Lecture 1-2

Soils
Soils are natural unconsolidated materials on the surface of the earth. Soils have evolved through natural
processes as a dynamic and a three-dimensional body.
The soil is a natural body of mineral organic constituents differentiated into horizons of variable depths,
which differ from the materials below in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and
composition and biological characteristics
Soils have three phases—solid, liquid, and gas.

• The solid phase contains organic and inorganic materials intimately mixed together by natural
processes.
• The liquid phase consists of water with dissolved salts, acids,bases, and ions.
• The gaseous phase consists of soil air which renews from time to time from the atmosphere
So, soil has four major components—mineral matter, organic matter, water, and air.
Functions of Soil
Soils support plant growth by providing anchorage, nutrients, water, air, and warmth and protecting from
toxins.
Soils have many crucial ecological functions:

• it is a transformer of energy;
• it is a recycler of materials;
• it is a purifier of water;

Soil Profile
Eluviation and illuviation occur simultaneously.

• Eluviation involves the removal of

nutrients and organic material from
superficial horizons.
• Illuviation involves the deposition of
these nutrients and organic materials in
deeper horizons, forming horizons in
organic materials.
The regolith includes all of the weathered
material and unconsolidated materials within the
profile.

Formation of Soil
Soil formation depends on several factors. Such as: (i) Climate, (ii) Time, (iii) Organisms, (iv) Parent
materials, (v) Topography

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

1. Climate as a soil forming factor
Conditions of rainfall, temperature, humidity, solar radiation, day-length, etc. at a place over a long
period is called climate.
Water acts as a reactant and a medium of translocation. As rainfall increases, rate of weathering, depth
of weathering, diversity of weathering products, formation of clay, release of soluble substances, and
organic matter production increase. In very dry conditions, physical weathering is relatively intense
and the resulting parent material is sandy. Due to scarcity of water there is little chemical weathering
and inadequate leaching.
Temperature regulates the rate of chemical reactions. For every 10°C rise in temperature, the rate of
chemical reactions is almost doubled. Increased weathering and clay formation occur with an average
increase in soil temperature at optimum soil moisture level. Both organic matter production and
decomposition increase with the increase in soil temperature. The organic matter content of soil is the
balance between organic matter production and mineralization.
(Mineralization: Mineralization in soil science is the decomposition (i.e., oxidation) of the chemical
compounds in organic matter, by which the nutrients in those compounds are released in soluble
inorganic forms that may be available to plants. Mineralization is the opposite of immobilization.)
2. Time as a soil forming factor
Time is one of the factors in soil formation. Over time, vegetation and climate act on parent material
and topography. For example: soil formation occurs due to the weathering of bedrock is a slow process
as it takes thousands of years.
3. Organisms as a soil forming factor
Organisms in the soil can speed up or slow down soil formation. For example, microorganisms can
facilitate chemical reactions or excrete organic substances to improve water infiltration in the soil.
4. Parent materials as a soil forming factor
Parent materials are the main raw materials from which soil is ultimately formed. So, many of the
properties of parent materials may inherit to the resulting soils. Soil texture is mainly inherited from the
parent materials.
Coarse-textured parent materials generally produce coarse-textured soils. Mineralogical and chemical
compositions of parent materials are also very important in soil formation. For example, acid-parent
materials tend to produce acid soils. Lime-rich parent materials produce calcareous soils. The
mineralogical composition and fertility of soil also depend on the mineralogical composition of the
parent materials.
5. Topography as a soil forming factor
Topography has a significant impact on soil formation as it determines the runoff of water, and its
orientation affects microclimate which in turn affects vegetation. For example: Slope and aspect are two
topography features that affect soil formation.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

