LIVING WITHOUT SILVER The Monetary History of Early Medieval North India JOHN S. DEYELL peuw OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS cureOsford Univers Pes, Walon Stet, Oxford OX? 6DP Delhi Bombay Caleta Mads Karachi Pealing ays Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo ‘Naitabi Dares Salen a en Tein © Oxtord Universi Pres 1980 SAN 0195620162 1 Photos tT Series ed, Setar Rea U.P, 201308 nad at Crest tng Works Pot Lid Now Dabs 140, ‘and pbod ty SK Maken, Onn Uv Pes 7 ‘YMCA Library Using Singh Rea New Doh Hm CONTENTS Maps, Graphs nd Tables vii ‘Acknovledgerents x Sources for Coin Distribution Maps ssi ‘Abbreviations se ‘Transliteration Tables sv INTRODUCTION 1 1 Probing the Fragile Foundations of Ineerpresive Models 3 2 Eemuinic Historiography: The Evolving Miles ’ PARTI: THE POST-CLASSICAL AGE: Cine 750-1000) 21 3. The Gajaro-Pratnaras 2 4 The Amirof Sind # 3. The Turk and Hinds Shabis of Kabul aud Gondhaes 3 6 Kashmir 6 Overview ofthe Era: 750100 6 PARTIE THE RAJPUTPERIOD: Cire tsh-1290 67 The Yamin of Gh and the Punjab n 8 TheKingdom of Fst and Central India % 9 Western India i 10 Malwa 13 1 North Inga: Tomarasand Chauhans na 12 Minor Coinages It Overview ofthe Era: 140-1200 isi Contents PARTM ‘THE EARLY DELHISULTANATE: Circe 1200=1250 13 The Muiszid Empire in Indi 14 Derivative Currencies in Afhabiatan 15 _Exablshment ofthe Delhi Sultanate 16. The Precious Metals Famine inthe Hajpat Kingdoms 17 Sout tndis andthe Coinage Frontier (Overview ofthe Era 120061250 PARTIV: A REDRISE, AND A LOOK FORWARD Appendix A: Medioval India's Precious Metal Mineral Resources Appundix Bs Monetary Observations athe Dranya Pasha Appendig C: Resolving Nunnisnaie Problems: [The Two Chahads Devs I. Coinsin the oine Names of Prine. Rajaand Muhanad bis Sant Appendix D: Coin Hoard Analysis in she South Asian Contest Appendix E: Early Medieval Com Hoards of North india Index to Coin Typesin the Coin Hoard Bibliography Index Key tothe Paes Plate: MAPS, GRAPHS AND TABLES MAPS: 1 Showing findspots of he sera o vigrahapla 2 Showing findspots of aivwiha dramas, by district. 3 Showing findspots ofthe 05g silver dithams of the Amirs of Sind, by district 4 Showing findspots of Gangeya Deva coins 119-21, by distict < 5 Showing findspots of Govinda Chandra coins 145— Juby dstice 6 Showing findsposs of gashaiy pis, by districe 7 Showing findspors of Ajaya Devs billon Lakshmi= type pals, by distice 8 Showing development of monetary spheres of Iniluence,¢ 1000-1200 9 Showing the findspots of bllonbull-and-horseman and base gold Lakshm-type coins of Mubaramad bin Sam, by district 10 Showing findspos of the Yadava ‘pdm! or locos gold coins, by disteice 11 Natural eccurrences of gol, silverand copper inthe Indian subcontinent GRAPHS 1. Survival rate of coin hoatds of various ras 2 Survival rate of mndvigual coins of various ers gy 8 "7 146 189i ‘Mops, Graphs and Tales 3. Weights of copper coins ofthe Arab governors of Sind 750-850, fond st Mans and Debal 4 Nbsolute quantities of Lahore coins of ach Vin ‘ing contained in hoard 17 (slid Ba) and 1 (broken ba) 5 Relative quantities of Lahore coins in hoards 7 oid buat) and I8 (broken bar, per year of eign ofeach Yarinid king 6 Number oF coin eypes per year ofc isu, for cach Yassnid king 7 Relative quantves of Rajput ball-and-horseman «coins of Delhi mine by year of sue surviving ia f@reuacion i aD 1191, 121ayd 1255 4 Relative prodacton of billon ballad horseman ‘coins atthe Delhi mune. aD 1120-99, 9 Showing the mate of survival in circulation of illon ‘coins of the denomination Dsiludlaisucd by Reajparand Ghurid kings tthe Delhi min, 13-210 101 Showing the rative coin prodeston over tinic of Dedtlas at tye Dell mine 11 Silver and gold ais of Khabi ruler Fru, ‘Muhammad tf, Umar and Mubarak (gesin oy swcighte) Silver and gold slr of Khali les Fiz Muhammad 1, Umar and Mubarak (gram weights) 13 Showing coin wcght loss 14 Gol eer of Mubarak Shah 15 Diserbunion curves depicting the history of circulation ofa group of eons seeily tite nd prin circulation the same wine 16 Distribution ofthe weights of coin eype 240 in hoards 22 TABLES 1 Goin hoards found Utear Pradesh ia 1982-1979, Segregated by con type and peviod of sue 2 Comparison ofthe physieal properics ofthe [akshmintype eeetram cout of diffrent mins 3 Chronology of the gaia pnd coma ofthe Gujars Rar kingdoms 6 81 a st im 8 Maps, Graphs ond Tables 4 Correspondence ofthe Gujrat coinage secordi theDuaoys Pars, with testable pois) ‘Shromology of th Gujarat Rap regime 5 Showing ie cealuson of wotble desig elements in the Malwanprovsnance gil derivative coimge 6 Assoeinton of Gajarstand Masi coma fecovered con hans seegated by pe 2 The sribaton of Raper ulleand-horenan ois, serording to Cunning 1 Thesequene of Anan Pala blo cos 5 The