1.1 INTRODUCTION Each and every creature in this movement of the rustling of leaves in trees, ete. produces sound due (0 vibration of particles are Inaudible. some are Audible and some @ 1 waves that can be heard by human ear (Betyee, re sound waves of frequencies less thar 2, waves greater thant 20,000 Hertz cal | workd produces sound. For exam, insects, breath from human be in air. Among these soung , Apart from the sound 20 Hertz to 20,000 Hertz] there Hertz called infrasonics and sound ultrasonics. igh frequency waves and are inauditl The ultrasonic waves are called hij to human ear. The ultrasonics has many engineering and medical applications, id waves are reflected at the boundary which are based on the principle that “soun (or) adjoining media of the two surfaces that have different acoustical parameter, PRODUCTION OF ULTRASONICS 1.2 ds of producing the ultrasonic | In general there are three metho waves. viz., (i) Mechanical generator (or) Galton’s whistle (ii) Magnetostriction Generator (or) Magnetostriction Oscillator method. (iii) Piezo-electric Generator (or) Piezo-electric Oscillator method. Let us confine our discussion to the production of ultrasonics using magnetostriction oscillator and piezo-electric oscillator method. 1.3. MAGNETOSTRICTION EFFECT AND MAGNETOSTRICTION GENERATOR Principle : Magnetostriction effect is the principle of producing ultrasonic » (ie) when an alternating magnetic field is applied to a rod of jerromastelt ‘material such as nickel, iron, Cobalt ee., or Altoys of it, then the rod is throw into longitudinal vibrations as shown in fig.1.1 ee dorasonie waves at resonance. ig.1.1, thereby producing ltr Le A wave[COltrasonies Construction The magnetostriction generator consists of a ferromagnetic rod clamped at the centre of the rod AB. The two ends (A & B) of the rod is wound by ihe coils Ly and Ly. The coil L, is connected to the collector of the transistor and the, coil L, is connected to the base of the transistor as shown in fig 1.2 D.CSource SS Get —s rod) SS Fig. 1.2 ‘this Goept can be iow ‘The frequency of the oscillatory circuit (L\C,) can be adjusted by the condenser (C,) ‘and the current can be noted by the milli ammeter, connected across the coil Ly. The battery connected between emitter and collector provides necessary biasing i,e., emitter is forward biased (n is connected to negative of the battery) and collector is reverse biased'"(n is connected to positive of the battery) for the npn transistor. Hence, current can be produced by applying necessary biasing to the transistor with the help of the battery Working ‘The rod is permanently magnetised n the beginning by passing direct current.The battery is switched ON and hence current is produced 4, Y the Seg ; iene h the coil Ly, which ¢, transistor, This current is passed through 1 use brating ‘ th corresponding change in the magnetisation of the rod. Now the rod starts yj due to magnetostriction effect. We know that when a coil is wounded over a vibrating yy, (ferromagnetic material) then emf will be induced in inal aa fa called converse magnetostriction effect. Due to this effect an e.m.f is induced jn q coil Ly. ; ° the induced exit is fed to the base of the transistor, which feed back continuously. In this way the current in the transistor is buil the vibrations of the rod is maintained. _ The frequency of the oscillatory circuit is adjusted by the condenser C) and when this frequency is equal to the frequency of the vibrating rod, resonan¢, occurs. At resonance the rod vibrates longitudinally with larger amplitude Producing ultrasonic waves of high frequency along the both ends of the rod, Condition for Resonance a the act as g t up ang where ‘I’ is the length of the rod ‘E’ is the youngs modulus of the rod “pe? is the density of material of the rod. Merits (i) It is mechanically versatile. Gi) Cost is low. ~ (iii) It can produce large acoustical Power with high efficiency. ° Demerits (i) It can produce frequencies uy (i) It is not possible t depends on the tem (iii) As the frequency j vibrating rod, to inci ps be decreased wi ipto 3 MHz only. ‘© Bet a constant single frequency, because it perature and the degree of magnetisation. s inversely proportional to the length of ‘i Tease the frequency, the length of the rod shot h is practically impossible1.4 PIEZO-ELECTRIC EFFECT AND PIEZO-ELECTRIC GENERATOR Piezo-Electric Crystals The crystals which produces pi electric effect are termed as piezo-elect electric effect and converse piezo- crystals. Examples : Quartz, Tourmaline, Rochelle salts ete. A typical example for a piezo-electric crystal (Quartz), is