MOI UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANS 214: LIVESTOCK AND THE ENVIRONMENT

No. Week Date Topics and Course contents

1. Week 1 04.09.2024 Definitions of concepts, importance, functions, terms used
2. Week 2 11.09.2024 Impacts of livestock Production on the environment
3. Week 3 18.09.2024 Resource overuse: Biodiversity loss, Deforestation, Diseases
4. Week 4 25.09.2024 Pollution: Greenhouse gas emissions
5. Week 5 02.10.2024 Land use and Land use change: Ocean decline, Water shortage
6. Week 6 09.10.2024 CAT 1 & Assignments 1
7. Week 7 16.10.2024 Biotic and Abiotic environments
8. Week 8 23.10.2024 Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
9. Week 9 30.10.2024 Environmental Audit in livestock production
10. Week 10 06.11.2024 Laws governing environmental conservation and management
11. Week 11 13.11.2024 Treatment, uses of livestock and waste disposal of dead animals
12. Week 12 20.11.2024 CAT 2 & Revisions
13. Week 13 27.11.2024 Visit to Moi University sewage, VIL and Abattoirs in Eldoret
14 Week 14 04.12.2024 End of semester examinations

Course Assessment
Type Weighting
Continuous Assessment 40%
Examination 60%
Total 100%

References
1). Jacobs, P. and Associates Limited 1996. Agricultural waste management, In Agriculture and Forestry
Fisheries, Aquaculture and Environment, Prime Edward Island, Canada
2). Lamy, E., van Harten, S., Sales-Baptista, E., Guerra, M. M. M. and de Almeida, A. M., Factors
Influencing Livestock Productivity. In Environmental Stress and Amelioration in Livestock
Production, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-29205-7_2, _ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
Md. Asif Iqubal 2013. Livestock Husbandry and Environmetal Problems. International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 3, Issue 5
3). Orheruata, A.M. and Omoyakhi, J.M. 2008. Livestock-Environment Interaction: Issues and Options in
Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. June, 2008 vol. 12(2) 129 – 133
4). Pradère, J. P. 2014. Links between livestock production, the environment and sustainable
Development. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2014, 33 (3). World Organisation for Animal Health,
12 rue de Prony, 75017 Paris, France
5). Steinfeld, H. and Gerber, P. 2010. Livestock production and the global environment: Consume less or
produce better? Current Issue > vol. 107 no. 43

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Head of Department:…………………………………Sign……………………...Date…………………
 MOI UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
ANS 214: LIVESTOCK AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Course Description
Environmental pollution: cause and effect, socio-economic costs; biotic and abiotic
environments. Environmental audit: Environmental impact assessment in livestock production
systems for sustainable animal production; laws governing environmental conservation and
management. Animal waste: types, physical and chemical properties and microbial changes
during treatment; Biological, chemical and physical processes for the treatment and processing
of livestock waste. Waste management: economic evaluation of animal waste management
systems; uses of animal waste, control of animal waste odour and management.
Objective of the course
(i). To acquire knowledge and skills on the impacts of livestock production on the environment.
(ii). To understand the laws governing environmental conservation and management.
(iii). To acquire knowledge and skills on the procedures of environmental impact assessment and
environmental audit in livestock production and management practices to the environment.
(iii). To learn treatment, processing and uses of livestock wastes and disposal of dead animals.
Learning outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to;
(i). Understand the impacts of livestock production on the environment
(ii). Understanding the laws governing environmental pollution, conservation and management
(iii). Understand the procedure of EIA and Environmental Audit in livestock production
(iv). Understand treatment, processing and uses of livestock waste and disposal of dead animals.
(v). Solve environmental problems
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AEZ Agro-Ecological Zone
AgGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Product
ASALs Arid and Semi-Arid Lands
ASDS Agricultural Sector Development Strategy
CALPI Capitalization of Livestock Programme Experiences India
CBAHWs Community Based Animal Health Workers
EMPS Extensive Mixed Production System
ERPS Extensive Ruminant Production Systems
FAO Food and Agriculture Organizations
FGDs Focus Group Discussion
GDP Gross Domestic Product
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
KNSB Kenya National Bureau of Standards
LIRPS Low Intensive Ruminant Production System
LIMS Low Intensive Mixed Production System
LUCID Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics
NGOs Non -Governmental Organization
NRPS Non Ruminant Production System
GOK Government of Kenya
TLU Tropical Livestock Unit
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
Arid pastoral zone, refers to dry areas that only sustain marginal crop production and are maily
considered as livestock zone.
Dependency ratio refers to the ratio of dependants; people younger than 15 years and those
older than 64 years of age in relation to the working-age population
Extensive mixed production refers to households keeping both ruminants and non-ruminants
and feds them mainly by grazing in the fields
Extensive ruminant production refers to households keeping ruminants mainly grazed in the
grass fields.
Farming systems refers to groups of farms which have similar structures and function and can
be expected to produce on similar production functions.
Land-use change refers to changes of land uses, partly or totally over a given period of time.
Livestock production systems is defined as a production system where livestock are kept
having similar resource base, enterprise patterns, livelihood strategies, farming practices and
constraints and for which similar development strategies and interventions can be applied.
Livestock refers to cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chicken kept by farmer
Low intensive mixed production refers to households rearing both ruminants and non-ruminants
species and are feds within the household compound
Low intensive ruminant production refers to household keeping ruminants only and are fed
within the household compound.
Non-ruminant production refers to households with poultry as the main livestock species kept
Ruminant refered to cattle,sheep and goats species
Vulnerability is the inability of communities or households to cope with contingencies and
stresses to which they are exposed.
Background information
Agriculture is the backbone of Kenya’s economy and its central to the country’s development
strategy. Kenya’s agriculture sector employs more than 75% of the workforce and accounts both
directly and indirectly for approximately 50% of Kenya’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In
Kenya, agriculture has six sub-sectors namely industrial crop, food crop, horticulture, livestock,
fisheries and forestry. Kenya’s population is growing by approximately one million people per
year. Increased population leads to increased demand for food in terms of livestock products and
grains. Therefore, in absence of increased livestock production, there will be reduction in the
number of livestock numbers per person hence reduced supply of meat and milk increasing the
need to supplement household diet.