sequen of Maa Pla ll coins 1 Group sequen oF bllkandehoncnn coin of liebe 11 Mca wes or bland Rajput iss exprened 12 Concordance of the dyna sof Dab les scone Ab Fas witmeern kon walt quanis of Rapur issuer billen om hoards 21 14 Calelation of the percentage presence af coi oF Sichisuer nace hoard console of Rajat ‘Sins by ecrniation dat, per ye of sue 15 Calculation of th prceaneprsence of ois oF Gah isucr nec ord consolidation of Rajat Soins by trmimon date, per year of sue 16 Mates curences whose eneaation pater Was ‘within the bowndanc ofa single kingdom 17 Medieval cornces whose elation pattern Was ‘ot confined wit the Boundary oF singe Kingdom 18 Relive comporion of tn bull-and-borsman coin homds found al pesoF each ie 138-9 140 we 159 0 a os m 176ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of research for this book, a gest many individuals ind institutions were consulted, apd to alla them | enpeess my stastude. In particular I wish to acknowledge che aubscauial Ssistance and co-operation of the following: “American” Numismatic Society, New York: M. Bates: ‘Andhra Pradesh Government Muacum, Hyderabad: M, F. Al Khan; Archacologiel Maseuns, Mathura: R. C. Sharmat Are ‘Museum, Trivandrum: C. X. fosephy Ashmolean Muscum, Onford: 1H, Mitchell-Brown, Bibliotheque, National, Pars ‘A. Nogre, R. Cure; Beish Museum, Landon: J. Cribb, N. Lowick, Centrl Meseur, Indore: R.'S, Garg: Directorate of Archacology & Muscams of Maharsebers, Worl: M, K. Hus Soin; Fizwilliam Museum, Cambridge: T. Volks Himachal Stare Museum, Sila: V.C, Ohi: Lahore Muscum, Lahot Me Das, Prince of Wales Muscam, Bombay: Mr She St Pratap. Singh Museum, Stinagar. M, Magdemt, Stitiche “Museen 2u Berlin, Berlin (DDR): H. Simon: State Mascum, Bhopal: J.P. Juin State Museum, Lucknow A. Ahmad Khan, “The follosing persons most generously made thet private collections avaiable for study, and shared their observations om Indian coinage: S. Goran London, England; D. L, Jake, Indore, tnx D. Laves, Kingston, USA: J. Liagen, Wergambacht, Nether= lands; KK. Maheshwari, Bombay. indiar RC. Senior Budeigh, England, W. F Spengler, Colorado Springs, USA: PJ Surana, Bombay, Inds: K. W. West, Wasenzar, Nether- lands; K- Wiggins, Crowborough, Englxi Aduledgements |, should also like to thank Dr P. Bhatia of New Delhi for Sharing her extensive experience in the bull-and-horseman ‘coimges; Di P. L. Gupta of Nasik, who opened many doors, Dr A.K. Narain of Madison, who materally assted the completion of the work; M. Moldaver of Ouawa, for his ‘ccculous editing: and many others fo0 numerous 10 mention ‘whose generous donations of time and thoughe made easier the progress of this book. ‘My greatest debris to my wife Valerie, who through her constant and unfalering trust, support and companionship, enabled me to bring the projet to 2 successfil conclusion "This research wat financed by grants from the American Institute of Indian Studies, Chieagor the Social Science and Humanities Reseatch Council, Oxtawa; and the Socal Science Research Council, New York. The content ofthis book and the Opinions expressed herein are entirely may own, and do not feller the policy of opinions of the sapporting iestieations Te is my pleasant eark to acknowledge the help ofall the above, caution, however, that I alone am responsible for any terrors o: shortcomings in the book ise youn 5. prvi SOURCES FOR COIN DISTRIBUTION MAPS tn addition to the hoards listed in Appendix B, coin hoards described! by the following sources" were included in the Aiseribution maps: Andhra Pradesh. Archacolopical Museum, Hyderabad. Ms. "Serial Acquistion Register, 1956 to date Anyul Progress Report of the Superintendent ofthe Archaeol ‘Swvey, Nowhert Cute, 19045 t0 1920-1. After 1912 two sections: (1). Hida a Buddhist Monuments, (2) Muhammadan & British Monuments Anal Rep 9 he Argel Sey, Beh Cie. OAS vo 1912 Annual Report of he Archaolgial Survey of Inia, Ponti Circe TH-$ t0 1913-14, 1918-19 10 1920-1 Archaeological Museum, Mathura. Ms, “Acquisitions Register’ 1933 +0: date Avchacoegial Survey of Tia. Memirs 1919-30, 1979. Excavie tion reports: Memoir No. 4, 7, 35, 37, 4, 43. Asiatic Society of Bombay. (formerly B.B.RAS), Ms, Serial Reyister, 1890-1907, enced "Caralogue af Comms Acquired since 180" by G. K. Tiwvarek, Librarian, prepared with the help of FJ. Thanawals, Coin Hoards: Royal Numismatic Society. 