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AS &A Level
PHYSICS
Stephen Pople

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP

Oxford University Press is a department of the

University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective
of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by
publishing worldwide in

Oxford NewYork

Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi

Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi
New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto

With offices in
Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece
Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore
South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam
Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and in certain other countries

© Stephen Pople 2001

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

Database right Oxford University Press (maker)

First published 2000

Second edition 2001

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,
or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organisation. Enquiries concerning reproduction
outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,
Oxford University Press, at the above address

You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must
impose this same condition on any acquirer

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Data available

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-915078-6

10 9 8 7 6 54 3

Designed and typset in Optima

by Hardlines, Charlbury, Oxfordshire UK
Printed in Great Britain by Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow
 CONTENTS
How to use this book 4 E4 Circular orbits and rotation 72
Specification structures 4 E5 Magnets and currents 74
Pathways 6 E6 Magnetic fields and forces 76
How to revise 8 E7 Electromagnetic induction 78
Success in examinations 9 E8 Charged particles in motion 80
Practical assessment 10
Carrying out investigations 11 HEAT AND GASES
Coping with coursework 12 F1 Liquid and gas pressure 82
Key Skills 13 F2 Temperature 84
Answering the question 14 F3 Internal energy, heat, and work 86
F4 The behaviour of gases 88
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS F5 Atoms and molecules in motion 90
A1 Units and dimensions 18 F6 Kinetic theory 92
A2 Measurements, uncertainties, and graphs 20 F7 Heat transfer 94

MECHANICS ATOMIC, NUCLEAR, AND PARTICLE PHYSICS

B1 Motion, mass, and forces 22 G1 The nuclear atom 96
B2 Work, energy, and power 24 Radiation and decay
G2 98
B3 Analysing motion 26 Nuclear energy 100
G3
B4 Vectors 28 G4 Quantum theory 102
B5 Moments and equilibrium 30 G5 Applications of quantum theory 104
B6 Motion and momentum 32 Particle physics- 1 106
G6
B7 Work, energy, and momentum 34 G7 108
Particle physics- 2
B8 More motion graphs 36 11 0 .
G8 Particle physics- 3
Aircraft principles 37
B9 Fluid flow 38 APPLICATIONS AND OPTIONS
B10 Cars in motion 40 H1 Astrophysics- 1 112
B11 Circular motion 42 H2 Astrophysics- 2 114
B12 Cycles, oscillations, and SHM 44 H3 Cosmology 116
B13 Energy changes in oscillators 46 H4 Solids, stresses, and strains 118
Forced oscillations and resonance 47 H5 Materials- 1 120
H6 Materials- 2 122
WAVES H7 Medical physics- 1 124
C1 Waves and rays 48 H8 Medical physics- 2 126
C2 Moving waves 50 H9 Medical physics - 3 128
C3 Combining waves 52 H10 Telecommunications- 1 130
C4 Using mirrors and lenses- 1 54 H11 Telecommunications- 2 132
C5 Using mirrors and lenses- 2 56 H12 Turning points in physics 134
H13 Energy and the environment- 1 136
ELECTRICITY H14 Energy and the environment- 2 138
01 Charges and circuits 58 H15 Earth and atmosphere 140
02 Current and resistance 60 H16 Electronics- 1 142
03 Analysing circuits 62 H17 Electronics- 2 144
04 Alternating current 64
Self-assessment questions 146
ELECTRIC, GRAVITATIONAL, AND Self-assessment answers 151
MAGNETIC FIELDS Physical data 154
E1 Electric charges and fields 66 Equations to learn 155
E2 Capacitors and fields 68 Index 157
E3 Gravitation 70
How to use this book
• If you are studying for an AS or A level in physics, start here! (If you are not aiming for one of these qualifications, you can use
this book as a general reference for physics up to advanced level: there is an index to help you find the topic(s) you require.)
• Obtain a copy of the specification you are going to be examined on. Specifications are available from the exam boards'
websites: www.aqa.org.uk; www.edexcel.org.uk; www.ocr.org.uk.
• With the table below as a starting point, make your own summary of the content of the specification you will be following.
• Use the pathways on pages 6 and 7 to help match the material in this book with that required by your specification.
• Find out the requirements for any coursework and the dates of your exams and plan your revision accordingly. Page 8 has some
helpful advice.
• Begin revising! The self-assessment questions on pages 146-151 will help you to check your progress.
Note:
• This book covers AS and A2 material for all the main specifications and therefore contains some sections that you will not
require.
• The material in this book is not divided up into AS and A2 because the level required may vary from one specification to
another.
• If your specification is not listed, most of the material you need will still be included in this book, but you will have to construct
your own route through the book.