as shown in fig.1.3. It has “an hexagonal shape with pyramids attached at both ends. It consists of 3 axes, viz., (i) optic axis (Z-axis), which joins the edges of the pyramid, (ji) Electrical axis (X-axis), ‘which joins the corners of the hexagon and (iii) mechanical axis (Y-axis), which joins the centre (or) sides of the hexagon, as shown in fig.1.3. X-cut and Y-cut crystals X-cut crystal : When the crystal is cut perpendicular to the X-axis, as shown in fig.1.4, then it is called X-cut crystal. Generally X-cut crystals are used to produce longitudinal ultrasonic waves. Y-cut crystals : When the crystal is cut perpendicular to the Y axis, as shown in Jig.1.5, then it is called Y-cut crystal. Generally Y-cut crystals produces transverse ultrasonic waves. va AE X cut X axis X axis ond on Fig.d , jem Vani Sent ai v Yaxis Fig. 1.5Piezo electric effect When pressure (or) mechanical force is | Il | applied along certain axis (mechanical axis) with respect to optic axis of the crystals like quartz, tourmaline, rochelle salts etc., then equal and opposite charges are produced along the perpendicular axis (electrical axis) with respect to I fi optic axis of the crystal as shown in Fig 1.6. This effect is called piezo electric effect. Inverse piezo electric effect When potential difference (or) e.m,f. is applied along certain axis (electrical axis) with respect to optic axis of the piezoelectric crystals then the crystal starts vibrating along ate the perpendicular axis (Mechanical axis) with respect to the crystal as shown in Fig 1.7, This effect is called as inverse piezo electric effect. Principle Inverse piezo electric effect is the principle behind the production of ultrasonics using piezo electric oscillator circuit. Here ultrasonics are produced at resonance (i.e) when the frequency of the oscillatory circuit is equal to the frequency of the vibrating crystal. ~ Construction The piezo-electric generator consists of primary and secondary circuits. Fig.1.7 The primary circuit is arranged with coils L, and Ly. ‘The coil L, is connected to the base of the transistor and coil L, is connected to the collector of the transistor. The capacitor C, is used to vary the frequency of the oscillatory citi [L,C\]. The coil Ly is inductively coupled to the secondary circuit, which comprises of the coil L; and two metal plates A and B as shown in Fig !.8 The crystal is kept inbetween the plates A and B for the production of ultrasonics Necessary biasing, i.e., Emitter is forward biased (‘n’ is connected to negativ® of the battery) and the collector is reverse biased (‘n’ is connected to positi”® of the battery) is given with the help of the battery oooWorking ‘The battery is switched ON and hence current is produced by the transistor, in the circuit. The current is passed through the coil L, and Ly of the primary circuit. This current is transfered to the coil L3 in the secondary circuit due to transformer action and is fed to the plates A and B. Due to the principle of inverse piezo-electric effect the crystal starts vibrating along the mechanical axis of the crystal The frequency of the oscillatory circuit is adjusted by the capacitor Cy and when this frequency is equal to the frequency of the vibrating crystal, resonance occurs. At resonance the crystal vibrates vigorously and ultrasonic waves are produced along both the ends of the crystal. Condition for Resonance 1 is the Length of the crystal E_ is the Youngs modulus of the crystal pis the Density of the crystal P= 12,3 .... etc, for fundamental, first over tone, second overtone etc. respectively.Limitations (It can produce frequency upto 500 MHz. It can produce longitudinal as well as transverse ultrasonic, by properly euting and shaping the crystal with respect 8 optic axis. (ii) The production of ultrasonics is independent of temperatng and hence produces high power ultrasonics at Constany, frequency. 1.5 DETECTION OF ULTRASONICS WAVES Ultrasonics can be detected by any one of the following methods viz (i) Kundts tube method Sensitive Flame method . Thermal method (iv) Piezo-electric detector i) Kundts tube method Adjustable piston Kundts tube Ialauagla aac = consists of 2. long: glass angus ( ) = tube fitted with an _ adjustable piston vat one Tpeapodion powder end as shown in fig.1.9. a . Fig.19 Before keeping it in the path of ultrasonic waves, Iycopodium powet | is smeared uniformly inside the tube. Now when the Kundts tube is kept it the path of ultrasonic waves, the lycopodium powder spreads and prosuces heaps at the nodes and is blown off at the antinodes as shown in fig. 1.9. This confirms that they are