1 (1975)-VI (1980) Directorate of Archaeology snd Museums, Maharashtra, at Worl Ms. Treasure Trove Reports, 1951 to date Directorate of Museums & Archaeology of Rajasthan, Jaipur ‘Museum, Ms, "Accession Register 1935 t0 datexiv Sours for Coin Distribution Gupta, P. Ly Coin-Hoands fiom Gujarat Sate. Numismatic ‘Notes and’ Monographs No. 15, Numismatic Society of India, Varanasi, 1969 Gupta BL Coin-Hoads fom Maharacira, Numismatic Notes tnd’ Monographs No, 16, Numismatic Sociey of Indi, Varanasi, 1970. Indgn Archaeology, ¢ Review. Archacological Survey of Indi, ‘New Delhi, 1956-7 t0 1975-6. Jin, B. Co, Inventory of the Hoar end Finds of Coins and Seals ifm Madhya Pradesh, Numismatic Notes and Monographs 'No. 5, Numismatic Society of India, Varanasi, 1937 Prasad, HL K.. ‘Coin Hoatds ftom Bihar’, Indian Numismatic Chronic, Vill (1970), 45-108, Prasad, H. K, "Coin Hoards from Oris’, Indian Nuwismetic Chron, Vi (1967-8), 63-71. since of Wales Museum, Bombay. Ms “Classification Regis- ter and "Accession Register’, 1919 to date Progress Report of the Archaolegial Survey of Wesem Indi, 1904-5 to 1912-13, 1916-17 to 1920-1 Roy, P.C., "The Coinage of the Kalachusi of Trips ‘Numismatic Chrowde, p. 207, “Appendix: Hoard of the C of Gangeyadevs Srivastava, ALK. Coin Hoards of Utor Pradesh, 1882-1979, Lucknow, 1980, Stave Museum, Lucknow. Acquistion Repite (Printed), 1919 «0 ‘de. | | ABBREVIATIONS Alls ASR bast BMAUP Mc cH cs css EHR EHR El A tar Ic IESHR IHECSMP mk Hs im inc ust ING. aos Jase JebRas American iste of Indian Studies Archaeal Survey of Ido Repore Ian of the Cg Suey of nda Bln of Moms nd Anco Gato of Cain the Bosh Nasco Gin Fs Goren Swe Gobo to the Sy of Sol Hit Economic History Review. Economie Hoty Review Eppa inde ‘le aigry Indion Areca Review Inte Cure Indon Econo and Scie History Review Inver ofthe Hoar and Pn of Cote nd Ses fm Matis Dre Ink Hoy Review Indion Jour ofthe History of Scewe Idan Mino Catal of Co nthe nto Maseun, Clota Indo Mining and Metrgy Indian Numane Choe Journal of Aan nd Ones Sides Soul ofthe dae Socty of Bengal * at he iy Bah te Rl Ai tysors JEEH jen eso INST Jras Jurns MASI MGsr MRCTSR NC ND NPP Ns Now Cire Abbreviations Jal fhe Bihar and Ors Reh Sey Journal of Exropean Exam Hitory " Jounal & Economic Hier Jour he Eco and Soci Hay of the Jounal ofthe Naina Sty of india Journal of the Royal Bsatic Socesy Journal & the Utor Prato ties Sactey Moni of he Arca Suey of ae Moni of the Cred Suv te Matemas Resa Contr Toda Sty Re re imate Cini Nominate Diger Negeri Pai sate Siplonnt of the JASB {Spink’s] Nuoismatic Circular E Pein dsr aed of the sic Sey of Bengal reine fhe in iy Sot cond the Ceol Sure) of Be Royal Numismate Socery Revue Nominate TRANSLITERATION TABLES ladon Sevpes| Roman equivalents ate those commonly accepted jn Sanskrit philology: see W.D. Whitney, Sonsit Grammar, Leipaig, 1924, . 73, or George L. Hart, A’ Rapid Sent Method. Maison, 172, po ‘These tranalerstions with proper diariticals ate wsed in the text only where inseripeions sre rendered literally always in tlie font. Inall ocher csc, transliteration fllows Conventional literary usage rather than this table R= Rome = Dena oe Nag $end kp S[x pv s[a po s[r ov 8] x www a lie eo wa fee sls a |e as won sls tale we fw ww few athe e mle tz! ote aoe ele we ale ww] see Bee oe ele ew] fom * Mor aim uw le oo a] wmin Arabic and Pe Ponto those commonly accepted Trani Taber Am Antic: Arabic Scripts Roman equivalents ae Persian philology. R= Roman Py s fe 4 Den Antena vowels (ava Den ao dal a bel 5 thal & we 5 he rt eer at ela wm ike| vowels 5 ee ai ‘rslaton Taber pj ae ote|y g dele & dala i Incest bs vas au rle s +R ule ie tea vowels nao ConsonantINTRODUCTION Historians study. society through many perceptual lenses. Economic historians are concemed with society's material relationships. tn thee channel of inquiry, economic interactions show clear tends based on the aggregate of individal human fetivities. Hence investigators tend to Focus on those phe- homes which end themeclves to measurement or quantifica~ tion. Current concemns sch 38 economic growth and distribu tian o€ incomes, require fly sophiscicated ccononic record, Where these are available, a5 they are for the industrialized rations, quite advanced models of economic activity have beet Synthesized. Where these are unavailable, 8 isthe 2s for the pre-modern Indian subcontinent, economic historians have ben relatively slow to address substantive problems or fora late models of past economic activity This book is 2 response to the challenge of defining and exploring alternative avenues of economic research, It it concerned with money a an indicator of economic activity. Is Inajor premise is that past economic systems can usefully be ethedology Tar eve rcations, recorded the award of Biased amie fe forthe maimenance of pens of inte seven Pose guremdcr of those even rigs. When 2S cpp pace nara ive an impression of asi craton of ageclurl evened OF ale the cum ren omen nblance. sample of Sh cance Seo pied, ans Sy ental aon seumption oF Jace was engraved to confirm the fig of les We 9 oer nc sper, no ch mpeae ed of acs ton ws made, Hence the ove an: of 2h a a canna judge rom copper Phe BETS