 Forest Soil
Forest soils, where soil formation has been influenced by forest vegetation, are generally characterized
by deeply rooted trees, significant ‘litter layers’ or O horizons, recycling of organic matter and nutrients,
including wood, and wide varieties of soil-dwelling organisms.
Like other soils, forest soils have developed, and are developing, from geological parent materials in
various topographic positions interacting with climates and organisms. Forest soils may be young, or
‘mature,’ in relatively stable landscape positions. Just as forest vegetation of the world varies greatly, so
do forest soils, e.g., they are shallow, deep, sandy, clayey, wet, arid, and warm.
Many forest soils are shallow and low in organic matter and water-holding capacity, on steep, rocky
landscapes, in mountainous areas of the world. These forests are slow-growing, due in part to limited
nutrient- and water-supplying capacities, shallow rooting potentials, and cold temperatures of the soils.
Physical properties of forest soils

• Almost permanent properties unless modified by harvesting operations, shifting cultivation, and
forest fires.
• Include texture, structure, porosity, density, aeration, temperature, water retention etc.
• Affect every aspect of soil fertility and productivity.
• Determine the ease of root penetration, the availability of water and the ease of water absorption
by plants, the amount of oxygen and other gases in the soil, and the degree to which water moves.
Forest soil vs Agricultural soil

Forest soil Agricultural soil

1. Chemical constituents of forest soil may be 1. Chemical constituents of
unbalanced. agricultural soil are balanced.
2. Forest soil in the virgin condition generally 2. Agricultural soil lacks in a pure
exhibit a well-defined horizon consisting of organic layer but contains a
organic matter disturbed plough layer
3. Activity of root in the surface to the subsurface 3. No well-defined root activity in
horizon is observed surface to subsurface horizon
4. An artificial horizon can not be developed in the 4. An artificial horizon due to
upper layer of forest soil. ploughing is created in the upper 6
5. Land with limitations such as hilly topography, inches of agricultural soil.
salinity, stoniness, toxicity, droughtiness, poor 5. Most fertile land is used for
drainage, and shallow soil depth is generally agriculture
used for forest creation. 6. Unique microflora and fauna like
6. Unique micro flora and fauna are present in the forest soil are not present in
forest soil agricultural soil

Why do forest soils need to be managed?

• A good O horizon prevents erosion and loss of sediments into streams.
• Soils sustain life
• Forests can reduce mountain soils’ sensitivity to degradation of clean water and watershed
management.
• Soil conservation in semi-arid and arid areas starts with forests and trees.
• Climate change: what forests and forest soils do.
Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin
 Wetlands Capture Carbon
A Carbon Pool is a reservoir of carbon. A system that has the capacity to accumulate or release carbon.
Carbon pools are measured in terms of mass (e.g., metric tons of carbon). There are five major "carbon
pools" on Earth: the atmosphere, the oceans, the soils, living things such as plants and animals, and
fossil fuel deposits. Carbon can move among these pools in various ways.
The Earth's soils are a massive carbon pool, storing three times more carbon than the atmosphere and
four times as much as all plants and animals. Carbon enters the soil when plants, which have stored
carbon in their tissues through photosynthesis, die or drop Titter (e.g., fallen leaves or branches) which
partially decomposes. Left undisturbed, stable soil carbon can stay in the ground (and out of the
atmosphere) for hundreds to thousands of years.
Wetlands are ecosystems characterized by seasonally or permanently waterlogged soils. Because
decomposition is slower in waterlogged soils, dead plant matter can accumulate in wetland soils as "soil
organic carbon" faster than it is released. Thus, wetland soils store more carbon per gram than grassland
or forest soils. Cool temperatures also slow decomposition, so carbon accumulates particularly well in
northern wetlands, like Canada's boreal peatlands which contain 25 percent of the world's peatland
carbon.

Soils particles
Primarily soil particles can be divided into Primary particles and Secondary particles. Individual discrete
particles are called primary particles, and their aggregates are known as secondary particles.
Particles greater than 2 mm diameter are
known as gravels which include pebbles (2–7.5
cm), cobbles (7.5–25 cm), stones (25–60 cm),
and boulders (> 60 cm).
Although particles larger than 2 mm are less
common and they hardly affect soil fertility and
productivity, many productive forests have
developed on gravelly or stony soils.
Characteristics of Soil Particles United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
the International Soil Science Society (ISSS)
Sand:

• Sand particles are mainly fragments of quartz and some feldspars and mica.
• They have little surface area exposed (0.1 m2 g−1 specific area).
• Sand particles are visible to the naked eye, gritty in feeling, have little or no capacity to hold
water or nutrients, and bind other particles.
• They are loose when wet, and very loose when dry. Sand does not absorb water and does not
exhibit swelling and shrinkage, stickiness, and plasticity.
Silt:

• Silt particles are also fragments of primary minerals.