ultrasonics, If the heaps are not formed we can say that they are not ultrasnoic waves, : Tn this way we can dete! ultrasonics using Kundis tube, il) Sensitive Flame method g~ 2 tas 5 ‘Sensitive When a sensitive flame is placed i= ame in the path of ultrasonics as shown in aT fig.1.10, then it flickers at the nodes and it remains stationary at antinodes, Hence ultrasonic waves are detected. Fig. 1.10 |1.6 | Thermal method Principle When ultrasonic waves are passed through platinum wire, connected to a metre bridge, the temperature of the platinum wire changes, which inturn changes the resistance of the platinum wire and hence the metre bridge goes to unbalanced condition. Thus, with respect to the balancing position of the metre bridge ultrasonic waves are detected. Construction A fine platinum wire is connected to a metre bridge, which consists of two fixed resistances R,, Ry and a variable resistance Rj as shown in fig.1.11, A galvanometer is connected to check the balancing position of the metre bridge. Working Initially the fine platinum wire, connected to the metre bridge circuit is placed in the region where the ultrasonic waves has to be tested, and the bridge is kept in a balanced position, Now, if the ultrasonics are passed through the wire, the nodes ie ot Present in the ultrasonic waves will ¢f Produce compression and rarefaction on See the platinum wires, inturn produces heating and cooling effects respectively on that particular area, Fig. Therefore, due to the change in temperature, the resistance of the Platinum wire also changes and makes the bridge to go to an unbalanced condition. At antinodes, there is no such compression or rarefaction. Therefore there will not be any change in temperature of the platinum wire and hence the bridge will be in a balanced position, Thus with the help of noting the balancing position of metre bridge, we can detect whether the ultrasonic waves are present (bridge goes to unbalanced condition) (or) absent (bridge will be in balanced condition).™ Engineering Plysies>y 1,7 PIEZO-ELECTRIC DETECTOR Optic axis The ultrasonics can be detected \l — using piezo electric effect (i.e.) when the piezo electric crystal, whose faces are + perpendicular to the optic axis is placed t = in the path of ultrasonic waves, then + _ ‘4 equal and opposite charges are produced a fon the faces parallel to the optic axis as I il shown in fig-1.12. Fig.1.12 Thus with the help of presence (or) absence of charges in the piezo electric erystal, we can detect the presence (or) absence of ultrasonics respective. Here the charge produced will be very weak, hence it has t0 be suitably ampifid with an external amplifier. 1.8 PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONICS .They-are highly energetic, 2. They travel through longer distances. flected, refracted and absorbed similar to ordinary sount ‘They are ri waves. 4. When ultrasonics are passed through liquid, it produces stationary w=" pattern and makes the liquid to behave as acoustical grating element 5. When an object is exposed to ultrasonics for a longer time it produces 1.9 CAVITATION We might have seen bubbles in the liquids. There microscopic bubbles, of size 10-8 to 10? metre, these bubbles gro' is any decrease in pressure of the liquid. The grown bubbles will collaps fone stage t0 produce shock waves inside the liquids. The total process " occur naturally within a millisecond, are certait ws. if ther Cavitation : Cavitation is the process of creation and cots ide the >! bubbles, due to the principle of negative local pressure created insi ys as fol Cavitation can be artificially induced with the help of ultrasonicsWhen the ultrasonic waves are passed through the liquid, they induce compression and rarefaction in the layers of the liquid. ‘This will produce a negative local pressure at the spot of rarefaction and causes a local boiling of the liquid with the help of a bubble growth, Thus the bubble is grown After the bubble growth, this bubble will have very high pressure in it and hence the temperature inside the bubble increases enormously say upto 10000°C also. When these bubbles collapse, they produces shock waves in the iquid and hence cavitation occurs. 