity Higher storage capacity (up to 20 TB or Lower capacity (commonly up to 4
more) TB for consumers)
Price per GB Lower cost per GB Higher cost per GB
Weight Heavier due to mechanical components Lighter (no mechanical components)
Fragmentation Susceptible to fragmentation, which can No fragmentation, maintains
slow down performance consistent speed
Boot Time Slower (20–40 seconds typical) Faster (10–20 seconds or less)
Lifespan Mechanical wear over time (limited by Limited by write cycles (but longer
mechanical failure) lifespan overall)
Heat Generation More heat generated due to mechanical Less heat generation
motion
Common Use Budget laptops, desktop computers, archival High-performance systems, gaming,
storage ultrabooks
File Opening Slower to open large files (video editing, Faster to open large files (video
Times games, etc.) editing, games, etc.)
4. Differences between Volatile and Non-Volatile Memory

Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Volatile memory is the type of memory in which Non-volatile memory is the type of memory in
data is lost as it is powered-off. which data remains stored even if it is powered-off.

Contents of Volatile memory are stored Contents of Non-volatile memory are stored
temporarily. permanently.

It is faster than non-volatile memory. It is slower than volatile memory.

RAM(Random Access Memory) is an example ROM(Read Only Memory) is an example of non-

of volatile memory. volatile memory.

In volatile memory, data can be easily transferred In non-volatile memory, data can not be easily
in comparison to non-volatile memory. transferred in comparison to volatile memory.

In Volatile memory, process can read and write. In Non-volatile memory, process can only read.

Volatile memory generally has less storage Non-volatile memory generally has more storage
capacity. capacity than volatile memory.

In volatile memory, the program’s data are stored In non-volatile memory, any kind of data which has
which are currently in process by the CPU. to be saved permanently are stored.

Volatile memory is more costly per unit size. Non-volatile memory is less costly per unit size.

Volatile memory has a huge impact on the Non-volatile memory has a huge impact on a
system’s performance. system’s storage capacity.

In volatile memory, processor has direct access to In non-volatile memory, processor has no direct
data. access to data.

Volatile memory chips are generally kept on the Non-volatile memory chips are embedded on the
memory slot. motherboard.
Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Advantages- Advantages-

• Fast speed • More reliable

• Low power consumption • Stores data permanently

• Better system performance as it increases • Inexpensive memory

speed • Helps in booting of operating system

Disadvantages-
Disadvantages-
• Expensive
• Slow speed
• Limited storage space
• Can only read data
• Stores data temporarily

5. Difference between CISC and RISC

Some important and basic concepts to understand:

Internal Memory/ Primary memory/ Main memory:
• RAM: Random Access Memory

o SRAM: Static Random Access Memory

o DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory

• ROM: Read-Only Memory

o MROM: Masked Read-Only Memory

o PROM: Programmable Read-Only Memory

o EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

o EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

External Memory / Secondary Memory / Auxiliary Memory:

• Optical: Refers to optical storage devices such as CDs, DVDs, etc.

• Magnetic: Refers to magnetic storage devices like hard disk drives.

• Solid State: Refers to solid-state storage like SSDs and USB memory sticks.

Other Memory Types:

• Cache: A small, fast memory used to store frequently accessed data.

• Virtual: A section of a storage drive used as temporary RAM to extend the capacity of actual
physical RAM.

===================
Few important concepts to go through:
Internal Memory:
• RAM: Random Access Memory

o SRAM: Static Random Access Memory

o DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory

• ROM: Read-Only Memory

o MROM: Masked Read-Only Memory

o PROM: Programmable Read-Only Memory

o EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

o EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

External Memory:
• Optical: Refers to optical storage devices such as CDs, DVDs, etc.

• Magnetic: Refers to magnetic storage devices like hard disk drives.

• Solid State: Refers to solid-state storage like SSDs and USB memory sticks.

Other Memory Types:

• Cache: A small, fast memory used to store frequently accessed data.