About 80% of Kenya’s total land mass is ASAL with about 10 million people that have the
lowest human development indicators and keep livestock as the main source of livelihood. These
areas, receives low and erratic rainfall and have the largest number of the poor and marginalized
people, with over 70% living below the poverty line subsisting on less than a dollar per day and
with 2 to 4 million people receiving food aid annually. Livestock production systems in Kenya
are defined by agro-ecological (AEZ), social economic and market access. Agro-ecological
zones are influenced by latitude, altitude, temperature, seasonality, amounts and distribution of
rainfall. Livestock production systems are classified based on the species kept, breed, grazing
acrage, and herd size, breeding methods and feeding management. Dairy production is mainly
found in the highlands with suitable climate and high density. Meat production is in the arid and
semi-arid areas. Again, livestock production may be classified as intensive, semi-intensive or
extensive system. Intensive are characterized by small herd size on small piece of land mainly 2
feeding animals on stalls and using artificial insemination for breeding. This system is mainly
commercial oriented. Semi intensive system animals are fed in the field and supplemented and
the resources and level of investment is less compared to intensive form of farming. Extensive
livestock production is found in areas with large tracks of land with high number of animals
mainly grazing freely. Integration of crops and livestock is an important characteristic of
agricultural intensification and has been a major driver of economic growth in rural areas of
many African countries. To address the food insecurity in ASALs, the Government of Kenya has
recognised the critical role of livestock subsector as the potential areas to enhance the country’s
food situation as documented in the country’s development blue print, Kenya’s Vision 2030.

Studies have shown that livestock is an integral component of rural development contributing to
enhanced agricultural productivity, improving rural livelihoods as well as ecological services .
Livestock form a major capital reserve for households, providing social security, fuel, and
transport as well as an important basis for generating cash through value addition multiplier
effect. Livestock is a tool for poverty reduction and improving livelihoods of resource poor
farmers. Livestock producers face several constraints in achieving a satisfactory standard of
living from this livelihood. This is often attributed to political marginalization and weak
institutional frameworks. It has been shown that, if the living standards and food security are to
be improved in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), then livestock productivity must be
increased considering changes taking place such human population growth, climate change,
policies and livestock markets. Agriculture is one of the critical functions, that each country
conducts its own studies on livestock production in terms of types, systems distribution and agro-
ecological zonation in order to devise relevant interventions based on sound knowledge.
Introduction
Livestock provide essential commodities and services to the majority of the world’s population.
It provides food and income for one billion of the world's poor, especially in dry areas, where
livestock are often the only source of livelihoods. Livestock husbandry can increase the
efficiency of food production by converting biomass that is inedible for humans, for example
from crop residues and pasture, into high nutrition food produce. At the same time, it can provide
large amounts of valuable organic fertilizer. They are vectors of nutrients. Depending on feed
quality, animal species recycle part of the ingested nutrients via excretion of faeces and urine.
Livestock production can contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction and, if correctly
managed, play an important role in developing sustainable agricultural production systems. It is
also crucial for maintaining ecological values. For example, grazing areas not only generate
animal feed, but also sustain other ecosystem services such as culturally desirable open
landscapes and biodiversity-rich meadows. Livestock production is an expression of the poverty
of people who have no other options and the high number of people involved in livestock for
lack of alternatives, particularly in Africa and Asia, is a major consideration for policy makers.

Contributions of livestock production to Kenyans economy

(i) Source of food for households especially where livestock are the only source of food.
(ii) Income generations to farmers especially in dry areas and taxes to government
(iii). Source of employment to many especially in dry areas.
(iv). Source of raw materials to industry
(v). Source of manure used as fertilizers for nutrients replenishment.
(vi). Source of draft power used for ploughing and transportation
(vii). Livestock increases the efficiency of food production by converting biomass that are not
edible e.g crop residues and pasture, into high nutrition food produce.

Livestock production systems in Kenya

(i) Pastoralism or extensive livestock system
(ii). Ranching
(iii). Agro-pastrolism systems or mixed production system
(iv) Feedlots or intensive farming system
(v) Organic farming system

With increasing number of people, meat production is projected to increase from 200 million to
310 million tons per year by the year 2025. Although demand for livestock products is stagnated
in developed countries, it is rapidly increasing elsewhere due to urbanization and associated shift
in eating habits towards livestock products. The demand and consumption of livestock products
are growing even faster than the increase in world population and such demands has called for
development of the livestock industry. Such developments lead to pollution problems,
contamination of ground water, air and water pollution, eutrophication, soil pollution, loss of
vegetation cover and biodiversity, land degradation, compaction and soil erosion or excessive
run-off often from overgrazing. Livestock can produce significant quantities of “greenhouse”
gases thereby contributing to global warming. Raw manure contains up to 100 million fecal
coliform bacteria per gram, as well as ammonia, phosphorus, and other nutrients and microbes
that can contaminate soil and water in high concentrations. E. Coli bacteria have been found in
the manure of a quarter of the beef cattle on large feedlots.
The careful management and removal of livestock waste is crucial to preserving environmental
and human health. There are significant differences in the environmental impact between
species, and between the different forms of livestock production. Both intensive and extensive
production systems may damage the environment, but in different ways. Pressure to expand
production, either through intensification (increasing output per unit of land by increasing non-
land inputs) or area expansion (increasing output by expanding land in production without
changing inputs per unit of land), can have negative environmental consequences unless the
value of common-property resources and the cost of negative externalities are fully recognized
and accounted for. Measures need to be taken to address the impact of livestock production on
ecosystems, which otherwise may worsen dramatically given the projected expansion of the
livestock sector as the world population increases. Demand for animal products needs to be
balanced with the growing demand for environmental services, such as clean air and water, and
recreation areas.