• Most silt particles are not visible to the naked eye, but can be seen through an ordinary
microscope.
• They feel smooth when wet and like talcum powder when dry.
Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin
 • They have low to medium capacity to attract water, nutrients, and other particles.
• Because of the adhering film of clay, they exhibit some plasticity, cohesion, adhesion, and
absorption and can hold more amount of water than sand but less than clay.
Clay:

• Clay particles are mainly secondary minerals such as illite, chlorite, hydrated oxides of Fe and
Al, etc.
• Clay particles can be seen by an electron microscope and have large surface area (10–1000
m2g−1).
• They have electrical charges, both negative and positive, on their surfaces.
• Because of these properties, clays have high water and nutrient holding capacity and they
participate in chemical reactions in the soil.

Soil texture
Soil texture refers to the degree of fineness or coarseness created by the close packing of variously sized
particles together in soil. It is determined by the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay in a soil.
When a soil equally exhibits the properties of sand, silt, and clay, then it is called loam (approximately
40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay).
12 textural classes have so far been identified. They are (from coarse to fine) sand, loamy sand, sandy
loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, and clay.
Soil texture is not usually changed by management practices.
Soil texture and Species distribution
Soil texture governs most of the properties of the soil, its permeability, its capacity to retain water, its
degree of aeration, its ability to make the nutrients stored in the clay– humus complex available to plants,
its ability to withstand mechanical working of the top soil, and, finally, its ability to support a permanent
plant cover.

• Pine stands grow more on coarse- grained soils than spruce stands.
• Soil texture is an important factor in the constitution and distribution of dry tropical forest
communities.
• Soil texture was found to be largely responsible for the distribution of hardwood species within
an old growth forest in the Sandhills region of southeastern USA.

Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

“All organic materials found in soils irrespective of origin or state of decomposition.”
Amount of SOM that exists in any given soil is determined by the balance between inputs from biota
(vegetation, roots, microorganisms, animals) and output (CO2 from microbial decomposition).
Soil type, climate, topography, soil biota, mineral composition, management, and their interactions are
modifying factors that will affect the total amount of SOM in a soil and its distribution within the profile.
Mineral soils may contain on an average 5 % organic matter by volume. Organic soils may have more
than 80 % organic matter by volume.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

Sources of Organic Matter in Forest Soil
SOM concentrations are major indicators of soil quality. Sources of Organic Matter in Forest Soil Forest
vegetations continuously cast litters from the above- and belowground parts. Litters are dead parts of
the forest vegetation, including leaves, branches, twigs, flowers, fruits, barks, and even large logs,
existing in various stages of decomposition above the soil surface.
Litters may also include dead bodies of soil animals, insects, etc. Plant leachate, sloughed cells, and root
exudates are other sources of organic matter from vegetation.
Dead aboveg- round and burrowing animals also significantly contribute to the forest SOM since forests
are habitats of a large group of big and small animals. A tropical forest may shed on average 10 t ha−1
aboveground litters annually in comparison to 5 t ha−1 in temperate and 3 t ha−1 in boreal forests.
Important factors were climate (rainfall and temperature), topography, soil, age of forest (in case of
plantations), altitude, latitude, etc.