• Virtual: A section of a storage drive used as temporary RAM to extend the capacity of actual
physical RAM.

• Sequential Access: A type of data access where data is read or written in a specific sequence (e.g.,
tape drives).

==
What is the main purpose of semiconductors?

A semiconductor is a substance often used in electrical circuits and components that partially conducts
electricity, allowing electrons to flow throughout the circuit when a certain voltage is applied

====
ARM(Advanced RISC Machines) uses Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC), while x86 uses
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC). RISC has far fewer instructions than CISC, and each basic
instruction is executed in a single clock cycle. CISC's instructions can be complex and perform multiple
tasks in a single instruction.

The x86 processors are CISC-based, while the ARM64 processors are RISC based. The terms RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computing architecture) and CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing
architecture) look very straightforward, but when we dig deep, it shows how different and complex these are
at that micro level.
==============
Full forms:
1. ROM: Read-Only Memory

2. PROM: Programmable Read-Only Memory

3. RAM: Random Access Memory

4. CPU: Central Processing Unit

5. I/O Devices: Input/Output Devices

6. ALU: Arithmetic Logic Unit

7. PCR: Program Control Register

8. IR: Instruction Register

9. MAR: Memory Address Register

10. MBR: Memory Buffer Register

Some important diagrams:

Explain Classification of Memory in detail. (this question can be asked in parts eg. 1) Explain Primary
memory or Internal memory. 2) Explain Secondary or Auxiliary or external memory in detail. 3)
Explain optical memory in detail. 4) Give difference between Primary and Secondary memory 5)
difference between SRAM and DRAM)
In computers, memory is the most essential component of the normal functioning of any system. The
computer system categorizes the memory for different purposes and uses. In this section, we have discussed
the classification of memory in detail. Also, we will discuss types of memory, features of memory, RAM,
ROM, SRAM, DRAM, and its advantages and disadvantages.
What is computer memory?
Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits. The
memory block is split into a small number of components, called cells. Each cell has a unique address to
store the data in memory, ranging from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of computer
memory is 64k words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The address of the
memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.
Why do we need a computer memory?
In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data like text, images, video,
audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is required. For example, when we write and execute
any computer program, it is initially stored in primary memory. If the processor does not need particular
items for a longer time, the program or data is automatically saved into the permanent or secondary memory.
Then the data is called from secondary memory to main memory and performs the execution of codes.
Features of Memory
Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:
1. Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a computer. The internal
memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known as primary memory. the example of primary
memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas, external memory is the separate storage
device from the computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.
2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in external
and internal memory. External devices' storage capacity is measured in terms of bytes, whereas the
internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word length can vary in bits, such as
8, 16 or 32 bits.
3. Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.
o DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method that allows
input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or from the main memory.
 o Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data storage device to
read stored data sequentially from the computer memory. Whereas, the data received from
random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.
o Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from memory. This
method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A to Z in random access, we can
directly jump to any specified location. In the Sequential method, we have to follow all
intervening from A to Z to reach at the particular memory location.
o Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes search performance
through defined data to directly access the stored information based on a memory address.
4. Unit of transfer: As the name suggests, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits that can be
read or write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate of data can be different in external
and internal memory.
o Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the word size.
o External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word length. It is always
greater than a word or may be referred to as blocks.
5. Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.
o Access Time: In random access memory, it represents the total time taken by memory
devices to perform a read or write operation that an address is sent to memory.
o Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and additional required
time before starting second access.
o Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from an
external or internal memory device. Bit transfer can be different for different external and
internal devices.
6. Physical types: It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer such as magnetic,
semiconductor, magneto-optical and optical.
7. Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.
8. Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile, non-volatile or
non-erasable memory. Volatile memory is known as RAM, which requires power to retain stored
information, and if any power loss has occurred, stored data will be lost. Non-volatile memory is a
permanent storage memory that is used to obtain any stored information, even when the power is off.
Non-erasable memory is a type of memory that cannot be erased after the manufactured like ROM
because at the time of manufactured ROM are programmed.
Classification of Memory
The following figure represents the classification of memory:
Primary or Main Memory
Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates directly within
the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when
the processor is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads
instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts
execution. Accessing or executing of data from primary memory is faster because it has a cache or register
memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to the CPU. The primary memory is volatile,
which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than
secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as compared to secondary memory.
The primary memory is further divided into two parts:
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the CPU. It
is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data, programs or program results. It is used to
read/write data in memory until the machine is working. It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs
or the computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM will be lost. All data stored in computer
memory can be read or accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

