Q1. Write a short note on data communication?

Ans 1. Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable,
wire or it can be air or vacuum also. For occurrence of data
communication, communicating devices must be a part of
communication system made up of a combination of hardware or
software devices and programs.

Q2. What are the components of data communication?

Ans2. The components of data communication are:
1. Sender: The device or entity that generates and sends the data.
It can be a computer, smartphone, or any other digital device.
2. Receiver: The device or entity that receives the data. Like the
sender, it can be a computer, smartphone, or other digital
devices.
3. Message: The actual data being communicated. This can
include text, audio, video, or any other form of information.
4. Transmission Medium: The physical path or channel through
which the message travels. This can be:
o Wired: Such as coaxial cables, fiber optics, or twisted-pair
cables.
o Wireless: Such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, or
satellite links.
5. Protocol: A set of rules and conventions that govern how data is
transmitted and received. Protocols ensure that both the
sender and receiver understand the format and timing of the
data, examples include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
Q3. What is Topology?
Ans3. Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.
Or
Geometric arrangement of computers in a network is called
Topology.

Q4. What are the Different Types of Network Topology?

Ans4.
Q5. Write a short note on distributed processing With Example?
Ans5. Distributed processing is a setup in which multiple individual
central processing units (CPU) work on the same programs, functions
or systems to provide more capability for a computer or other device.
Distributed processing is commonly used in cloud computing, large-
scale data processing, and applications requiring high availability and
performance, such as web services and big data analytics. It enables
organizations to leverage a network of computers to perform
complex tasks more efficiently than traditional centralized processing
systems.
Q6. What do you mean by Line Configuration?
Ans6. A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A
link is a communication pathway that transfers data from one device
to another. Devices can be a computer, printer, or any other device
that is capable to send and receive data. For visualization purposes,
imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For
communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some
way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types
of connections:
1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection

Q7. Differentiate Between Point to Point and Multipoint Connection?

Ans7. Point-to-Point Connection
1. Definition: A direct connection between two devices or nodes.
2. Communication: Only the two connected devices can
communicate with each other.
3. Bandwidth: Typically provides dedicated bandwidth for the
connection, leading to better performance.
4. Simplicity: Easier to manage and troubleshoot due to fewer
devices involved.
5. Use Cases: Commonly used in scenarios like leased lines, direct
links between routers, and certain types of serial connections.
Multipoint Connection
1. Definition: A connection where multiple devices are connected
to a single communication channel.
2. Communication: All connected devices can communicate, but
only one device can transmit at a time unless using protocols to
manage traffic.
3. Bandwidth: Shared bandwidth among all devices, which may
lead to reduced performance as more devices are added.
4. Complexity: More complex to manage due to the increased
number of devices and potential for data collisions.
5. Use Cases: Common in LANs, broadcast networks, and wireless
networks where multiple devices share a single communication
medium.

Q8. What is Transmission mode? Explain different types of

transmission mode?
Ans8. Transmission mode refers to the way data is transmitted over a
communication channel. It defines the direction and method of data
transfer between devices. There are three primary types of
transmission modes:
1. Simplex Mode
• Definition: In simplex mode, data transmission occurs in only
one direction. One device sends data while the other only
receives.
• Example: A keyboard to a computer is a simplex
communication where the keyboard sends input to the
computer, but the computer does not send data back to the
keyboard.
2. Half-Duplex Mode
• Definition: Half-duplex mode allows data transmission in both
directions, but not simultaneously. Devices can send and
receive data, but only one at a time.
• Example: Walkie-talkies operate in half-duplex mode; one
person speaks while the other listens, and they must take turns
to communicate.
3. Full-Duplex Mode
• Definition: In full-duplex mode, data transmission occurs in
both directions simultaneously. Both devices can send and
receive data at the same time.
• Example: A telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex
communication, where both parties can talk and listen at the
same time.

Q9. What is computer network and what are the different categories
of Network?
Ans9. A computer network is a group of computers linked to each
other that enables the computer to communicate with another
computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
Advantages:

• Covers large geographic areas (like cities or countries).

• Facilitates communication between remote sites.

Disadvantages:

• Higher setup and maintenance costs.

• Slower speeds compared to LANs.

Advantages:

• Connects multiple LANs within a city, offering good speed.

• Suitable for organizations with multiple branches.

Disadvantages:

• Limited to urban areas.

• Can be expensive to implement and maintain.
 Advantages:

• Easy to set up and use with minimal cost.