Specification structures
This table summarizes the six main AS and A level specifications. Satisfactory assessment in units 1-3 corresponds to an AS level
pass. Satisfactory assessment in the AS units 1-3 and the A2 units 4-6 corresponds to an A level pass. In each column are listed the
unit names and main subdivisions as given in the specification. The method of assessment in each unit is listed, together with the
percentage of marks assigned to the entire AS or A level. Do check your specification for the latest information.

AQA Physics A AQA Physics B Edexcel Physics

Unit 1 Particles, radiation, and quantum Foundation physics (Module 1) Mechanics and radioactivity
phenomena (Module 1) 1h30m written exam on Module 1 (short 1h20m written exam (short & long
1h30m written exam on Module 1 (short answer & structured questions) structured questions)
structured questions) AS 3S% A 17.S% AS30% A 1S%
AS30% A 1S%
Unit 2 Mechanics and molecular kinetic theory Waves and nuclear physics (Module 2) Electricity and thermal physics
(Module2) 1h30m written exam on Module 2 (short 1h20m written exam (short & long

-
<I>

"2
::s
1h30m written exam on Module 2 (short
structured questions)
AS30% A 1S%
answer & structured questions)
AS 3S% A 17.S%
structured questions)
AS30% A 1S%

"'
< Unit 3 Current electricity and elastic properties of Experimental work (Module 3) Topics
solids (Module 3) 2h practical exam One of:
1h30m written exam on Module 3 (short AS30% A 1S% Astrophysics
structured questions) Solid materials
AS 2S% A 12.S% Nuclear and particle physics
1h30m practical exam OR Coursework Medical physics
AS 1S% A 7.S% AS 1S% A 7.S% 1h20m written exam (structured questions)
AS20% A 10%
4Sm practical exam
AS20% A 10%
Unit4 Waves, fields, and nuclear energy Further physics (Module 4) Waves and our Universe
(Module4) 1h30m written exam on Module 1 (short 1h20m written exam (short & long
1h30m written exam on Module 4 answer & structured questions) structured questions)
(multiple-choice and structured questions) A1S% A 1S%
A1S%
UnitS Nuclear instability (Module 5) Fields and their applications (Module 5) Fields and forces
Options (Module 6) 2h written exam (synoptic assessment: 1h written exam
One of: structured questions & comprehension A7.S%
Astrophysics question) 1h30m practical exam

-<I>

"2
N
::s
Medical physics
Applied physics
Turning points in physics
Electronics
A20% A7.S%

< 1h30m written exam on Modules S & 6

(structured questions)
A 10%
1h30m practical exam OR Coursework
AS% AS%
Unit 6 2h written exam on Modules 1-S (structured Experimental work (Module 6) Synthesis
synoptic questions) 3h practical exam & synoptic assessment in 2h written exam (synoptic assessment:
A20% a practical context passage analysis & long structured
A1S% questions)
A20%

4 Specification structures
 Edexcel Physics (Salters Horners) OCR Physics A OCR Physics B (Advancing Physics)
Unit 1 Physics at work, rest, and play Forces and motion Physics in action
The sound of music 1h30m written exam Communication
Technology in space AS30% A 15% Designer materials
Higher, faster, stronger 1h30m written exam
1h30m written exam AS 33.4% A 16.7%
AS 33.3% A 16.7%

Unit 2 Physics for life Electrons and photons Understanding processes

-
·c:"':I
V"l
Good enough to eat
Digging up the past
Spare part surgery
1h30m written exam
AS 30% A 15%
1h30m written exam
AS 36.6 A 18.3%

< 1h30m written exam

AS 33.3% A 16.7%

Unit 3 Working with physics Wave properties/experimental skills Physics in practice

Two laboratory practical activities and an 1h written exam Coursework
out-of-school visit. AS20%A 10% AS 30%A 15%
Coursework 1h 30m practical exam OR Coursework
AS 33.3% A 16.7% AS20% A10% AS20% A10%