Sone ore earls, thefewdaiation model was,» compelling aoe attra of evidence have becr reimerpected 3 ore ewe or coulicing. Archacological evince of te cher support joe Gang cis nae fest lle has etn of at aden de-rbanivcion consequen 8 2 en ee By Us argument, trade exchanges send de decline of trade tiacney ander fealzation and the de~ to ten natenal ebionships.” Due once agai the mone oe considered concise since the ss ha of te foundation and eablahresk of 17 ahenomenon gre. B.D. Chattopadhyay has sown that Se Pp aban cetes the ft mln TAY the row ocd the decline of the old, so that what 8 Ye Ua is change, and not necessarily decline” seve ares voual fran Of CdERCE Te necessary €©n Introduction establish reliable conception of eu caheaton ofeatly medieval economic trends in tin parla the lack of quantiacve date for India prot fo AD 100 pany evident compacson to the fro and sopbiseted satiate) gered. by Enropean economic hstoans Indian commentators have refed one cn Gewese cong the exsentl question tobe asked are quantative how lige? fw ang? bow often? how repcieratv?> or how much? wvint proportions” The Role of Monetary Hisory Ins tor to man pou experi of evens the ta cen try taco etry foie ce st Moke spl m ler coromin hnengan hor moral entre ron of sono wey ha eg sdemage of beng» ene st A eA ofp dni a enn: Fae ncry lly & bow sent and sea ac wig en conan Hi Unit peer creamy de can eae ote Smad ncn sen core ca as ier of wegaion fat seady Beet De eae oe se must deity the ancient sous of gol, silver and iter mera, epi the doundance ad pacy of ein itcinine theses std pnd of scaltam, an above a diel the volume of clin he context of ie and plas. “This ina major prescription, and we should not imagine that it js attainable ins short time, or without the efforts and Iteensons of 4 number of investgstors European medieval tonetary historians have been blessed in many instances with urewing records a5 to. annual mint production, monetary Cachange rates, gold and silver prices, production quantities of Innes and the operation of banking houses. Only the most bligue teferences to these phenomena survive inthe subconti ene aad Tistorians ase obliged to proceed by means of snfrenal analysis of those documents ofthe erly medieval inferential =n ch do survive: the coins thems Fre pasos mont fair wth the coinage fhe nee eR cbr oF the rman Frat, Indian subcontnTjany song economic penpeciv, 250 Save never pane edt evidence at hands 2 ferme of ae a onc. rpets of the nmin wey can on aguaian, ad eve today Whe major Me te rmaiondesced om mimic nay SO nee and royal genealogy. Thi teflcted in sete tao of umamai sar, FOE ry OE eof ey scovered cin hoards in the example, Boe, has been limited to description of new coin ums ation ofthe description of known ct 1PS Ro ae pecens Pate and intial con from mone Sor gay composed soa» ticle all pre collections were wee any. parila scree. Essen, Sea Pe cr sain of cons, al whit amit cin iype 2 iferentable eegory of com Fay gue appeanc, meolgy, Fae compos Eom and mesige content a Tu as Ben no cxcepton i this respec Pee arte Bl for Tong, eaained A Cunning Ts Ae Alva nda (1894). The art of Cuming a te ee correct deapterment apd aibuton of bas work wash spony Atte treo hs caer i he coins a5 10 ee coinshe handled wore unread hd 1820s yt sine of putin of hit Book che whele unen teraladbeen give interprets TUE eae parc ser of com 7p, wih he Berm gabe or eh ekg. Consideration of the casts serra bimenged i the analyse of he coi 38 i ary" Cannghar 3 Least made 20 fot £0 Mr ac of the crs he Gesrbed, By which 2 SSevlogy might be recreate. eulogy mB Reope and considerably more sophie in net oes fy artes by D. W. MacDowal which Oey eS oF wha ight be achieved in medieval served sme Coinage of geya-Deva of Datla (NC maori nd The Shae of Kabul and Gandhara’ (NC4 Intrusion 1968, 189-224). MacDowell eli on the co-ordination of thece sets of observations to order coins chronologically and establish their denominational parameters 1. Fabric. The sae, Shape, thickness, design and workmen ship of coins ean be compared, relative chronology of manutse= tare extblished, and evolutionary trends within series and between separate coin series defined and compared 2. Meroiggy. The observed weights of coins are directly related to ther function 38 money, since coin denominations aulore 0 ideal weight standards, The change of the weight characteristics of coins estensibly ofthe same coin-type permits ‘heonological ordering according ta the evoluionary trend Also the relationship of subsidizry to main denominations of 4 coinage can be detected by comparing weights 3. Metal Cone. The value of 3 coin historically was related to its precious etl content, and. determination of the proportion of precious metal in a coin i a necesaty