• Ideal for connecting personal devices like smartphones and
tablets.

Disadvantages:

• Limited range (typically 10 meters).

• Not suitable for large-scale data sharing.

Q10. Differentiate between OSI &TCP/IP Model?

Ans10.

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for

OSI stands for Open Systems Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol/Internet
Full Form Protocol

Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used

It is horizontally
It is vertically approached
Approach approached

Delivery of the
Delivery of the package is package is not
guaranteed in OSI Model guaranteed in TCP/IP
Delivery Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Replacement of tools and Replacing the tools is

changes can easily be done in not easy as it is in OSI
Replacement this model Model

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than

Reliability Model OSI Model

Not tied to specific protocols, but

examples include HTTP
(Application), SSL/TLS HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP,
(Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP, Ethernet
Protocol IP (Network), Ethernet (Data
Example Link)

Error Built into Data Link and Built into protocols like
Handling Transport layers TCP

Both connection-oriented (TCP)

TCP (connection-
and connectionless (UDP)
oriented), UDP
Connection protocols are covered at the
(connectionless)
Orientation Transport layer
Q11. Differentiate Between Guided and Unguided Media?

Ans11.

Q12. Write a Short note on:-

1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
4. Throughput
5. Propagation speed
6. Propagation Time
7. Wave Length
8. Frequency
9. Amplitude
Ans 12.

1. Attenuation

Attenuation is the reduction in signal strength as it travels through a

medium, caused by factors like distance and absorption.

2. Distortion

Distortion is the alteration of a signal's shape during transmission,

leading to loss of information and clarity.

3. Noise

Noise is unwanted interference that disrupts signal transmission,

originating from various external and internal sources, degrading
signal quality.

4. Throughput

Throughput measures the actual data transfer rate in a network,

reflecting efficiency, typically expressed in bits per second (bps).

5. Propagation Speed

Propagation speed is the speed at which a signal travels through a

medium, varying by the type of medium (e.g., air, fiber optic).

6. Propagation Time

Propagation time is the time it takes for a signal to reach its

destination, determined by distance and propagation speed.

7. Wavelength

Wavelength is the distance between consecutive peaks of a wave,

inversely related to frequency; it influences wave behavior in
different media.
8. Frequency

Frequency is the number of cycles a wave completes in one second,

measured in Hertz (Hz), affecting wave characteristics like pitch and
data capacity.

9. Amplitude

Amplitude is the maximum height of a wave from its rest position,

indicating signal strength in audio and radio waves; higher amplitude
means a stronger signal.

Q13. Explain Layers of OSI Model?

Ans13.

1. Physical Layer

Responsible for the transmission of raw bitstreams over a physical

medium. It deals with hardware components like cables, switches,
and electrical signals.

2. Data Link Layer

Ensures reliable communication between directly connected nodes.

It handles error detection, correction, and frame synchronization.
Examples include Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

3. Network Layer

Manages routing of data packets between devices across multiple

networks. It determines the best path for data transfer. The Internet
Protocol (IP) operates at this layer.
4. Transport Layer

Provides end-to-end communication services for applications. It

ensures complete data transfer and manages flow control and error
recovery. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) are key protocols here.

5. Session Layer

Manages sessions between applications, establishing, maintaining,

and terminating connections. It coordinates communication and
ensures data exchange is organized.

6. Presentation Layer

Prepares data for the application layer by translating, encrypting, or

compressing it. It ensures that data from the application layer is in a
usable format.

7. Application Layer

The topmost layer that provides network services directly to user

applications. It enables functions such as file transfer, email, and web
browsing. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP operate here.

These layers work together to facilitate communication over

networks, each with specific functions and responsibilities.
Q14. What is Multiplexing what are its advantages and
disadvantages?

Ans 14. Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple signals

into one medium to optimize resource use, allowing for efficient
transmission over a shared communication channel.

Advantages of Multiplexing

1. Efficient Bandwidth Utilization:

Combines multiple signals into one channel, maximizing the use
of available bandwidth and reducing the need for additional
physical media.
2. Cost Savings:
Lowers infrastructure costs by minimizing the number of
required communication lines, leading to reduced installation
and maintenance expenses.
3. Simultaneous Transmission:
Enables multiple data streams to be transmitted at the same
time, improving overall communication efficiency.
4. Scalability:
Facilitates easy expansion of systems by adding new channels
without significant changes to the existing infrastructure.
5. Dynamic Resource Allocation:
Allows flexible allocation of bandwidth based on demand,
optimizing network performance and resource management.