• SRAM
• DRAM
DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the dynamic storage
of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is made up of two parts:
a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small, requiring millions of
them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same
size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is
volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM
1. It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.
2. It is slower than SRAM
3. It holds a large amount of data
4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
6. Less power consumption
SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in the memory.
It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a power supply.
However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.
Characteristics of Static Ram
1. It does not require to refresh.
2. It is faster than DRAM
 3. It is expensive.
4. High power consumption
5. Longer life
6. Large size
7. Uses as a cache memory
SRAM Vs. DRAM
SRAM DRAM
It is a Static Random-Access Memory. It is a Dynamic Random Access Memory.
The access time of SRAM is slow. The access time of DRAM is high.
It uses flip-flops to store each bit of information. It uses a capacitor to store each bit of information.
It does not require periodic refreshing to preserve the It requires periodically refreshing to preserve the
information. information.
It uses in cache memory. It is used in the main memory.
The cost of SRAM is expensive. The cost of DRAM is less expensive.
It has a complex structure. Its structure is simple.
It requires low power consumption. It requires more power consumption.
Advantages of RAM
o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.
o It requires less power to operate.
o Program loads much faster
o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.
o Perform read and write operations.
o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.
Disadvantages of RAM
o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.
o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.
o It is expensive than ROM
o It is unreliable as compared to ROM
o The Size of RAM is limited.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information inside a chip. It is
a read-only memory that can only read stored information, data or programs, but we cannot write or modify
anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program data that are required to start or boot a
computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be lost even when the
power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types of ROM
There are five types of Read Only Memory:
1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):
MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured by the
integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction
stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.
 2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or
program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired
content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device; after
that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only once
in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no power
supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to erase any
stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase
the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase stored
data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory
whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data can
be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data erase one byte at a time.
5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small
units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the
contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data
between the computer and digital devices.
Advantages of ROM
1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned off.
2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.
3. Data can be stored permanently.
4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.
5. These cannot be changed accidently
6. It is cheaper than RAM.
7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.
Disadvantages of ROM
1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.
2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.
3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet light.
RAM Vs. ROM
RAM ROM
It is a Random-Access Memory. It is a Read Only Memory.
Read and write operations can be performed. Only Read operation can be performed.
Data can be lost in volatile memory when the Data cannot be lost in non-volatile memory when
power supply is turned off. the power supply is turned off.
It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.
Storage data requires to be refreshed in RAM. Storage data does not need to be refreshed in
ROM.
The size of the chip is bigger than the ROM The size of the chip is smaller than the RAM chip
chip to store the data. to store the same amount of data.
Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM Types of ROM: MROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data. Secondary memory is also
known as external memory that representing the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives
and DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis. However, it is
cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed
directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM (Random Access
Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data. Secondary memory devices also include
magnetic disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic
tapes.
Features of Secondary Memory
o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.
o Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.
o It can store large collections of different types, such as audio, video, pictures, text, software, etc.
o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a permanent storage area; even
the power is turned off.
o It has various optical and magnetic memories to store data.
Types of Secondary Memory
The following are the types of secondary memory devices:
Hard Disk
A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk that permanently stores data,
programs, and files, and cannot lose store data when the computer's power source is switched off. Typically,
it is located internally on computer's motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one or more rigid fast
rotating disk platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large storage device, found on every computer or
laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text documentation, videos, operating system, and
data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic coating disks for
holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy Diskette that comes in three sizes
like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be accessed through the floppy
disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only way through a new program installed on a computer or backup of the
information. However, it is the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store data up to 1.44 MB.
Since most programs were larger, that required multiple floppy diskettes to store large amounts of data.
Therefore, it is not used due to very low memory storage.