Environmental impact of livestock on the environment

Effects of climate change on livestock production
Livestock production systems are modified by extreme weather events such as high leves of
carbon dioxide (co2), changing rain patterns or high temperatures. Climate change may also
enhance rate of vector-borne diseases development, accompanied by emergence and increased
transmission of new diseases. Drought may threaten pasture and reduce feed supplies and
reduce the amount and quality of forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could
experience longer, more intense droughts, resulting from higher summer temperatures and
reduced precipitation. Lack of water will place increased demands on available water
resources affecting water quality and quantity on a seasonal basis. Increases in carbon dioxide
(co2) may increase the productivity of pasture and fodder but may also decrease their quality.
However, studies indicate that the quality of some of the forage found in pasturelands
decreases with higher co2. As a result, livestock would need to eat more to get the same
nutritional benefits.

Livestock production and food security

The role of animals in food and agricultural development programmes is underestimated
almost everywhere in the world, especially in the developing counties. The contribution of the
animal to both agricultural and economic development has not been adequately evaluated. In
most studies, non-food outputs which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms are excluded.
Livestock is a source of high quality food and source of income for many rural households in
developing countries. At National level, livestock food product represent 30% of the total
agricultural output in most of these countries, while at farm level, cash can be generated from
sale of live animals, meat, milk, hides, fee from draught power and transport services.
Livestock acts as cash buffer by providing economic stability; livestock acts as capital reserves
and deterrent against inflation. Further, livestock reduces the risk associated with crop
production. In mixed farming systems, it also represents liquid assets that can be realized at
anytime and this brings stability to production. Livestock provide draught power such as
pulling of the plough, fetching of water and ferrying of farm produce, charcoal and firewood to
markets and homesteads. Integration of livestock and crops allows efficient nutrient recycling.
Animal use the crop residues as feed (straws, maize and sorghum stover and ground nuts)
while the manure produced by animals can be recycled directly as organic fertilizers. One
tonne of cow dung contains about 8 kilograms (kgs) of nitrogen, 4 kgs of phosphate and 16
kgs of potassium oxide.
Poultry manure is a more efficient fertilizer than cow manure because of the nature of their
diet. Manure also provides important organic matter to the soil, maintaining its structure, water
retention and drainage capacity. The value of manure is so well recognized such that some
farmers keep livestock primarily for manure. Financial services such as banking, insurance and
credit are non-existent in rural areas of many developing countries hence livestock play an
important role as a means of saving and capital. Combinations of small and large livestock can
be sold to meet petty-cash requirement to cover seasonal deficit or to finance large
expenditure. Also livestock has a significant role in social and cultural events of many
communities and it’s not possible to attach value to many of these roles like dowry.

The role of policy in livestock production

Livestock interacts positively with environment by enhancing soil fertility and nutrient
balance. On the other hand, livestock causes water and air pollution and loss of biodiversity
due to overgrazing. Policy and institutional regulations influence livestock and the
environment interactions for sustainable utilization of resources in the process of development.
The policy makers have a challenge of developing and implementing policies which can
enhance the interaction between livestock and natural resources for sustainable development.
Government legislation can have direct or indirect impact on the way economic agents
(household, individuals or firm) make and implement their decisions. Livestock constitutes a
household asset which can easily be liquidated if economic incentives are lacking. The
government through policies can strongly impact on livestock production through protection of
property rights especially land ownership, agricultural extension, infrastructure, access to and
terms of credit, and input and output prices facing farmer. Policy interventions can enhance
adoption of sustainable farming systems and reduce pressure on natural resources. One of the
driving forces of environmental degradation has been population pressure and it can only be
addressed through alternative livelihood that helps to reduce agricultural population to a level
that the land can sustain.

Livestock production systems

Livestock production systems are considered to be a subset of farming systems. The
classification criteria were limited to three: integration with crops, relation to land and agro-
ecological zone. The classification structure includes, the landless system group was split into
two - landless ruminant and landless monogastric - bringing the total number of systems to 11.
The criteria of classifications are based on the number of animals, output, selected productivity
indicators and geographical distribution for each system.