1.10 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT USING ACOUSTIC GRATING Principle When ultrasonic waves are passed through a liquid, the density of the liquid varies layer by layer due to the variation in pressure and hence the liquid will act as a diffraction grating, so called acoustical grating. Under this condition when a monochromatic source of light is passed through the acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted. Then by using the condition for diffraction, the velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined. Construction crystal Coltimetor Eye piece ))& liquid Fig. 113 It consists of a glass tank, filled with the liquid (say kerosene). A electric crystal (Quartz) is fixed at the top of the glass tank and is connected to a piezo-electric oscillatory circuit as shown in fig. 1.13. An incandescent lamp is used as a monochromatic source of light(S) and a telescope arrangement is made to view the diffraction pattern. A collimator consisting of two lens L, and Ly is used to focus the light effectively onto the glass tank.ee = —”~S i) When the piezo-electric crystal is at rest iti i ectric crystal is kept at Initially the piezo-electric crys i rmonochrematic source of light is switched ON. When the Hight the glass tank filled with the liquid, @ single image (or) a vert observed on the telescope, which shows that there is no diffraction. ii) When the piezo-electric crystal Is set Into vibration The piezo-electric crystal (quartz) electric oscillatory circuit. At resonance, is passed through the liquid. ‘These ultrasonic waves are reflected by the walls of the glass tri ‘and forms a stationary wave pattern with nodes and antinodes, in the liquid is set into vibrations using isn, ultrasonic waves are produced arg “At nodes the density of the liquid becomes more and at the antinede the density of the liquid becomes less. Thus the liquid behaves as a diffracting element called acoustical grating element. Now, when the monochromatic source of light is passed through t ‘acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted and a diffraction pattern consists of central maximum (C,,) and principle maxima (P,,) on either side is view! through the telescope as shown in fig. 1.14. The velocity of ultrasonic waves can be found using the diffraction condition ie, 2dsind=nd see) Where ‘d’ is the distance between Dee successive nodes (or) antinodes. Fig 14 0 is the angle of diffraction, nis the order of spectrum, 2, is the wavelength of the monochromatic source of light, If 24 is the wavelength of ultrasonics, then ae we can write from fig.1.15 as 2, =2d......(2) = a Equation (1) becomes 2, sind = ma Fig IS ig.(Elirasontes (or) Wavelength of ultrasonics (3) We know, fea) ( Wavelength ) Velocity of ultrasonics = ( ultrasonics ) ” of ultrasonics Frequency of ultrasonics produced by piezo-clectric oscillator will be the same as that of the frequency of the oscillatory circuit. So if vy, is the frequency of the ultrasonics produced using piezo-electric oscillator ‘then, ae ioe (4) Substituting equation (3) in (4), we get Velocity of ultrasonics Thus the velocity (or) wavelength of the ultrasonics can be determined using acoustical grating. 1.11 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS 1) Ultrasonic drilling and cutting: Ultrasonics are used for making holes in very hard materials such as glass, diamond etc., When ultrasonics are passed through these materials it creates air bubbles. This air bubbles collapses within a short span of time, thereby releasing a large amount of pressure and temperature which are used for cutting and drilling. 2) Ultrasonic welding and soldering: Some materials cannot be welded at high temperature. In such cases the welding can be done at room temperature using ultrasonics and is called as cold welding. It is also used for Soldering aluminium foil condensers, aluminium wires etc., without any flux 3) Ultrasonic cleaning and drying: Ultrasonics can also be employed in cleaning motors, aeroplanes, electronic assemblies etc., Here the Cleaning tank is partially filled with detergent solutions. The article to be cleaned is placed in this tank. The ultrasonics are imparted to the solution, which accelerates the molecules in the liquid to move with high kinetic energy. This‘ pi cen +k Ee — ~ —— ; Engineering Physic =a : > particles strikes the dirt particles and clean it- acoustic drier. Further it can also be dried yy, ng They are used in coagulation (changing from jig, 4) Coagulation : : ‘and erystallistion, ence can be used jy phase to a semi solid phase) manufacturing of paints, polishes etc. 5) In industries ultrasonics are used to remove air bubbles in g liquid metals and corvert them into fused metals. Low frequency ultrasona are used in sorting paper fibers from the paper pulp. They are also used increase the sensitivity of colour in photographs by dispersion of dye in emulsion. 