precondi= Sion co assessing ies denomination. Further, comparison of the relative metalic composition of lly cons enables another cane (of chronological ordering MacDowall’s example has boon only slowly adopted on a wider sale. The next major work inthe field, L. Gopal's Baniy Medieval Coin-Types of Nother India (1966), did woe specifically Adress the denamsinational or monetary aspects off medieval ‘coinage. Gopal’s perspective wae firmly st om the coin sh 5 form of adjunct ‘epigraph, and his main conccin was the ‘refinement of Cunningham's atributions on the basis of newer pigraphic and histoneat matenals. For the expanding, poste Braduate programmes in numismatics, coins had betome a Subject of study in themselves. Rather than coins illsinatng history, the situation was vieully one of history explaining coins (not 38 money. bur as dynastic objets), Gopal employed ‘modem methodology by the initiation of typology of coins based on predominant design fertues, wlated to. dynastic history bur without chronological markers, Notably, he applied he quite valid principe that modieval coins might be ordered according co plysical characcristic, in the absence of message ‘While not primarily concerned with the eatly medieval petiod, 8.1K. Maity's Fany Indian Coins and Gurengy Sytem conan Hisoaly 8 consned secon of lve 0 mete money “aj somnton west ein he tee rh Hs oe Jouning dave pene of gn ‘coins, to many of the medical ‘coin OS “Maity's. azgomen cs 20 any acon of cmap ome wa bo Tg ac eco gored i ora. well-peseted Bc put forward within the. context i Ls development, growth, maturity and decline ti i tu tneton of conage os a medium of monetary systems, an eee ifcan advancement ofthe basi Wenificions of fo detect many inconsistencies and untenable attributions in the cee ae Icey ery saa Specimen of each coin type he discussed.™ In a series where inaccuracies in the chronology of medieval coinage. Some ee analysis Alternative Source Materials and Methodologies is nota parciculacy appropiate ‘While the momismate erature is nota ps propre rat of deparare for monetary ists), sch not the ase Rah inact fom boards." ae mass fois, 30 se ge pase which survived undisturbed ntl thet Avery sane date They sein eft, samples of vais6 Iruroduction sorts ofthe coinage ie circulation in particular tegions at dierete points in ime f "The hoards may be analysed on several levels. The study of the composition of individual hoseds firstly permits chronolo- seal ordering of otherwise smonymous and unatibutable series ‘Of coins: secondly gives some sense ofthe relative quantities of| slifernt types of coin in Gcultion atone time: and thirdly Shows the at of wear of particular oin types in creation. When the characteristic composiions ofa nember of differen hoards fof disparate geographical and temporal originate compared a ‘much broader picture emerges of the eoins Function ar money. in sens, Hoard analyst remove cos fom 2 tp ebueslogieal or ple conten so pace theo in aie tascam of economic hiory. Types of qucstons whith May te Thdnad Singh selae 8 contours te | lative min production over dime the tno con wg, 4 and the monetary interrelationships of different regions. ‘ “The mthedotgies which produ such ule Se 2 com tinaon of adios and. Gen sumasmatepocrdver Sipletd by ssi echniquey common wc sol scthees. The bss ofall work itis reetch roma the inspection nd clsiaion of ‘oi ypes, and thorugh {mia of she ere, The qunit of ein pes Se ‘Salted we comparsle fom hosrd to heads A poset {cal for thi compaton i segreson snl which hasbeen ‘lin etabing he proper sguencing o comin Gor RppendicC) By linge uni of in nth ins Ese inthe cone he tiation dats of hosts the ate of ation or oa of coe rom credo, Re ‘Stinwed Impreted mn comparon athe sural xe ‘oi af ceeding such fan eel be Tike the degre of wage of comin cxchange macs (e Chop 1 "he sid of con weights ede il to vais forms of staal at graphic sass which see Co Mme the ntl stems of the coimring suo, the mint ing printer andthe pte af weigh foes cao dc tears. Crapialy tis demonauted bythe vergence ofthe empl carve fom 4 pedicel ‘mcm datisnion Sathily ined by vats ne of ouctved weigh i woe Becnomic Historiography 7 dispersion about mean or average values. These methods were pioneered in monetary studies of pre-modern Europe and Sncient India, snd they have proven to be equally useful for ‘medieval Indian hoard materials OF course these are and wil femain subordinate tools of historia reserch, which provide Sats subject 10 the normal interpresive criteria ofthe historia Aliscipine. ‘One of the advantages of working with the extemely Aifcle coinages of early medieval India, i that they test the tations of such research methodologies. Two allied analytic~ al techniques ae the die-link method of ehronologial sequenc- lng