CD (Compact Disc)
A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device used to store various
data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other information useful to a computer. The
CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height, which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It uses
laser light to read and write data from the CDs.

Types of CDs
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass like audio CDs,
software and computer games at the time of manufacture. Users can only read data, text, music,
videos from the disc, but they cannot modify or burnt it.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact Disc used to write once by the user; after
that, it cannot be modified or erased.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD disc, often used to write or delete the
stored data.
DVD Drive/Disc
DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or Digital Versatile Disc. It has the
same size as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact disc. It was developed in 1995 by
Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics companies. DVD drives are divided into three types,
such as DVD ROM (Read Only Memory), DVD R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or Erasable). It
can store multiple data formats like audio, videos, images, software, operating system, etc. The storing
capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.

Blu Ray Disc (BD)

Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data or high definition of video
recording and playing other media files. It uses laser technology to read the stored data of the Blu-ray Disk.
It can store more data at a greater density as compared to CD/ DVD. For example, compact discs allow us to
store 700 MB of data, and in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB of storage capacity, while Blu-ray Discs provide
28 GB of space to store data.
Pen Drive
A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also known as a USB flash drive. It is
commonly used to store and transfer the data connected to a computer using a USB port. It does not have
any moveable part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that stores the data. It allows the users
to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images, etc. from one computer to any USB pen drive. The
storing capacity of pen drives from 64 MB to 128 GB or more.
Cache Memory
It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory that lies between the CPU and the main memory. It is a
faster, high performance and temporary memory to enhance the performance of the CPU. It stores all the
data and instructions that are often used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access time of data from the
main memory. It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes, it is also called CPU memory because it is
very close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels of cache memory.

1. L1 Cache: The L1 cache is also known as the onboard, internal, or primary cache. It is built with the
help of the CPU. Its speed is very high, and the size of the L1 cache varies from 8 KB to 128 KB.
2. L2 Cache: It is also known as external or secondary cache, which requires fast access time to store
temporary data. It is built into a separate chip in a motherboard, not built into the CPU like the L1
level. The size of the L2 cache may be 128 KB to 1 MB.
3. L3 Cache: L3 cache levels are generally used with high performance and capacity of the computer. It
is built into a motherboard. Its speed is very slow, and the maximum size up to 8 MB.
Advantages of Cache Memory
1. Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the main memory.
2. It stores all data and instructions that are repeatedly used by the CPU for improving the performance
of a computer.
3. The access time of data is less than the main memory.
Disadvantage of Cache Memory
1. It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and the Secondary memory.
2. It has limited storage capacity.
Register Memory
The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing and transferring the data and the instructions to
a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer. It is a part of computer memory located in
the CPU as the form of registers. The register memory is 16, 32 and 64 bits in size. It temporarily stores data
instructions and the address of the memory that is repeatedly used to provide faster response to the CPU.

Primary Vs. Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory
It is also known as temporary memory. It is also known as a permanent memory.
Data can be access directly by the processor or Data cannot be accessed directly by the I/O processor
CPU. or CPU.
Stored data can be a volatile or non-volatile The nature of secondary memory is always non-
memory. volatile.
It is more costly than secondary memory. It is less costly than primary memory.
It is a faster memory. It is a slower memory.
It has limited storage capacity. It has a large storage capacity.
It required the power to retain the data in primary It does not require power to retain the data in
memory. secondary memory.
Examples of primary memory are RAM, ROM, Examples of secondary memory are CD, DVD,
Registers, EPROM, PROM and cache memory. HDD, magnetic tapes, flash disks, pen drive, etc.