6) Sound Signalling: High frequency ultrasonics can be sent o in the form of beams, which spreads in all directions as spherical waveftou and passes the signals from one place to another. Thus the signals can b used as an identification for landing the ships. In military field the metho of sound signalling can used to identify our warships. 7) Depth sounding: Echo sounding is the principle used to find t depth of the sea. A beam of ultrasonics is directed towards the bottom of th sea and the reflected signal is received as shown in Fig. 1.16. ‘The time interval between the transmitted and received signal is note and let it be ‘t’. If ‘v’ is the velocity of the ultrasonics, then Distance travelled Velocity = Sl Time taken _— From Fig.1.16, we cay write PR+RQ _ 2RO (approx) t t RO = Depth of sea = = Fig.1.16 The depth of the sea can be directly cali is i! calle ited (rument as Fathometer (or) Echometer, V.ceturaed uring the ins[/etirasonte 1,12 SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging) Principle : It is based on the principle of ECHO-SOUNDING. When ultrasonic waves are transmitted through water, it is reflected by the objects in the water and will produce an echo signal, The change in frequency of the echo signal, due to doppler effect helps us to determine the velocity and the direction of the object. \- rae fefemtesl [cro rai |(Transmitter)| Object >) (Receiver) fo Description: It consists of a timing section which triggers the electric pulse from the pulse generator. This pulse generator is connected to the transducer (Transmitter and receiver) so that ultrasonics can be produced. The transducer is further connected with the CRO for display. The timing section is also connected to the CRO display for reference of the timing at which the pulse is transmitted as shown in block diagram Fig.1.17. Working : The transducer is mounted on the ship’s hull without any air gap between them as shown in fig.1.18, The timing at which the pulse generated is recorded at the CRO for reference and this electrical pulse triggers the transducer which is kept in the hull of the ship to produce ultrasonic waves due to the principle of inverse piezo electric effect. These ultrasonic waves are transmitted through the water in the sea. On stricking the object the ultrasonic waves (echo pulses) are reflected in all directions. concept can be viewed itEngineering Physic > These waves are picked by the receiver (transducer) as shown ig Fig.1.18 and is again converted into electrical pulse due to piezo elects effect. These pulses will be weak and hence amplified and are recorded jg the cathode ray oscilloscope. Hence both the transmitted pulse and the received echo pulse are recorded as shown in fig.1.19. From the time interval and pulse height between the transmitted and received pulse, the position, distance and the direction of the moving object can be calculated. Tranaied Pulse on Pulse 1.13 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) As the name itself implies that NDT is a method of testing the material, without destructing (or) damaging the material, by just passing X- rays (or) ultrasonics (or) any other radiations through the material. Therefore in NDT method the product (or) specimen is examined without impairing (or) changing its usefulness for future service. NDT is used to examine the material, to detect imperfections and to determine its properties without damaging the material. | 1.14 OBJECTIVES OF NDT NDT has varieties of objectives viz., i) To detect the internal (or) surface flaws. !) To measure the dimensions of the materials. To determine the material's structure and iv) To evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of the materials If these factors are determined in the earlier stages of productic” process, the quality of product, service life time, productivity, profits * safety factors can be increased a fiTESTING 1.15 COMPARISON OF DESTRUCTIVE AND NON- DESTRUCTIVE Ene This method is applied only to a sample. This method is applied directly on production items. Tested parts are damaged during testing. Different test cannot be performed on the same item. Preparation of testing specimen is often required. It cannot be performed even to a single part that are in service. Time consumption is high. Capital equipment and labou costs are high. Tested parts are not damaged during testing. Different tests can be performed on the same item. Little (or) no specimen preparation is required. Can be performed on various parts that are in service. Time consumption is low. Labour costs are low. 1,16 VARIOUS ASPECTS INVOLVED IN NDT In general, nondestructive testing is incorporated with the following aspects. i ii) probing medium. iii) iv) form for