Categories of SOM
1. Fresh or undecomposed organic matter: Fresh SOM includes freshly fallen leaves, twigs, branches,
flowers, fruits, dead animal tissue, etc., if they have been incorporated into the soil. These materials
begin to decompose immediately after their incorporation.
2. Partially decomposed organic matter: It includes organic residues in soil that have undergone
decomposition to a considerable extent. The structure and origin of the materials may or may not be
identified.
3. Fully decomposed organic matter: It is “fully” decomposed in the sense that it has undergone
decomposition for a considerable time, say some hundreds or thousands of years, and that further
decomposition proceeds extremely slow. Humus may be defined as a brown to black, amorphous,
colloidal organic matter that has undergone decomposition to such an extent that it has become stabilized
with soil constituents.
Humus is fairly resistant to decomposition due to its physical state and chemical nature. Humus is
present as a coating on soil particles, as gum within aggregates, and as organo-mineral complexes, which
make them inaccessible to decomposing organisms.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

 Forest Floor
Often easy to separate from the underlying layers of mineral soil, but these two major categories may
be further subdivided.
The L layer consists of fresh, undecomposed litter.
The F layer lies immediately below the L layer and consists of
fragmented organic materials in a stage of partial
decomposition. This layer is dominated by organic materials
in cellular form, and fungi and bacteria are common.
Beneath the F layer lies the H or humus layer, primarily
consisting of amorphous, resistant products of decomposition
and with lower proportions of organic matter in cellular form.

Soil Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into units of different sizes and shapes. These units are
called peds or aggregates and the processes of formation of peds are collectively called aggregation.

• Soil structure refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of solids and voids, continuity of pores
and voids,
• Their capacity to retain and to transmit fluids and organic and inorganic substances, and
• Ability to support vigorous root growth and development.
There are four types of soil structure
spheroidal (granular and crumb),
block- like (angular blocky and sub-angular
blocky),
plate-like, and
prism-like (prismatic and columnar)

Formation of Soil Structure

Aggregation results from complex interactions of many factors including the environment, soil
management, plant influences, and soil properties, such as mineral composition, texture, soil organic
matter, pedogenic processes, microbial activities, exchangeable ions, nutrient reserves, and moisture
availability.
There are several mechanisms of aggregation. Aggregates are formed in stages, with different bonding
mechanisms dominating at each stage. Aggregation results from the rearrangement of particles, and
cementation.

• Sand and silt particles are inert materials. They can come closer but cannot hold themselves
together because they do not possess the power of adhesion and cohesion.
• Clays form coatings on them and cement several sand and silt particles into a larger unit.
• Soil particles are bound mechanically by plant roots and fungal hyphae. There are also various
chemical compounds which act as cements and gums in soils.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

Mor humus
• Develop in cooler climates,
• Often characterized by coniferous vegetation.
• Decomposition in the forest floor is slow and incomplete, resulting in a thick organic layer.
• The litter of coniferous species contains high concentrations of phenolic substances and lignin
that yield acid decomposition residues.
• The soil solution often has a pH as low as 4.0.
• Fungi predominates over bacteria.
• Earthworm populations are low in mor forest floors, which results in little fragmentation and
mixing with the underlying soil.

Mull humus
• Typically found under deciduous forests in warm temperate climates.
• Decomposition is more rapid, residues are less acidic, and earthworms are more abundant.
• Bacteria play a greater role in decomposition processes.
• The pH is higher -5.0–7.0,
• Fragmentation and mixing often make differentiation of the forest floor difficult.

Soil Biology
Many organisms, both macro and micro flora and fauna, live in the forest floor and mineral layers of the
forest soil.
Macroflora includes plant roots, which function in water storage, drainage, aeration, and nutrient cycling
in soil by their proliferation, death, and decay.
Soil microflora includes algae, bacteria, and fungi, which act on organic matter and mineral
transformations.
Organic matter decomposition, humification, mineralization, nitrogen fixation, etc., are some important
transformations mediated by forest soil microflora.