At the first stage, national totals were assigned to one or more of the agro-ecological zones
(AEZs) of the country in question using decision rules. For land-based production systems, for
example, that is the proportion of arable land in each AEZ, and for landless production
systems, the prorating factor became the population in each AEZ, in relative terms. The
world's land surface was classified into ten AEZs. The next stage was the overlay with
classification criteria defining the attributes of the farming system, such as mixed versus
grazing or mixed rain-fed versus mixed irrigated. This classification was based on decision
rules related to the share of arable land as compared to grazing land and to the share of
irrigated versus non-irrigated arable land. Data for each item were then aggregated across
specified AEZs to arrive at climatically broader and less numerous systems, for example,
humid + sub-humid tropics and subtropics.
Definition of systems
1. Solely livestock production systems (L)
Livestock systems in which more than 90 percent of dry matter fed to animals comes from
rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased feeds and less than 10 percent of the total
value of production comes from non-livestock farming activities.
2. Landless livestock production systems (LL). Solely livestock production systems in
which less than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and in which
annual average stocking rates are above ten livestock units (LU) per hectare of agricultural
land.
3. Grassland-based systems (LG). Solely livestock production systems in which more than
10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and in which annual average
stocking rates are less than ten LU per hectare of agricultural land.
4. Mixed-farming systems (M)
Livestock systems in which more than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals comes from
crop by-products or stubble or more than 10 percent of the total value of production comes
from non-livestock farming activities.
5. Rain-fed mixed-farming systems (MR). A subset of the mixed systems in which more
than 90 percent of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from rain-fed land use.
6. Irrigated mixed-farming systems (MI). A subset of the mixed systems in which more than
10 percent of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from irrigated land use.
7. Landless livestock production systems (LL)
The developed countries dominate the picture of landless intensive production with more than
half of total meat production.
8. Landless monogastric production system (LLM). This system is defined by the use of
monogastric species, mainly chickens and pigs, where feed is introduced from outside the
farm, thus separating decisions concerning feed use from those of feed production, and
particularly of manure utilization on fields to produce feed and/or cash crops. This system is
therefore open in terms of nutrient flow.
9. Landless ruminant production system (LLR). This production system is defined by the
use of ruminant species, principally cattle, where feed is mainly introduced from outside the
farm system.
10. Grassland-based livestock production systems (LG). The importance of grassland-based
systems in different world regions is shown in Figure 4. Central and South America and the
developed countries dominate the picture in terms of meat production, together accounting for
more than three-quarters of the world's production.
11.Temperate zones and tropical highlands grassland-based system (LGT). In these areas,
the grazing system is constrained by low temperatures. In the temperate zones, there are one or
two months of mean temperatures, corrected to sea level, to below 5°C, whereas in the tropical
highlands daily mean temperatures during the growing period are in the range of 5° to 20°C.
12. Humid and subhumid tropics and subtropics grassland-based system (LGH). The
LGH system is defined as a grazing system found in regions with more than 180 days of
growing period. It tends to be concentrated more in the sub-humid zone, particularly in regions
where access to markets or, for agronomic reasons, crop production is limited. By definition,
only very limited cropping is considered for subsistence.
13. Arid and semi-arid tropics and subtropics grassland-based system (LGA). The LGA
system is defined as a land-based system in tropical and subtropical regions with a growing
period of less than 180 days, and where grazing ruminants is the dominant form of land use.
14. Rain-fed mixed-farming systems (MR)
The geographic distribution of mixed-farming systems is relatively unimportant in terms of
meat production, whereas developed countries and Asia together contribute about 70 percent
of the total meat production from mixed-farming systems.
15. Temperate zones and tropical highlands rain-fed system (MRT). This system is
defined as a combination of rain-fed crop and livestock farming in temperate or tropical
highland areas, in which crops contribute at least 10 percent of the value of total farm output.
16. Humid and sub-humid tropics and subtropics rain-fed system (MRH). In the humid
and sub-humid regions of the tropics and subtropics, livestock production is based on mixed-
farming systems. Given the range of socioeconomic conditions and soils and climates
involved, this livestock system is very heterogeneous in its composition. It is found in all
tropical regions of the world, mainly in developing countries
17. Arid and semi-arid tropics and subtropics rain-fed system (MRA). The MRA system is
a mixed-farming system in tropical and subtropical regions with a vegetation growth period of
less than 180 days. The main restriction of this system is the low primary productivity of the
land resulting from low rainfall. The more severe the constraint, the less important crops
become in the system and the more livestock take over as a primary income and subsistence
source.
Irrigated mixed-farming systems
1. Temperate zones and tropical highlands mixed system (MIT). This system belongs to
the group of land-based mixed systems of temperate and tropical highland regions. The
system's importance in tropical highlands is negligible. Meat, milk and wool, the main outputs
of this system, are mainly produced for the market. Manure is an issue only where animals are
stabled, at least for certain periods of the day or the year. About 10 percent of the global
population lives in regions where this system is dominant. A large share belongs to developed
countries with relatively high income levels and where agricultural trade is important.
This system is clearly associated with very intensive agriculture in temperate regions with a
high population density. With the outcome of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) negotiations, it can be expected that these systems will be less and less viable, having
to compete with more efficient rain-fed systems producing the same commodities.
2. Humid and subhumid tropics and subtropics mixed system (MIH). This is a mixed
system in tropical and subtropical regions with growing seasons of more than 180 days, and in
which the irrigation of crops is significant. The MIH system is particularly important in Asia.
High population densities require intensive crop production, and the irrigation of rice makes it
possible to obtain more than two crops per year, even under conditions of very seasonal
rainfall, substantially reducing yield variability as compared with the yield of upland rice or
other rain-fed crops. In the past, animal production has been closely linked to the animal
traction issue.
Animals and intensive crop production in this ecological zone are an illustration of a
successful and sustainable agricultural production system. Competition for urban markets for
livestock products is the main form of interaction with the landless monogastric system, both
domestically and globally, through international trade.
3. Arid and semi-arid tropics and subtropics mixed system (MIA). This is a mixed system
of arid and semiarid regions, in which irrigation makes year-round intensive crop production
feasible. Typical cases are alfalfa/maize-based intensive dairy systems in California, Israel and
Mexico; In the traditional MIA system, irrigated crop production is the main source of income,
with livestock playing a very secondary role.
Extensive system
A large share of feed is spent on the animal’s maintenance rather than on producing products
or services useful to people. The result is inefficient use of resources and often high levels of
environmental damage per unit of output, particularly in overgrazed areas. Cattle are often
involved in degradation of vast grassland areas and are a contributing factor to deforestation
through clearing of forest to provide pastureland. The resulting carbon emissions, biodiversity
losses and negative impacts on water flows and quality constitute major environmental
impacts.