Unit4 Moving with physics Forces, fields, and energy Rise and fall of the clockwork Universe
Transport on track 1h30m written exam Models and rules
The medium is the message A15% Matter in extremes
Probing the heart of matter 1h20m written exam
1h30m written exam A 10.8%
A 15% Practical investigation
Coursework
A 7.5%

UnitS Physics from creation to collapse Options in physics Field and particle pictures
Two-week individual practical project One of: Fields

-
·c:"'
:I
N
Coursework
A 10%
Reach for the stars
Build or bust?
Cosmology
Health physics
Materials
Nuclear and particle physics
Fundamental particles
1h 1Om written exam
A 10.8%
Research report
< 1h written exam Telecommunications Coursework
A10% 1h30m written exam A 7.5%
A15%

Unit6 Exploring physics Unifying concepts in physics/experimental Advances in physics

1h30m written exam (synoptic questions) skills 1h30m written exam
A15% 1h written exam A15%
A10%
Coursework
A10%
1h 30m practical exam
A10%

What are ...

. . . short-answer questions?
These questions will require just a few words or sentences as answers .
. . . structured questions?
This type of question is broken up into smaller parts. Some parts will ask you to define or show you understand a given term;
explain a phenomenon or describe an experiment; plot sketch graphs or obtain information from given graphs; draw labelled
diagrams or indicate particular features on a given diagram. Other parts will lead you to the solution of a complex problem by
asking you to solve it in stages .
.. . comprehension questions?
In these questions you will be given a passage (short or extended) on a topic and then tested on your understanding of the topic and
the scientific concepts in it.
... data-analysis questions?
In this type of question you will be given data in a variety of forms: graphs, tables, in text, as a list. You will then be asked to
analyse the data to derive new results or information and may be asked to link the results with explanations of the scientific
principles involved .
. . . synoptic questions?
When answering these you will have to apply physics principles or skills in contexts that are likely to be unfamiliar to you. Some
questions will require you to show that you understand how different aspects of physics relate to one another or are used to explain
different aspects of a particular application. Questions of this type will require you to draw on the knowledge, understanding, and
skills developed during your study of the whore course. 20% of the A level marks are allocated to synoptic questions.

Specification structures 5
,
Pathways
The following pathways identify the main sections in the book that relate to the topics required by each specification.
Note:
• You will not necessarily need all the material that is given in any section.
• There may be material in other sections (e.g. applications) that you need to know.
• You should identify the relevant material by referring to the specification you are following.
• If this is your own copy of the book, highlight all the relevant topics throughout the book.

AQA Physics A

AQA Physics B

Edexcel Physics B (Salters Horners)

The Edexcel Salters Horners course structure is thematic. Concepts are covered as they are required for explanations within a given
theme. It is therefore not possible to summarize the content in the same way as the other specifications.

If you are following this course you should:

• use the index and the Salters Horners specification to link the learning outcomes required to the pages on which the topics
appear
• note the sections where relevant information appears as you cover them in the modules
• highlight the relevant material if this copy of the book is your own property.

6 Pathways
Edexcel Specification A

OCR Physics A

OCR Physics B (Advancing Physics)

Pathways 7
How to revise FIND A QUIET CORNER
Find the conditions in which you c~n revise most efficiently.
Many people think they can revise in a noisy busy atmosphere
T~ere is no one method of revising which works for everyone.
-most cannot! Any distraction lowers concentration. Revising
It 1s therefore 1mportant to discover the approach that suits you
in front of a television doesn't generally work!
best. The following rules may serve as general guidelines.

GIVE YOURSELF PLENTY OF TIME

Leaving everything until the last minute reduces your chances
of success. Work will become more stressful, which will reduce
your concentration. There are very few people who can revise
everything 'the night before' and still do well in an examination
the next day.