The principal functions of soil macrofauna in forest soils

1. Soil Mixing: Ants, termites, earthworms, and ground beetles can move huge quantities of soil,
bringing back to the surface mineral matters from deeper horizons and burying the organic matter from
the surface horizons, from litter and from excrements.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

2. Gallery construction: Gallery (burrow) formation is very important for soil aeration and water flux.
For example, earth- worms and termites develop networks of galleries that improve large spaces in the
soil microporosity by 20–100 %.
3. Litter fragmentation: The fragmentation of dead wood (high lignin material), dead animals, and
litter is one of the most important activities of soil fauna. It has a major effect on organic matter evolution
in soil, conditioning the activity of bacteria, fungi, and microfauna populations.
4. Aggregation: Earthworms, termites, millipedes, centipedes, and woodlice ingest soil particles with
their food and contribute to aggregate formation by mixing organic and mineral matter in their gut.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2008) summarized the functions
of soil macrofauna as:

• Maintenance of soil structure: Bioturbating invertebrates and plant roots.

• Regulation of hydrological processes: Bioturbating invertebrates and plant roots.
• Nutrient cycling: Soil and litter-feeding invertebrates.
• Decomposition of organic matter: Saprophytic and litter-feeding invertebrate detritivores.
• Suppression of pests and parasites: Nematodes, earth- worms, and various predators.

Soil Water
Role of Water in Plant

• Structural component
• Maintaining turgidity, temperature, stomata,
transportation, and translocation of food,
• Universal solvent, reaction medium, hydrolysis,
photosynthesis,
• Absorption of minerals, germination of seeds etc.
Why are we interested in soil-water relationship?
First, large quantities of water must be supplied to satisfy the
requirement of growing plants and most of it must come from the soil.
Second, Water is the solvent Known as the universal solvent Many
substances dissolved in water due to the high polarity of water
molecules.
Third, Soil moisture helps control two important factors for tree growth-soil air and soil temperature.
Fourth, the control of the disposition of water as it strikes the soil determines to a larger extent the
incidence of soil erosion.

Related Properties of Water

1. Water is the solvent.
2. Water as a way of transport: Many different substances, such as sap, are transported by water. Sap
contains high amounts of water making them good solvents. Being good solvents allows them to
dissolve the substances they are transporting.
Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin
3. Water as a way of reactant

• Water, being a good solvent, allows many reactions to occur.

• Water is used in photosynthesis to make sugar.
• These reactions release oxygen gas, which is vital to human life.
• Without water in photosynthesis, organisms would not be able to obtain energy, and life as we
know it would be impossible.
4. Cohesion and Adhesion properties of
water
Cohesion: Cohesion is the attractive force
that holds molecules of the same substance
together. Water attached to water through
hydrogen bonding.
Adhesion: Adhesion is the attractive force
that occurs between molecules of different
substances. Water attached to the glass.

Soil Water
Water storage and redistribution are a function of soil pore space and pore-size distribution, which are
governed by texture and structure.
Generally speaking, clay-rich soils have the largest pore space, hence the greatest total water-holding
capacity. However, total water holding capacity does not describe how much water is available to plants,
or how freely water drains in soil. These processes are governed by potential energy.
Water is stored and redistributed within soil in response to differences in potential energy. A potential
energy gradient dictates soil moisture redistribution and losses, where water moves from areas of high-
to low-potential energy.
When at or near saturation, soils typically display water potentials near 0 MPa. Negative water potentials
arise as the soil dries that allow the soil to retain water like a sponge.
Potential Energy of Water
The potential energy of water is the energy the water obtains as a result of being at some elevation. PE
is very important in determining the status and movement of soil water.
Water potential
Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another area due to osmosis,
gravity, mechanical pressure or matrix effects as capillary action. It is represented by the Greek letter
Psi (Ψ) and is calculated in kilopascals (kPa).
Water potential, Ψ = Ψs + Ψp + Ψg + Ψm
Here, Ψs = solute potential, Ψp = pressure potential, Ψg = gravitational potential, and Ψm = the matrix
potential