Disadvantages of Multiplexing

1. Increased Complexity:
Requires more complex equipment and protocols for
multiplexing and demultiplexing, complicating system design
and management.
2. Potential for Interference:
Risk of crosstalk and interference between signals, which can
degrade data quality and lead to transmission errors.
 3. Latency Issues:
Additional processing time may introduce delays in data
transmission, affecting real-time communication applications.
4. Single Point of Failure:
A failure in the multiplexing system can impact multiple signals,
leading to greater disruptions in communication.
5. Dependence on Standards:
Requires adherence to specific protocols, which may limit
compatibility and interoperability with different systems.

Q15. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Frequency

Division Multiplexing?

Ans15. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique that

divides the available bandwidth of a communication channel into
separate frequency bands. Each band carries a different signal
simultaneously, allowing multiple data streams to be transmitted
over the same medium without interference. This method is
commonly used in analog communication systems, such as radio and
television broadcasting.

Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. Simultaneous Transmission:
Allows multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over
the same channel without interference.
2. Efficient Bandwidth Use:
Maximizes the utilization of available bandwidth by allocating
separate frequency bands for each signal.
3. Low Latency:
Generally offers low latency in transmission since channels
operate independently.
4. Simplicity in Implementation:
FDM systems are relatively straightforward to design and
implement, especially for analog signals.
 5. Good for Analog Signals:
Particularly effective for broadcasting and communication of
analog signals, like radio and television.

Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

1. Bandwidth Limitations:
Limited by the available bandwidth; too many signals can lead
to congestion and inefficiency.
2. Interference Risk:
Potential for interference between channels if not properly
managed or filtered.
3. Complex Receiver Design:
Requires complex receivers to separate and demodulate
multiple frequency channels.
4. Guard Bands Required:
Necessitates guard bands between channels to prevent
interference, which can waste bandwidth.
5. Inefficient for Digital Signals:
Less efficient for digital communication compared to other
multiplexing methods like Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

Q16.What are the advantages and disadvantages of WDM & TDM?

Ans 16. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

TDM is a technique that divides the available time on a
communication channel into distinct time slots. Each signal occupies
its designated time slot, allowing multiple signals to share the same
channel sequentially.
Advantages of TDM

1. Efficient Time Utilization:

Maximizes the use of a single channel by allocating specific
time slots for each signal.
2. Simple Implementation:
TDM systems are relatively easy to design and implement,
especially for digital signals.
3. No Interference:
Signals are transmitted in separate time slots, minimizing the
risk of interference.
4. Good for Variable Data Rates:
Can adapt to different data rates by adjusting the duration of
time slots.

Disadvantages of TDM

1. Latency Issues:
Time delays may occur, especially if slots are not fully utilized,
affecting real-time applications.
2. Complexity in Synchronization:
Requires precise timing and synchronization between sender
and receiver, complicating system design.
3. Underutilization Risk:
If one signal has low data transmission, time slots can remain
unused, leading to inefficiency.
4. Fixed Bandwidth Allocation:
Once time slots are defined, they may not adapt well to
changing traffic demands.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

WDM is a technique used in fiber optic communication that divides

the available optical bandwidth into multiple wavelength channels.
Each channel carries a separate signal, enabling simultaneous
transmission over a single fiber.
Advantages of WDM

1. High Capacity:
Significantly increases data transmission capacity by allowing
multiple wavelengths to be sent simultaneously.
2. Efficient Bandwidth Use:
Utilizes the full potential of fiber optic cables, maximizing the
amount of data transmitted.
3. Scalability:
Easily accommodates additional channels by adding more
wavelengths as needed.
4. Minimal Interference:
Each channel operates at a different wavelength, reducing the
risk of crosstalk and interference.

Disadvantages of WDM

1. Cost of Equipment:
Higher initial costs for WDM equipment and infrastructure
compared to traditional methods.
2. Complexity in Design:
More complex systems require precise wavelength
management and additional components like multiplexers and
demultiplexers.
3. Signal Degradation:
Signal quality can degrade over long distances without proper
amplification and management.
4. Limited by Fiber Characteristics:
Performance may be affected by the physical properties of the
fiber, such as attenuation and dispersion.
Q17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of circuit
switching?