Intensive system
Dairy cattle require large amounts of bulky fibrous feed in their diets. As a result, dairy herds
need to be close to the source of their feed, more so than other forms of market-oriented
livestock production. This provides greater opportunities for nutrient cycling, which is
beneficial to the environment. However, excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer on dairy farms is
one of the main causes of high nitrate levels in surface water. Manure runoff and leaching
from large-scale dairy operations may also contaminate soil and water. Concentration of
 livestock in feedlots often results in soil and water pollution, as the amount of manure and
urine produced far exceed the capacity of surrounding land to absorb nutrients. Cattle in
feedlots require more concentrate feed per kilogram of output than do poultry or pigs; as a
result, they have significantly higher resource requirements and hence greater environmental
impact. Greenhouse gas emissions are also substantial from all livestock production systems

Sheep and goats

Sheep and goats can severely reduce land cover and the potential for forest re-growth. Under
overstocked conditions, they are particularly damaging to the environment through
degradation of vegetative cover and soil.

Pigs
In traditional mixed systems, pigs fed on household waste and agro-industrial by-products,
turn biomass that would otherwise go to waste into high-value animal protein. Pigs also
require less feed per unit of output than ruminants. As such, they have lower demand for land
for feed production. However, it is estimated that pigs in mixed systems now account for only
about 35 percent of global production. Pig manure can be a valuable fertilizer but crop
producers generally prefer cattle and poultry waste because pig manure has a strong odour and
often comes in a slurry form. It is, however, well adapted to use in biogas digesters.

Poultry
Poultry is the most efficient feed converter, and industrial poultry production is thus the most
efficient form of livestock production, despite its dependence on feed grains and other high-
value feed material.
Poultry manure has a high nutrient content, is relatively easy to manage and is widely used as
fertilizer.
It is sometimes used as feed for ruminants. Other than that caused by feed-crop production, the
environmental damage caused by poultry is much less than that caused by other species.

2. Breed
Highly productive breeds also require a tighter control of their environment (temperature, light)
than traditional breeds, thus increasing water and energy consumption.
3. Physiological stage/ age
4. Level of production
The change from traditional mixed and extensive systems to more intensive systems has
probably had a positive effect in improving land- and water-use efficiency but negative effects
on water pollution, energy consumption and genetic diversity.
5. Environment (biotic and abiotic factors) e.g season, soil parameters, terrain features,
vegetation characteristics etc.
6. Management e.g herd size and composition, organization of grazing, supplementation,
watering schemes etc.

Resource Overuse and Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity refers to the variety of genes, species and ecosystems that can be found in the
environment. It refers to the range of animal, plant and microbial species (inter-specific
biodiversity) on earth as well as the richness of genes within a given species (intra-specific
biodiversity). Short for biological diversity, the term encompasses the entire expression for life
on the plant and is generally categorized in three dimensions
(i). Genetic diversity or the total genetic information contained in the genes of individual plants,
animals and micro-organisms.
(ii). Species diversity or the diversity of living organisms on earth.
(iii). Ecosystem diversity or the variety of habitats and ecological processes in the biosphere.

Biodiversity contributes to many constituents of human well being including security, basic
materials for a good life, health, good social relations and freedom of choice and action. It does
so directly (through provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services) and indirectly
(through supporting ecosystem services). Agricultural biodiversity includes domesticated
animals and plants as well as non-harvested species that support food provision within agro-
ecosystems. The world’s biodiversity is facing a crisis affecting all its three dimensions,
(i). Genetic diversity is at risk as wild population sizes shrink drastically and with them the gene
pool
(ii). Species diversity is confronted with rates of extinction that far exceeds the “background
rate” found in the typical fossil record
(iii). The full range of ecosystems diversity is being threatened by transformation through human
activities.

Livestock production systems affect biodiversity differently and the effect of livestock on
biodiversity depends on the magnitude of livestock impacts or the extent to which biodiversity is
exposed to those impacts, how sensitive the biodiversity in question is to livestock and how it
responds to the impacts.
Biodiversity loss is caused by a combination of various processes of environmental degradation.
This makes it difficult to isolate the contribution of the livestock sector. A further complication is
represented by the many steps in the animal food product chain at which environmental impact
occurs.

Cause Biodiversity loss

(i). Habitat change (such as land-use changes, physical modification of rivers or water
withdrawal from them, loss of coral reefs, and damage to sea floors resulting from trawling);
Livestock-related land use and land-use change modify ecosystems that are the habitats for given
species.
(ii). climate change
(iii). Invasive alien species through overgrazing of pasture plants. An invasive alien species is
one that becomes established in natural or semi natural ecosystems or habitats and threatens
native biological diversity. Livestock are considered invasive alien species when little attempt is
made to minimize the impact on their new environment leading to competition with wildlife for
water and grazing, the introduction of animal diseases and feeding on seedlings of local
vegetation.
(iv). overexploitation
(v). Water pollution and ammonia emissions, mainly from industrial livestock production, reduce
biodiversity, often drastically in the case of aquatic ecosystems. Pollution from livestock
enterprises, as well as overfishing to provide fishmeal for animal feed, reduces biodiversity in
marine ecosystems
(vi). Other significant threats including poaching, encroachment and fragmentation, logging,
agriculture and grazing, alien invasive species and mining. Among those related to livestock park
managers have identified include incursion by nomadic groups and subsequent conflict with wild
animal populations. Establishment of ranches spreading into protected areas and agricultural
pollution, affecting protected areas through eutrophication and pollution by pesticides and heavy
metals.