interpretation. vy) A probing (or) inspecting medium has to be applied to the specimen. The defects (or) Material property (or) Structure should modify this Proper detection of their modification should be sensed by a sensor. A device should be used to record the sensed output in a suitable Now, the information about the specimen can be obtained from the interpretation and from that the quality of the specimen can be evaluated.y [ See nt ee yéd in ship building, manufacturing of Is manufacturing, electric power play, NDT testing is commonly emplo} aerospace vehicles and automobiles, metal construction and maintenance. fe 1.17 VARIOUS METHODS OF NDT The defects (or) flaws in the specimen can be detected by various Ny methods as follows: 1. Visual inspection. Liquid penetrant method, Ultrasonic flaw detection technique. Radiography methods. a) X-ray radiography and Fluoroscopy. b) y-ray radiography. 5. Eddy current testing 6. Magnetic particle testing . 7. Thermography. Of these methods, let us discuss in detail about ultrasonic flaw detection technique using ultrasonic flaw detector. 1.18 ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR - PULSE ECHO SYSTEM THROUGH TRANSMISSION, AND REFLECTION MODES Principle Whenever there is a change in medium, then the ultrasonic waves will be reflected. This is the principle used in ultrasonic flaw detector Thus, from the intensity of the reflected echoes, the flaws are detected without destroying the material and hence this method is known as ¢ non-destructive testing method, Description It consists of a piezo electric transducer coupled to the upper surface of the specimen (metal) without any air gap between the specimen and tht transducer. A pulse generator is connected to the transducer (Transmitte®) to produce ultrasonics and the same is also connected to the CRO in on to record the transmitted pulse as shown in the block diagram (fig.1.20)- 4* [aamplifier is connected in between the transducer (Receiver) and the CRO to amplify the received signals. The timing section helps to note the time interval between the transmitted and received signals in the CRO. For example / both | for generating and Timing Pulse/Freq Sect Generator Transducer . } Transducer Specimen : cRO Amplifier (Transmitter) (Receiver) Fig.1.20 Working (i) The pulse generator generates high frequency waves and is applied to the piezo electric transducer and the same is recorded in the CRO (Pulse A) for reference. (i) The piezo electric crystals are resonated to produce ultrasonic waves. (ii) ‘These ultrasonic waves are transmitted through the specimen. (iv) These waves travel through the specimen (metal) and is reflected back by the other end. (v) The reflected ultrasonics are received by the transducer and is converted into electrical signals. These reflected signals are amplified and is recorded in the CRO (Pulse B). (vi) If the reflected pulse (Pulse B) is same as that of the transmit- ted pulse (Pulse A) as shown in Fig.1.21, then it indicates that there is no defect in the specimen. (vii) On the other hand, if there is any defect on the specimen like a small hole (or) pores, then the ultrasonics will be reflected by the holes (i.e) defects due to the change in medium.(x) ® Limitations 1 2 CRO cho Pulte Generator Amplifier es Transducer Trost oth Teanmiter anit Y “ererene ‘heen Specimen ‘semen Specimen ‘Seren Hole (viii) These defects give rise to another signal (pulse Z) in between pulse ‘A’ and ‘B’. Similarly if we have many such holes, many Z-pulse will be seen over the screen of CRO, as shown in Fig.1.22. From the time delay between the transmitted and received pulse the position of the hole can be found, From the height of the pulse received the depth of the hole ct also be determined. It can reveal internal defects. This method is highly sensitive to most of the cracks and flav’ It Bives immediate results at very low cost and at a very his speed, It indicates the size and location of the flaws exactly. Since there is no radfation in thi 7 ion in this process, it is a safest mel among the other methods, prowess Hs It is di ch complex. snipes I the defects of the specimen whict ™ Trained, 7 Motivated technicians alone can perform this testis Oeee ce Lae 1.19 ULTRASONIC SCANNING METHODS-A,B AND C’ SCAN DISPLAYS In the ultrasonic scanning methods, the principle, construction and the same as that of the ultrasonic flaw detector. Here, based on the position of the transducer and the output displayed in the CRO. screen, wwe can classify the scanning methods into three types viz., () As Scan Gi) B - Scan T- M- Scan (or) C-Scan All these three modes