and the dic-count method of coin production estimation Both seek co differentiate the coins of a single coin type im 2 hoard, according to the mint tools oF dies used i their tmanafaceure. Hand engraved dis exhibit minor variations of Geert which are transmited co the coins they stke- As dies weit out and are replaced, the coins change minutely in appearance. By observing the succession of des 3 coin issue, {he tinting chronology can be esublished. By noting the frequency wih which eins produced by the same die appeat in hoard, there eno selective bias, probability stasis give an ‘ama ofthe orginal population of dies used in coin issue TExcrapoltion gives the quantities of coins produced by those dics Regretsbly, the vital intl step for bath methods, namely dic analysis, s impossible for many carly medieval Indian coins Most of these coir types ate of small diameter, so that itis ecersry 9 resort high magnification to inspect die features All the non-gold coins (ke. Billon and copper) aze subject ‘severe corrosion by the Indian environment, so tht die features fe offen obscured or damaged. A common feature of these ‘coinages i the tendency forthe die ro be much larger than the «coin blank, and randomly of-cencen striking, so thatthe same die features are seldom actually present on each coin specimen, [ence there i 2 poor batis for comparison, with an intlerabl margin of exvor’™ In particu, the billon drommas, godhips ‘coin, and later derivative bull-and-horseman issues ate unsit- ‘ble for die analysis Of the billon series, only the Shahi bolland-horseman coins, of relatively good slvr content and Carel execution, appeat to be suitable for this technique. No8 Incton hoards of this coin type were availble for such research. The cletram Lshni-type coinage hat good potntal fr die ul) fiver priority. the hoards, Fr is obvious that all of the outstanding issues of medieval monetary history could not be addressed by 3 single researcher ‘working in 2 difficule medium. By their very natate, certain types of hoard analysis and coin analysis roquire_ greater zd Facies than any inividal inves an muster. Given th resources avaiable, however, deal of co-operation fom others (which Tam pleated to acknowledge), thas been posible to order many ofthe seis of | arly medieval coins, define the temporal period of thei ise, fix the boundaries oftheir geographic distribation,atibute che ‘contol of their manufacture to known political authors, and ence set the ‘denowninational parameters a= money), trace their czeultion history, and draw inferences ato the pervasiveness of monetary tage and the relative volume of monetized exchange tansice tions. The story which emerges an interesting and intuitively ‘fying one. It concerns more than money: ita chronicle of | r the fesoureefilnes, sagacty and. innovation ‘with whieh ‘medieval indians structed ther material eitons to accomo~ sources oft ‘establish theie metrology and intrinsic va date change eh analysis, being fairly broad, non-corroded, sell-centeed coins With most ofthe design visible. and when scholars ate given access to gold coin hoards i India, this eype of study should be ‘The specific character and implications of coin hoards, and conditions of accese to them, are discussed more fully in ‘Appendix D. [ts sufficient to note here that many of the drstwbacks of reliance on observation of coin types are avoided by the use of coin hoards rather than individual coins, in whatever petiods and tegions such hoards have been avaiable, the methodology ofthis book hss been to teat the coin hoards 4 the primary data, and let analysis proceed. from the information derived from the internal and external contest of Pzonomic Historiography 19 NoTES 1.6. Pind, Foreword 0 Gopal 0966), op. ts p= 21 1b "Ecanomse Hitery ofthe Dey Sutnae—An Essay Ieee IHRAAV, 2 (197), 9. 39. 3.RUS Shama snd D.H. a. The Economie History of ada up 0 (8D, 1a Trend ad Prospect ESTO, XVI (IT), Pe lp {taki “Prlens of Mavis Imerprettion i din Hisar, Egy, Me? (30), 9p. 5267 5 HALE, op... Bes RUS. Sharma, “Decay of Cangtie Towns a Gupta poet. Gupta “Tames PIN, Sed Seon Muraanagn (97), py. 92-108 7 BID, Chaopadiyaya, "Trade and Urban Ceres Ey Mera Ins) 1, 2 (97%, 9p 308-19. 1 Thi i ery erent i comparative works such a Job F, Richard (Gi), Strand Gold Flows i he Metal on! Ey Sloe Wat, Dara, 182 9 LK Tripathi “Coon 2» Source of Economic History’ JNSH Xxx (97D, Pe? pe 3 10 Sharm apd J (974 op Gt p72 HS Shuma, Cato and Prime af Early Indian Economic atary JNSE 3K M8), 9. 