Ans 17. Circuit Switching is a communication method that

establishes a dedicated communication path or circuit between
two endpoints for the duration of the conversation. This path
remains reserved exclusively for the session, ensuring a
continuous connection for the entire duration of the
communication.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

1. Guaranteed Bandwidth:
Provides a constant and dedicated bandwidth for
uninterrupted communication.
2. Low Latency:
Minimizes delay due to a pre-established connection, ensuring
quick data transmission.
3. Stable Connection:
Offers a reliable and consistent connection, ideal for voice calls.
4. Simplicity:
Straightforward implementation and management with fixed
circuits for each call.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

1. Inefficient Resource Use:

Resources remain reserved even during idle periods, leading to
potential wastage.
2. Limited Scalability:
Restricts the number of simultaneous connections, risking
congestion during high demand.
3. Connection Setup Time:
Requires time to establish a connection before communication
starts, which can be a drawback for short interactions.
4. Inflexibility:
Not suited for bursty data traffic, making it less effective for
variable bandwidth applications.

Q18. Explain Different Types of Errors?

Ans18. Single Bit Error

A single bit error occurs when one bit of a data unit is altered
during transmission. This can happen due to noise, interference,
or hardware malfunctions. For example, if the original data is
"101010" and it is received as "101110," the third bit has changed
from 0 to 1. Single bit errors are relatively easy to detect and
correct using error detection and correction techniques like parity
checks or checksums.

Burst Error

A burst error is a situation where two or more bits in a data unit

are changed in a sequence during transmission. This type of error
typically affects a contiguous block of bits, making it more
challenging to detect and correct. For instance, if the original data
"101010" is received as "100111," multiple bits (the third, fourth,
and fifth bits) have been altered. Burst errors can be more
complex to handle, requiring sophisticated error detection and
correction mechanisms such as cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
Q19. Write a short note on framing in data link layer?

Ans 19.
Q20. Explain the meaning of error correction and error detection?

Ans20. Error Detection

Meaning:
Error detection refers to the process of identifying errors in
transmitted data. It involves using algorithms or methods to check if
the received data matches the sent data. If discrepancies are found,
the system can take appropriate action, such as requesting
retransmission.

Common Techniques:

• Parity Bits: Adding a bit that makes the total number of 1s even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity).
• Checksums: Summing the data and sending the result along
with the data; the receiver recalculates the sum to check for
errors.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A more complex method that
uses polynomial division to detect changes to raw data.

Error Correction

Meaning:
Error correction goes a step further by not only detecting errors but
also correcting them without requiring retransmission. This process
involves using specific algorithms that can reconstruct the original
data based on the detected errors.

Common Techniques:

• Hamming Code: Adds redundancy bits to enable the detection

and correction of single-bit errors.
• Reed-Solomon Codes: Used in various applications like CDs and
QR codes, allowing correction of multiple errors.
 • Turbo Codes: Combines error correction codes for high
performance in noisy channels, often used in modern
communication systems.

Q21. Differentiate between stop and wait protocol and sliding

window protocol?

Ans21.

Key Stop and Wait protocol Sliding Window protocol

In the Stop and Wait protocol, the sender sends In the Sliding Window protocol, the sender sends
Mechanism a single frame and waits for acknowledgment multiple frames at a time and retransmits the
from the receiver. damaged frames.

Sliding Window protocol is more efficient than Stop

Efficiency Stop and Wait protocol is less efficient.
and Wait protocol.

Window Sender's window size in Stop and Wait Sender's window size in Sliding Window protocol
Size protocol is 1. varies from "1 to n".

Sorting of frames helps improve the efficiency of the

Sorting The frames do not need to be sorted.
protocol.

Stop and Wait protocol efficiency is Sliding Window protocol efficiency is formulated as
Efficiency formulated as 1/(1+2a) where "a" is ratio of N/(1+2a) where N is no. of window frames and a is
propagation delay vs transmission delay. ratio of propagation delay vs transmission delay.

Duplex Stop and Wait protocol is half duplex in nature Sliding Window protocol is full duplex in nature.
Q22. Write a Short Note on

1. Go Back NARQ Method

2. Selective Repeat ARQ Method.
Ans22. Go-Back-N ARQ Method: This is a data link layer protocol
where the sender can send multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment for the first one. However, if an error is detected in
a frame, all subsequent frames must be resent, regardless of
whether they were received correctly.

Selective Repeat ARQ Method: In this protocol, the sender can

also send multiple frames before needing an acknowledgment.
However, if an error is detected in a specific frame, only that frame is
resent, while correctly received frames are retained, allowing for
more efficient use of bandwidth.