Examples of resource overuse

(i). One 6‐ounce (170g) beefsteak requires 16 times as much fossil fuel energy as one vegetarian
meal containing three kinds of vegetables and rice.
(ii). One kilogram of beef is equivalent to driving 250 kilometers and burning fuel energy for 20
days[.
(iii). The meat‐based diet's emissions is equivalent to driving a car 4,758 kilometers – that is 17
times the emissions of an organic vegetarian diet, which is equivalent to only 281 kilometers . In
other words, an organic vegetarian diet produces 94% less emissions than a meat‐based diet.
(iv). One meat eater requires two hectares ‐ that is four acres of land ‐ to support him. But that
same two hectares, or four acres of land, could support the healthy lifestyle of 80 vegetarians.
(v). Currently, 80% of hungry children live in countries that export food crops to feed farm
animals. Producing 1 kilogram of beef requires 7 kilograms of grain for feed that could go to
direct human consumption, while yielding less than one‐third the amount of protein. About 40%
of the global grain is going to livestock and 85% of the world’s protein‐rich soy is being fed to
cattle and other animals.
(vi). A person uses up to 15,000 liters of water per day for a meat‐based diet, which is 15 times
as much water as a vegetarian would use water per day for a vegetable‐based diet.

Deforestation
Land degradation is the progressive loss of secondary productivity and diversity resulting in less
herbage production, loss of plant and animal species. The three types of ecosystem degradation
syndromes related to grazing are:
(i). Desertification (in arid climates)
(ii). Increased woody plant cover in semi arid and subtropical rangelands
(iii). Deforestation (in humid climates)
(iv). Loss of Soil quality

Livestock keeping is one of the main drivers of deforestation. It is by far the single largest
anthropogenic user of land. Deforestation is the main process through which extensive grazing
systems emit GHGs. Destruction of natural habitats to establish agricultural land means direct
and significant biodiversity losses. The destruction of vegetative cover also leads to carbon
release, fuelling climate change, affects water cycles reducing infiltration and storage and
increasing runoff by the removal of canopies and leaf litter through the reduced infiltration
capacity of the soil as a result of reduced humus content. Range management can be improved to
prevent carbon losses and sequester carbon, turning extensive systems into net GHG removers.

Desertification and woody encroachment

Livestock also directly contribute to habitat changes as overgrazing and overstocking accelerate
desertification. Desertification is a type of ecosystem degradation in arid, semi arid and dry sub
humid areas resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities.
Excessive pressure on dry land ecosystems (resulting from a mismatch between livestock density
and the capacity of the pressure to support grazing and trampling) leads to fragmentation of
herbaceous cover and an increase in bare soil. Such mismanagement occurs more frequently in
the less resilient arid and semi arid regions characterised by a relatively erratic biomass
production.

Effects of Overgrazing
(i). Woody encroachment results when overgrazing of herbaceous cover, reduced fire frequency,
helped along by atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen enrichment, modify the equilibrium in favour of
woody species. (ii). Overgrazing facilitates bush encroachment and thus system structure by
reducing risk of fire for woody seedlings. Reduction of herbaceous cover through grazing can
also advantage woody vegetation in the competition for access to limited resources such as
water.
(ii). Overgrazing encourages erosion on some landscapes which affect the herbaceous cover
more than the deeper-rooted vegetation.
(iii). Overgrazing of herbaceous cover is often replaced by woody vegetation while perennial
grasses replace annual grasses. These changes affect several key ecosystem functions including
decomposition and nutrient cycling, biomass production and soil and water conservation.
(iv). Concentred “hoof action” by livestock in areas such stream banks, trails, watering points,
salting and feeding sites causes compaction of wet soils and mechanically disrupts dry and
exposed soils. Compacted or impermeable soils can have decreased infiltration rates and
therefore increased volume and velocity of runoff.
(v). Soils loosened by livestock during the dry season are a source of sediments at the beginning
of the new rainy season
(vi). Livestock can overgraze vegetation disrupting its role of trapping and stabilizing soil and
aggravating erosion and pollution

Diseases
Over 65% of human infectious diseases are known to be transmitted by animals. The filthy and
inhumane conditions of factory farming harbor lethal bacteria and viruses such as avian and
swine flu. Other diseases related to meat eating: tuberculosis, mad cow disease, Campylobacter,
Staphylococcus aureus, foot‐and‐mouth disease, Pneumonia plague outbreak in China, etc.
Non communicable diseases among the more wealthy segments of the world’s population are
associated with high intakes of animal source foods in particular animal fats and red meat;
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and certain types of cancer. In terms of health and food safety,
livestock products as a category are more susceptible to pathogens than any other food products.
They have the capacity to transmit diseases from animals to humans (zoonoses). The world
organization for animal health (OIE) estimates that no less than 60% of human pathogens and
75% of recent emerging diseases are zoonotic. A series of animal diseases have their known
origin in animals (such as common influenza and small pox). Tuberculosis, brucellosis and many
internal parasitic diseases such as caused by tapeworm, threadworm and so on are transmitted
through the consumption of animal products
Greenhouse gas emissions
Livestock and climate change
Global average surface temperatures have increased by about 0.7 °C in the last century. Ocean
temperatures have risen, there has been significant melting of snow and ice in the Polar Regions
and sea levels are projected to rise. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
concludes that anthropogenic GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O) and halocarbons have been responsible for most of the observed temperature
increase since the middle of the twentieth century.