KEEP TRACK
Use checklists and the relevant examination board specification
to keep track of your progress. The Pathways and Specification
Outlines in the previous section will help. Mark off topics you
PLAN YOUR REVISION TIMETABLE
have revised and feel confident with. Concentrate your revision
You need to plan you revision timetable some weeks before the
on things you are less happy with.
examination and make sure that your time is shared suitably
between all your subjects.
MAKESHORTNOTES,USECOLOURS
Once you have done this, follow it- don't be side-tracked.
Revision is often more effective when you do something active
Stick your timetable somewhere prominent where you will
rather than simply reading material. As you read through your
keep seeing it- or better still put several around your home!
notes and textbooks make brief notes on key ideas. If this book
is your own property you could highlight the parts of pages that
are relevant to the specification you are following.
Concentrate on understanding the ideas rather than just
memorizing the facts.

PRACTISE ANSWERING QUESTIONS

As you finish each topic, try answering some questions. There
are some in this book to help you (see pages 146-151). You
should also use questions from past papers. At first you may
need to refer to notes or textbooks. As you gain confidence you
will be able to attempt questions unaided, just as you will in
the exam.

ADJUST YOUR LIFESTYLE

RELAX Make sure that any paid employment and leisure activities
Concentrated revision is very hard work. It is as important to
allow you adequate time to revise. There is often a great
give yourself time to relax as it is to work. Build some leisure
temptation to increase the time spent in paid employment
time into your revision timetable.
when it is available. This can interfere with a revision timetable
and make you too tired to revise thoroughly. Consider carefully
GIVE YOURSELF A BREAK whether the short-term gains of paid employment are preferable
When you are working, work for about an hour and then take a
to the long-term rewards of examination success.
short tea or coffee break for 15 to 20 minutes. Then go back to
another productive revision period.

8 How to revise
 KEYWORDS
Success in examinations How you respond to a question can be helped by studying the
following, which are the more common key words used in
EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE
examination questions.
The following are some points to note when taking an
examination.
Name: The answer is usually a technical term consisting of one
• Read the question carefully. Make sure you understand
or two words.
exactly what is required.
• If you find that you are unable to do a part of a question, do not List: You need to write down a number of points (often a single
give up. The next part may be easier and may provide a clue to word) with no elaboration.
what you might have done in the part you found difficult.
Define: The answer is a formal meaning of a particular term.
• Note the number of marks per question as a guide to the
depth of response needed (see below). What is meant by ... ? This is often used instead of 'define'.
• Underline or note the key words that tell you what is
State: The answer is a concise word or phrase with no
required (see opposite).
elaboration.
• Underline or note data as you read the question.
• Structure your answers carefully. Describe: The answer is a description of an effect, experiment,
• Show all steps in calculations. Include equations you use and or (e.g.) graph shape. No explanations are required.
show the substitution of data. Remember to work in Sl units.
Suggest: In your answer you will need to use your knowledge
• Make sure your answers are to suitable significant figures
and understanding of topics in the specification to deduce or
(usually 2 or 3) and include a unit.
explain an effect that may be in a novel context. There may be
• Consider whether the magnitude of a numerical answer is
no single correct answer to the question.
reasonable for the context. If it is not, check your working.
• Draw diagrams and graphs carefully. Calculate: A numerical answer is to be obtained, usually from
• Read data from graphs carefully; note scales and prefixes data given in the question. Remember to give your answer to a
on axes. suitable number of significant figures and give a unit.
• Keep your eye on the clock but don't panic.
Determine: Often used instead of 'calculate'. You may need to
• If you have time at the end, use it. Check that your
obtain data from graphs, tables, or measurements.
descriptions and explanations make sense. Consider whether
there is anything you could add to an explanation or Explain: The answer will be extended prose. You will need to
description. Repeat calculations to ensure that you have use your knowledge and understanding of scientific
not made a mistake. phenomena or theories to elaborate on a statement that has
been made in the question or earlier in your answer. A question
DEPTH OF RESPONSE often asks you to 'state and explain ... '.
Look at the marks allocated to the question.
Justify: Similar to 'explain'. You will have made a statement
This is usually a good guide to the depth of the answer
and now have to provide a reason for giving that statement.
required. It also gives you an idea how long to spend on the
question. If there are 60 marks available in a 90 minute exam, Draw: Simply draw a diagram. If labelling or a scale drawing is
your 1 mark should be earned in 1.5 minutes. needed, yo"u will usually be asked for this, but it is sensible to
provide labelling even if it is not asked for.
Explanations and descriptions
Sketch: This usually relates to a graph. You need to draw the
If a 4 mark question requires an explanation or description, you
general shape of the graph on labelled axes. You should include
will need to make four distinct relevant points.
enough quantitative detail to show relevant intercepts and/or
You should note, however, that simply mentioning the four
whether the graph is exponential or some inverse function,
points will not necessarily earn full marks. The points need to
for example.
be made in a coherent way that makes sense and fits the
context and demands of the questions. Plot: The answer will be an accurate plot of a graph on graph
paper. Often it is followed by a question asking you to
Calculations 'determine some quantity from the graph' or to 'explain its
In calculation questions marks will be awarded for method and shape'.
the final answer.
Estimate: You may need to use your knowledge and/or your
experience to deduce the magnitude of some quantities to arrive
In a 3 mark calculation question you may obtain all three marks
at the order of magnitude for some other quantity defined in
if the final answer is correct, even if you show no working.
the question.
However, you should always show your working because
• sometimes the working is a requirement for full marks Discuss: This will require an extended response in which you
• if you make an error in the calculation you cannot gain any demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a given topic.
method marks unless you have shown your working.
Show that: You will have been given either a set of data and a
final value (that may be approximate) or an algebraic equation.
In general in a 3 mark calculation you earn
You need to show clearly all basic equations that you use and
1 mark for quoting a relevant equation or using a suitable
all the steps that lead to the final answer.
method
1 mark for correct substitution of data or some progress
REVISION NOTE
toward the final answer
In your revision remember to
1 mark for a correct final answer given to suitable significant
• learn the formulae that are not on your formula sheet
figures with a correct unit.
• make sure that you know what is represented by all the
symbols in equations on your formula sheet.
Errors carried forward
If you make a mistake in a cakulation and need to use this
incorrect answer in a subsequent part of the question, you can
still gain full marks. Do not give up if you think you have gone
wrong. Press on using the data you have.