12 Th phe echniqe wed to ood let in mast of M. Miche publics: ce the nin-vlune Indo Crck and no-no, Tondo, 1975-6 = the treevolame Onl Car and har Vals london, 177-9 13 Far the oy of repro ass in the mncament of the ferdependence of tint oops in aeprete comers ace JH ‘Munro, "Buln Flows and Monetary Conracoa ia Late-Mdies Engin ad the Low Count Geap Ll n Richards (290), op “Fhe plcatone of mobil analy par mnocing rome sot ele of selon vere xploned by 1 kama, ‘Tho Reforms of Caremaghe? Weis ond Mesures i the Male Ages. EI, NXoI (Ape 1967), pp. 38. ‘Chronology and absorption tes reveled by metalsy. were suded by D. D. Konmb, "Chronaoges! Order of Panch Maked (Com, JBBRAS, XXIV-XXV (10480), 8s XN OS, pp 21a iis XXVIE 95D, pp 281-71 14 Tae tec war dened iy Le Brunei, Apt Sit dle Metin, Rowse, 168 C.S.S. Lyon. “The Estimate of te [amber of cs Employed in + Cosa’ in Cu, LXXI! (9), sp. 1801; Lats Hols, “History and Mining, in “Teng fr» train Eyuiproably Using » Mukinomil or Paton Sample’, MRCTSR No. eSh. Unverty of Wisonsin, Medion, 1976. 15 The acay of he aay cnr ste the accuracy ith Svhch the els ar dette ithe fst pace Hence no elle ‘ots om be expec a cs where phyla ofthe ‘Snr wif case cor, Tae importance of ele de enty ‘Shrewnons tne bn shown by. Genon, “The Volume of ‘Regio Sanam Coinage, FAR, XXU (Ape (O67, pp 153-60, ppc ane PARTI The Post-Classical Age Circa 750-1000 Although the major researc focus ofthis book is the period starting sbout 4D 1000, many of the curreney systems to be Getailed had thei roots inthe previous er. The ninth and tenth ‘centuries sa the nitation or maturity of four separate spires fof money usage in the regions of this study 1. The Gangetie plains under the impersal Prataras Peripheral fevdatores, nobly those of Saurashea, issued related but diferent coinage, 2. The Indus valley under the Arab governors and. Amis. 53 Gandhara and he northwest under the Skabi dynasis, Kashmir under local rlers. In each ofthese cases, distinctive regional curencies evolved rnainly in response to local neds. The area of creation of these monies, and he area of the issuing agency's paliial authority were offen congruent. Whete tis war not 80, the Coinage had special characerics which encouraged its extr2= territorial circulation. is subsequent migration into other lands by trade, war or pilgyimage made ita strong influence i biter monetary history.3 ‘The Gurjara-Pratiharas The upper Ganga basin, known to Indians of the age as snadhyadea!oe the central country, was ented on Kanyakubja for Kanauj, a formerly grand cty with a faded, but lingering, epotation as the seat of imperiam, A sharp struggle over ‘pomeston ofthis haplese city aror, for with thi prize went the *ymboli overlordship ofthe subcontinent. Succesive priper= 2 Kingdoms atempted the conquest of the hearlsnd, but thie ‘ccupations were seldom of long duration. Perhaps the cmm- paigns were dgniya: ceremonial eisplays of royal ego. Pthaps peemanene conquest was never possible to regional powers Eependent on over-extended ines af comenieaton and Supply. Or perhaps successive conquests had rendered the city itself materilly unworthy of any tong. occupacon, ‘The southern empite of the Deccan under the Rashuakata dynasty was arguably the richest of the thece contenders in mates! and human resources) The relies of distance, however, prevented the effective long-term extension of the Reshtrskuest political will into. madhyadela, Their successive northern compaigns took on the character of grad rans ‘without positive permanent eff ‘This was alo true of the ‘ors ofthe eastern Kingdom of Bengal ender the Pal dynasty Twas not unl the westem kings called Gorjara or Prati had ‘wielded a stable hierarchy of epional eudatories, shat che upper Gangs terntorice passed under the ele of one line of Kings. From the ime of Bhoja (836-82) to Vinayakapala (¢ 914-33), the GujarasPratharae ruled over an empite which encompas| i 2m The Po-Clasical Age sed at one time or another pars of present-day Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa apd the Ganga basin fom the Punjab to Bihar, Their feudatores, included the Chakamanss of ‘Chauhans and the Guhilas, both in Rajasthan; the Chaullyas? and the Chapa," both in Gujarat-Kathiawads and the Kalachurs ‘of Gorakhpt* The lines of authority in such apolitical system were necessarily somewhat diffuse, and dhe borders would Auctoate with the ebb and flow of military acivity of rival kingdoms. ‘The major source of government revenue at this time was the tax on agricultural production; and the major expendiare of government was on the royal bouschold and the army. The feudal levies due from subordinates to the Gunjara king were supplemented by standing armies garrisoned on the fonder.” ‘The use of money was stongly implied by such a system. Although dizect zefernces are cusve, the maintenance of lage permanent military forees must have required the regular {isbursement of pay or expenses in che form of ready cash. The forms of money, would have to sitify two conditions: sufficiently