Contributions of livestock to climate change

(i). Emissions of GHGs - livestock contribute to climate change by emitting GHGs, either
directly (e.g. from enteric fermentation) or indirectly (e.g. from feed-production activities,
deforestation to create new pasture, etc.).
(ii). Burning of fossil fuel - to produce mineral fertilizer and chemicals for feed production.
(iii). Emissions from chemical fertilizer and pesticides - feed-crop production and pastures are
linked to the production and application of chemical fertilizer and pesticides, to soil organic-
matter losses and to transport.
The gastrointestinal tract of ruminant animals

(iv). Land use changes for feed production and grazing – When forest is cleared for pasture and
feed crops, large amounts of carbon stored in vegetation and soil are also released into the
atmosphere.
(v). Methane release from enteric processes and breakdown of fertilizers and manure - At the
farm level, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are emitted from enteric fermentation (in
ruminant species i.e. cattle, goat and sheep) and manure. Methane is exhaled by these animals as
a by-product of the process. Nitrous oxide is released from manure during storage and spreading,
and methane is also generated when manure is stored in anaerobic and warm conditions.
(vi). Fossil fuel use for production and transport of processed and refrigerated animal products –
the slaughtering, processing and transportation of animal products cause emissions mostly
related to use of fossil fuel and infrastructure development.
(vii). Land degradation – desertification, deforestation and increased woody plant cover in semi
arid and subtropical rangelands
(viii). Fossil fuel use during feed and animal production

Contribution of livestock to greenhouse gas emissions

 Account for 9% of global anthropogenic emissions of CO2
 Account for 35-40% of global anthropogenic emissions of CH4
  Account for 65% of global anthropogenic emissions of N2O

Figure: Contribution of different gasses to the natural greenhouse effect

Contribution of agriculture to N2O emissions

N2O release from manures occurs after:
1. Aerobic conversion of ammonia and organic nitrogen to nitrates and nitrites
2. Conversion of NO3 and NO2 by anaerobic reduction to N 2O and N2 (only in dry manure
handling systems, from pockets of moist manure)

Figure: N-Cascade in Dairy systems

Figure: Contribution of agriculture to N2O emissions

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
(i). CO2 - Improved management of cropland and pastures and use renewable resources
(ii). CH4 - Optimization of wet rice cultivation and improved livestock and dung management
(iii). N2O - Improved application techniques for N-fertilizers
Land use and land use change
Changes in agricultural land use are driven by a wide range of factors:
(i). Ecological conditions
(ii). Human population density
(iii). Level of economic development
Two concepts are central in explaining agricultural land use changes
(i). Profit per unit of land – describes the potential interest for an operator to engage in a
particular use of land. Profit generally depends on the biophysical characteristics of the land, on
its price and factors including accessibility to markets, inputs and services.
(ii). Opportunity costs - includes not only the private costs of production but also direct and
indirect costs borne by society such as losses of ecosystem services. For example part of
opportunity cost for a cropping area would be the loss of the possibility of using it for
recreational purposes
Ocean decline
The livestock sector is the largest source of nutrient pollution, which causes toxic algal blooms
and oxygen depletion, leading to oceanic “dead zones” that are unable to support any aquatic
life. 90% of all large fish have already disappeared from the oceans, largely as a result of
overfishing. Aquaculture (fish farms), accounting for 50% of fish and shellfish consumed
globally, is endangering wild fish. Example: It takes up to 5 pounds of wild fish to produce 1
pound of salmon. One‐third to about half the global fish catch is fed to livestock (pigs and
chickens).

Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution is defined as the contamination of the physical and biological
components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental
processes are adversely affected.The livestock industry emits 64% of all ammonia, which causes
acid rain and hydrogen sulfide, a fatal gas. Manure is already known to be a major cause of both
groundwater pollution and atmospheric warming. Aquaculture pollutes the environment with
toxic algae and chemicals such as pesticides and antibiotics.
Causes of Environmental Pollution
(i). The burning of fossil fuels like oil, gas or coal.
(ii). The exhaust fumes from vehicles.
(iii). The mismanagement of wastes caused by garbage pollution.
(iv). The harmful fragrance or off-gasing from plastic production, paints and so on.
(v). Nuclear accidents or radiation spills.
Solutions to environmental pollution
(i). Replace disposable items with reusable items
(ii). Conserve water by correcting leakages and minimize energy used in heating.
(iii). Use electricity more efficiently and more of clean energy like solar
(iv). Support local and environmentally solutions
(v). Consider near sourcing to minimize travelling
(vi). Recycle usable items
Effects of environmental pollution
Pollution affects the earth's land, air, and water by releasing pollutants in the air, water, and land.
Pollution ends up in these forms including dust, smog, and toxic gas emissions. In addition to the
natural sources of pollution, they can also come from human activity
Water pollution
Water polluted by livestock production, feed production and product processing detracts from
the water supply and adds to depletion. Pollution mechanisms can be separated into point source
and non-point source.
(i). Point source pollution is an observable, specific and confined discharge of pollutants into a
water body. In livestock production, it refers to feedlots, food processing plants and agrichemical
processing plants.
(ii). Non-point source is characterised by a diffuse discharge of pollutants generally over large
areas such as pasture
Environmental pollution and control
Pollution control is any of variety of means employed to limit damage done to the environment
by the discharge of harmful substances and energies. Environmental pollution controls often
include the management of land development and the design of transportation systems so as to
reduce pollution. Environmental planning, the management of land development, and the design
of transportation systems are key components of environmental pollution control. Pollution
prevention protects the environment by conserving and protecting natural resources while
strengthening economic growth through more efficient production in industry and less need for
households, businesses and communities to handle waste.
Control measures of environmental pollution
(i). Reduce the number of trips you take in your car.
(ii). Reduce or eliminate fireplace and wood stove use.
(iii). Avoid burning leaves, trash, and other materials.
(iv). Avoid using gas-powered lawn and garden equipment
Effects of livestock waste to the environment
(a). Stimulate eutrophication - Nutrient surpluses from livestock waste stimulates
eutrophication and may represent a health hazard. Nutrients intake by animals can be extremely
high. For example, a productive dairy cow ingests up to 163.7 kg of N and 22.6 kg of P per year.
Some of the nutrients ingested are sequestered in the animal but most of it returned to the
environment and may represent a threat to water quality. High concentration of nutrients in
water resources can lead to overstimulation of aquatic plant and algae growth leading to
eutrophication, undesirable water flavour and odour and excessive bacterial growth in
distribution systems.
Effects of Eutrophication
(i). Shifts in habitat characteristics owing to change in the mix of aquatic plants.
(ii). Replacement of desirable fish by less desirable species and associated economic losses.
(iii). Production of toxins by certain algae.
(iv). Increased operating expenses of public water supplies.
(v). Infilling and clogging of irrigation canals with aquatic weeds.
(vi). Loss of recreational use opportunities.
(vii). Impediments to navigation due to dense weed growth.
(b). Total organic carbon - Total organic carbon reduces oxygen in water. Organic wastes
generally contain a large proportion of solids with organic compounds that can threaten water
quality. Organic contamination may stimulate proliferation of algae which increases their
demand for oxygen and reduces available oxygen for other species
(c). Biological contamination – Biological contamination represents a public health hazard.
Livestock excrete many zoonotic microorganisms and multicellular parasites of relevance to
human health. Pathogenic microorganisms can be water-borne or food-borne especially if the
food crops are watered with contaminated water. e.g water-borne bacterial pathogens like
campylobacter spp, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp, Clostridium, etc. Viral diseases – e.g.
Picornavirus infections (Foot and Mouth disease, Avian encephalomyelitis, Swine vesicular
disease, encephalomyocarditis) and Parvovirus infections (Adenovirus infections, Rinderpest
virus or Swine fever). Livestock parasitic diseases- are transmitted either by ingesting
environmentally robust transmissive stages ( spores, cysts, oocysts, ova, larval and encysted
stages) or via use of contaminated water in food processing or preparation or via direct contact
with infective parasitic stages e.g Giardia spp, Cryptosporidia spp, Microsporidia spp, Fascioal
spp etc. The most common transmission route is the ingestion of contaminated water and foods
(salads) contaminated with metacercariae.