of scanning are obtained with respect to the pulses of ultra-sound transmitted into and received from the specimen. The three modes are explained below. i) A-Scan (or) Amplitude mode display Amplitude mode display gives only the one dimensional information about the specimen. In this, a single transducer is used to transmit and receive the pulses from the specimen, The received (or) Acscan reflected echo signals | ined from the specimen is pulse Reflected base is connected to X- plate of CRO, so that > they are displayed as SPT TTT vertical spikes along horizontal base line as Penetration depth ——— shown in fig 1.23. Fig.1.23 given to Y-plate and time ? Defect pulse || Pulse The height of the vertical spikes corresponds to the strength of the echo from the specimen. The position of the vertical spike from the left to right along the X-axis corresponds to the depth of penetration i.e., it gives the total time taken by the ultrasonic sound to travel from transmitter to the specimen and from the specimen to the receiver. Thus by passing the ultrasonics of known velocity and by noting the time delay, we can find the distance at which the defect or flaws are present, by using the given formula, ie. In ultrasonic flaw detector, A- scan method is used to detect the position and size of the flaws. = ae = — — ae ae onyii) B-Scan (or) Brightness mode display B-Scan (or) Brightness mode a display gives a two-dimensional | image. The principle of B-scan is same as that of the A-scan except y with a small difference, ic. Here in * B-scan the transducer can be moved rather than keeping in a fixed position. As a result each echo’s are displayed as dots on the screen as Figt.24 shown in fig 1.24. ‘The brightness and size of the dot depends on the intensity and strengy of the reflected echo pulses respectively. The distance between the two dots give the penetration depth. Thus, B-scan provides exact information about the inten: structures of the specimen. iti) T.M.Scan (or) Time-motion mode (or) C-Scan display Peer dh This method is used to obtain the information about the moving object. It combines certain features of A-scan and B-scan. In T-M scan the transducer is held stationary as in A-scan and echoes appear as dots as in the B-scan. Here, the X-axis indicates the dots at relevant location (or) position of the defect depending on the depth of the reflection. The Y-axis indicates the movement of the object. Therefore when the Location (ot) position object moves, the dots also moves Fig. 1.25 at a low speed. Thus an object with oscillatory movement will appear asa trace as shown in fig 1.25, Applications (i) Iis used to measure the velocity of the fluids through pipes *! it gives the three dimensional image of the specimen. (ii) It is also used to find the corrosion in pipes and pressut® vessels. —$—$— Se ‘Movement (or) motion1.20 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS IN MEDICAL FIELD 1, Ultrasonics are used to release the contained enzymes. 2. Meniere's disease produces hearing loss in the ear and it can be cured by ultrasonic exposure in the ear through the destruction of diseased tissue in the middle ear. 3. Proliferation: It is used to increase the fibroblasts by stimulation, thereby producing myofibroblasts. 4, Remodelling: It is used to decrease the strength of the scar by affecting the direction of elastic fibers which are responsible for the scar. 5. Reversible blood cell stasis: While treating the patient, it is used to gather the blood in columns separated by plasma. 6. Ultrasonics are also used in cardiology ultrasonic imaging techniques. 1.21 SONOGRAMS - RECORDING OF MOVEMENT OF HEART Acoustic events of heart are divided into (i) Heart sounds Gi) Murmurs (@® Heart sounds : These are due to the opening and closing of heart valves. These have low frequency and higher amplitudes. (ii) Murmurs Noisy characters which are of longer duration, This is due to turbulent flow of blood in the heart. They have high frequency and smaller amplitudes. We know about ECG (Electro Cardio Graphy) in which the activity of heart such as, rhythmic disturbance of the myocardial activity can be found with electrical techniques, But valvular defects cannot be identified by using ECG. Hence PCG can be used for detecting these defects. © Phono-Cardiograph records the sound produced by the pumping action of the heart. © If provides information on heart rate, rhythmicity, blood pumping. valve action etc.,Engineering Physio> ; fe i Lae FETAL HEART MOVEMENT Principle It works under the principle of doppler effect i-e., there is an apparey, Gnd thy change in frequency between