high value units 10 be easily tansportable from point of clletion to point of disbursement yet sufficiently Tow alue units to meet the modest salary or expenditure levels of individ solders, "The commercial enterprises ofthe Gurjars dominions shoud also be noted, both a5 users of money on 3 regular basis and 382 {Source of revenue through taxes, Some historians have inte preted the period 2s one in which commerce war moribund, With trade highly localized and dispersed to the village level ‘here barter tlaionships replaced monetary exchanges.” Im deed, the dslecic view of history has encouraged use of the term ‘feudalism’ to describe the politi, economic and social process of eatly medieval Inds. According to this model, the period was chatacterized by the decentralization of governmen= {al authority, devolution of economic activity fom ineemationl to local scale, and. deurbanization.®” This interpretation is heavily relia upon the evidence oflnd-grants, a biased sample (Gs nofed in Chapter 2) which encourages over-atimation ofthe Seength or prevalence of a end “There ate, however, counterindications to ths analysis of decline, AlsBirani, writing in the early eleventh century (on the Ope iene ‘The Gurara Prathaae % basis of Ghsznavid trades’ eyewitness repors), detailed + complex of wade routes linking the major cities of the Gurats ‘calm both internally and with the countries onal fonts. He Jeft no doubs tha hose were messied By the caravaneere who frequented them." Arab travellers of the ninch and. tenth centuries described 4 number of wade goods originating in various parts of the subegorinent, which moved to market By 2 variety of pack animals." Indeed, one ofthe most consistently demanded trade item must have Been the horse self Salsiman (aD 851) states of the Guar king that "no other Indian prince fis 50 fine a cavalry. his camels and horses are numerous." Ghoshal comments that the Indian authorities of both this petiod. and the later cleventh-twelfth centuries, ‘agree in {signing the fst rank in ther classified lise of horses to the foreign breeds. and the lowest to she indigenous breeds." The former indicates well-eriblished trade links, Quite obviously an active exchange of products internal to Indian kingdoms, as well a5 berween these sates, and ouside, existed during the time of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. This gain implies some degree of monetization of exchange, enlest Wwe are to hypothesize » oniversl barter system. The. Arab geographers however fequenly mention the types of coins Used in the realms which they describe. We may conclude thit extensive commercial interests promoted the use of coinage, additional to the needs of the military, described shove, Contemporary Evidence sbout North Indian Money ‘The discussion of these fctors has emphasized the Hkelood that thete was rgulr and welled medium of exchange in ‘he Gurjars-Prathara dominions during the ith and tenth centuries. Inscrptional evidence confirms this surmise, An eperaph from Bharatpur records the distribution of coins caled ttamas by King Bhosa Deva in AD, 905-6 (3 seceacor of his ‘ameske Bhojs, mentioned above). The Siyadon: inscription fiom Jhansi District recorded + number of donations. by individuals to temple deities from ab %2 to 967. Two speci denominations of coins are notable, the vigrchapala danas and ‘he vandha drone, After careful study, scholars ate genersl=2% The PoueClascl Age ly agreed in relating these coin names to specific surviving specimens. Earliest Imperial Coinage: The Vigrahapals Dramma ‘The vigehapala drama (and its vatints, vigrha deans, grahepliy drama al vigrahapla cath drama) is el to be the name of billon (ver copper alloy) coin ofthe class called “Indo-Sassanian’ because of the demonstrable evolution of is design elements ftom rhe broad, thin coinage ofthe Sasea femperors of Iran (efih century ap), The induence of thie coinage was extended by the Hun invaders of northern and ‘western India (sixth century Ab), whose cain types ad been adopeed by carly Gurjata kingdoms in the Sind/Rajssthan borderlands (seventh century aD). "The coin has on the ‘obverse, a rude head in right profile, with the Ite Brahmi ot te-Devanagar legend i via, The reverse has portions of 3 altar flanked by attendants, sometimes without legend (late ‘nin 3) and somesimes with Devanagr (plate coin I) or ma {plate coin 2)" The tncam weight of 145 surviving specimens St g. These generally show advanced west, and the orginal ‘Weight standard of manutacrare was likly higher. The uppet standard deviation of fourten specimens js 3.98 g, and of another cghtcen is 3.9 g: this may approach the coin's weight ‘when new.® Analysis By Prakash and Singh reveals tht the ser conen of he coin wa 4.16 pet cent ean say of 18