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

 Water potential gradient
The difference between the water potentials of two liquids is known as the water potential gradient.
Factors contributing to the soil water potential gradient are: Solute Potential (Ψs), Pressure Potential
(Ψp), Gravitational Potential (Ψg), Matrix Potential (Ψm).
Solute Potential (Ψs): Osmotic potential, also known as solute potential, is the amount by which the
presence of a solute in pure water reduces the water potential. The free mobility of the water molecules
decreases when solutes are introduced to pure water.
Pressure Potential (Ψp): The water potential increases when a pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure is exerted on the solution. A cell becomes turgid when its internal pressure increases, which
also increases its turgor pressure.
Gravitational Potential (Ψg): It results from the gravitational force of attraction on the water potential.
It is dependent on the acceleration brought on by gravity. Since this gravitational potential is so small,
it is usually ignored.
Matrix Potential (Ψm): Matrix Potential is a result of the attraction of water molecules to the soil solids
due to adsorption and capillarity (similar to the sponge). As the matric potential reduces the degree of
freedom of movement of water relative to the reference reservoir, it is a negative potential. Dry soil has
a very low matric potential, while a wet soil has a higher matric potential (i.e., closer to zero).

Soil water potential, ψsoil = ψm + ψs

Since matric potential and solute potential are both negative entities, soil water potential (Ψsoil) is also
negative. When the soil is at the maximum water holding capacity, soil water has a potential nearer to
pure free water (0 kPa); at field capacity, average Ψsoil is around -0.3 MPa and at wilting point it is -15
MPa.
Therefore, the amount of water that can be held in soil between -15 MPa and -0.3 MPa soil water
potential is taken to be the available water.

Soil water content

As the soil loses water, it dries through the
drainage of the macropores and can reach the
field capacity.
Represents the boundary between gravitational
water and capillary water. It is the upper limit
for soil moisture that is not usable by plants.
As the water content in the soil continues to
decrease, the intensity of the matric forces is
reduced, and the water is maintained by
cohesion forces from water molecules and
mineral particles (capillary forces).
Water retained between saturation and field capacity is subjected to free drainage for different periods
of time and is considered unavailable for plant while water held at field capacity is available to plants.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

Types of Soil water
1. Gravitational water

• The major part of the soil water gained from rain or irrigation goes deep into the soil. This water
is drained away by gravity.
• Thus plants cannot absorb this water. Gravitational water moves through the soil under the
influence of gravity and must be removed from the soil before this can attain field capacity.
2. Capillary Water:

• The structure and organic matter of the soil enable the soil to hold water
against the force of gravity.
• This water remains in the soil after gravitational water is drained out and that
is in the form of a film around the soil grains.
• This water is called capillary water.
3. Hygroscopic water:

• This water remains around the soil particle vapor form.

• This water is not fit for absorption.
• Hygroscopic water is absorbed from the atmosphere and held very tightly by
the soil particles,
• so that it is unavailable to plants in amounts sufficient for them to survive.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin

 The Soil–Plant–atmosphere continuum (SPAC)
Soil–plant–atmosphere continuum (SPAC) showing water movement from soil to plants to the
atmosphere and back to the soil.
The flow of water through the SPAC is a major component of the overall hydrologic cycle. It ties
together many of the processes: interception, surface runoff, percolation, drainage, evaporation, plant
water uptake, ascent of water to plant leaves, and transpiration of water from the leaves back into the
atmosphere.
Water in soil moves to where its potential energy level will be lower. This principle applies to water
movement between the soil and the plant root and between the plant and the atmosphere.
If a plant is to absorb water from the soil, the water potential must be lower (greater negative value) in
the plant root than in the soil adjacent to the root.
Likewise, movement up the root and stem to the leaf cells is in response to differences in water potential,
as is the movement from leaf surfaces to the atmosphere.

Water in the entire SPAC moves from a

higher to a lower moisture potential.
Note that the moisture potential in the soil
is -50 kPa, dropping to -70 kPa in the root,
declining still further as it moves upward
in the stem and into the leaf, and is very
low (-500 kPa) at the leaf–atmosphere
interface, from where
it moves into the atmosphere, where the
moisture potential is -20,000 kPa.
Most of the water absorbed by plant roots
is eventually transpired as water vapor,
but a significant proportion may be
exuded by roots into soil zones that are
drier than the zones from which the water
was initially taken up—a process termed
hydraulic redistribution.

Acknowledgment: Dr. Mahmuda Sharmin Prepared by Md. Morsalin