Water shortage
Fresh water resources provide a wide range of goods such as drinking water, irrigation water or
water for industrial purposes and services such as power for hydroelectricity generation and
support of recreational activities. Fresh water resources are the pillar sustaining development and
maintaining food security, livelihoods, industrial growth and environmental sustainability
throughout the world. Agriculture accounts for 70% of all fresh water use, most of which goes
toward meat production. Livestock use of water (water withdrawals) and contribution to water
depletion trends are high and growing. An increasing amount of water is needed to meet growing
water requirements in the livestock production process from feed production to product supply,
drinking and servicing, product processing (slaughterhouses and agro-food industry, tanneries),
feed production etc.
Table: Water use and depletion by sector
Sector Water use Water depletion
(..….Percentages of total…...)
 Agriculture 70 93
Domestic 10 3
Industrial 20 4
Source: livestock’s long shadow (2006)
Livestock production has diverse and complex regional impacts on water use and depletion.
These impacts can be accessed through the concept of “virtual water” defined as the volume of
water required to produce a given commodity or service. For example, It takes up to 200,000
liters of water to produce 1 kilogram of beef, but only 2,000 liters to produce 1 kilogram of
soybeans, 900 liters to grow 1 kilogram of wheat, and 650 liters for 1 kilogram of corn, 990 liters
of water are required to produce one liter of milk etc.

Solutions to the effects of livestock impacts to the environment

(i). Soil conservation - Land degradation can be reversed through soil conservation methods, and
better management of grazing systems, increase biodiversity, quantity of forage, soil cover and
soil organic matter and thus reduce water loss and drought impact and increase CO2
sequestration
(ii). Intensification – in terms of increased productivity both in livestock production and in feed
crop agriculture can reduce green houses gas emissions from deforestation and pasture
degradation
(iii). Restoring historical losses of soil carbon through conservation tillage, cover crops, agro
forestry and other measures could sequester up to 1.3 tons of carbon per ha per year
(iv). Methane and Nitrogen emissions can be reduced through improved, improved manure
management and biogas – which also provide renewable energy.
(v). Pollution can be tackled through better management of animal waste in industrial production
units, better diets to improve nutrient absorption, improved manure management (including
biogas) and better use of processed manure on croplands.
(vi). Industrial livestock must be located as much as possible where cropland within economic
reach can be used to dispose of the waste without creating problems of nutrient loading rather
than geographically concentrating production units in areas favored by market access or feed
availability.
(vii). Policies to protect the environment should introduce adequate market pricing for the main
inputs, for example, by introducing full-cost pricing of water and grazing.
(viii). Grazing management - Carbon sequestration services, through adjustments in grazing
management or abandonment of pastures, may also play a much larger role; given the potential
of the world’s vast grazing lands to sequester large amounts of carbon.
(ix). Good agricultural practices can reduce pesticide and fertilizer use in feed cropping and
intensive pasture management.
(x). Integration of ecological production systems and technologies can restore important soil
habitats and reduce degradation.
(xi). Changing livestock consumption – Shifting consumption from animal products with high
associated GHG emissions (beef and sheep meat) to products with lower emissions (poultry,
vegetable protein) can reduce total global GHG emissions. A study conducted by Harvard
University found that regular meat consumption increases colon cancer risk by 300% and is also
linked to leading diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, stroke, cancer, and obesity. A vegan
diet significantly helps prevent and reverse these conditions.
Assignment 1

Draw the agro-ecological zones in Kenya and discuss the following (10 Marks)

1. Draw the map of Kenya with its agro-ecological zones

2. Discuss the characteristics of each zone

3. Discuss the plant species found in each zone

4. Discuss the animal species found in each zone.

5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each zone