the incident sound waves on the fetus reflected sound waves from the fetus. Description It consist of a Radio Frequency Oscillator (RFO), for producing 2 yy, | of frequency and RFA (Radio Frequency Amplifier) to amplify the receives signals as shown in fig.1.26. Mixer is used to mix the transmitted signals aoq the received signals. The loud speaker and the CRO helps to hear and view ihe output of the sound waves respectively. REO jf} PS Motiers shominalval Age iter omit AG Aro es Fig. 1.26 Working ‘The transducer is fixed over the mother's abdominal wall, with the help of @ gel (or) oil. RFO is switched ON to drive the pulses and hence the transducer produces ultrasonic waves of 2 MHz. (If more than 2MHz, i. by the loud speaker, after necessary amplification by Audio. frequency (A? Amplifier. ae aas: Diagnosis It is found that when the heart of the fetus is moving towards the transducer i.e, towards the source of sound, the shift in frequency is higher and if the heart of the fetus is moving away from the transducer, i.e., away from the source, the frequency shift is lower. Thus from the Doppler shift in frequency the movement of the fetal heart can be found Further in the output the sound of mother's blood flow will also be present. But it can be easily distinguished with respect to the higher pulse rate of the fetus (or) from the following diagnosis. at Thuummp,Thuummp... Mother's body movements} ‘Thump,Thump,... Low Fast Fetal heart movement. ‘Wooch,Wooch,... ‘Swish, Swish,.... Mother's Arteries. eR S Umbilical Cord Sound Thus, with the help of the type of the sound heard and the doppler shift in frequency the movement of heart can be easily diagnosed 1.22 COMPARISON BETWEEN ECG AND PCG Principle of Working The block diagram of PCG in accordance with ECG is as shown in Fig.1.27, A condenser microphone is placed on the chest of the patient. Ultrasonics are passed into the patient and is received. The received sound converted to electrical signals by the microphone, These elect amplified by the amplifier.127 Cardiogvaphy (ECG) | 1. |The activity of heart such as Recording the sound of | rhythmic disturbances can be pumping heart is done with found with help of electrical help of sound | signals. (Ultrasonics) It is not possible to find Valvular defects can be iden- valvular defects. fied clearly by using PCG. 1.23. ULTRASONIC IMAGING SYSTEMS (SCANNER) The ultrasonic imaging system is as shown in the block diagram fig.1.29. The ultrasonic imaging system provides high speed, high resolution, high accuracy and high contrast ultrasonic images by digital image processing. cP Receiver] ‘AD |, [Memory DA circuit [>—]Convertoe|* [Unit [Convent L{mixing] [TV FLunit JP [Monitor nae Control |_| [Fatour circuit Unit [Coder FTV SYNCHRONOUS: TRANSDUCER SIGNAL GENERATOR| Say PATIENT Fig. 1.29 Ultrasound Imaging System. Principle of working * During the scanning of the body surface by ultrasonic transducer, the ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the patient’s body. + The echoes (reflected ultrasonic waves) from the body are collected by the receiver circuit. aefrom the depth, they are Weak, the, proper Depth Gain Compensation is given by the DGC ciryi, converted into digital signals by an i are stored in the memory of the Con? to * Since some echoes come Then these signals are to digital convertor an Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer. rol unit in the CPU, receives the signals ‘and TV synchronous pulses. These ra id plate address informations for they tored in the memory of CPU. . Meanwhile, the cont transducer position generates X plate an monitor and is also st ‘The stored signals are processed and colour coded and are gis | to digital to analog (D/A convertor) convertor which convent dy digital signal into analog signal Finally the mixing circuit mixes the analog signals ani ‘TV synchronous scanning signals properly. The mixed signals w) finally fed to the video section of the television monitor as shva in Fig. 1.29. i ‘© ‘The TV monitor produces the coloured ultrasonic image of te) internal part of the body. i Pe ee Oe 1.24 ADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONICS OVER OTHER METHODS 1, There is no mutation (or) residual effects. 2. There is no ionisation. i 3. The side effects are almost zero. 4. By means of controlled focussing the normal tissues sirtol around diseased tissues can be saved. 5. Here the physiological effects depends on frequen‘! ] ; amplitude of ultrasonics, 6. It doesn’t affect the fet pitt rm 5 wom oe sin the mother’s wo! 7. It is non-invasive compared to X-ray and laser radiatio™ £& Lo |