Success in examinations 9
Practical assessment PRACTICAL SKILLS
There are four basic skill areas:
Your practical skills will be assessed at both AS and A level. Planning
Make sure you know how your practical skills are going to Implementing
be assessed. Analysing
You may be assessed by Evaluating
• coursework The same skills are assessed in both practical examinations
• practical examination
and coursework.
The method of assessment will depend on the specification you
are following and the choice of your school/college. You may
be required to take
• two practical examinations (one at AS and one at A level)
GENERAL ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
You will be assessed on your ability to
• two coursework assessments
• identify what is to be investigated
• one practical examination and one coursework assessment.
• devise a hypothesis or theory of the expected outcome
• devise a suitable experiment, use appropriate resources,
PRACTISING THE SKILLS
and plan the procedure
Whichever assessment type is used, you need to learn and
• carry out the experiment or research
practise the skills during your course.
• describe precisely what you have done
Specific skills • present your data or information in an appropriate way
• draw conclusions from your results or other data
You will learn specific skills associated with particular topics as
a natural part of your learning during the course. Make sure • evaluate the uncertainties in your experiment
that you have hands-on experience of all the apparatus that is • evaluate the success or otherwise of the experiment and
used. You need to have a good theoretical background of the suggest how it might have been improved.
topics on your course so that you can
• devise a sensible hypothesis GENERAL SKILLS
• identify all variables in an experiment
The general skills you need to practise are
• control variables
• the accurate reporting of experimental procedures
• choose suitable magnitudes for variables • presentation of data in tables (possibly using spreadsheets)
• select and use apparatus correctly and safely • graph drawing (possibly using IT software)
• tackle analysis confidently • analysis of graphical and other data
• make judgements about the outcome. • critical evaluation of experiments

PRACTICAL EXAMINATION Carrying out experiments

The form of the examination varies from one examination board When making observations and tabulating data remember to
to another, so make sure you know what your board requires you • consider carefully the range and intervals at which you make
to do. Questions generally fall into three types which fit broadly your observations
into the following categories: • consider the accuracy to which it is reasonable to quote your
You may be required to observations (how many significant figures are reasonable)
• examine a novel situation, create a hypothesis, consider • repeat all readings and remember to average
variables, and design an experiment to test the hypothesis • be consistent when quoting data
• examine a situation, analyse data that may be given to you, • tabulate all data (including repeats and averages)
and evaluate the experiment that led to the data remembering to give units for all columns
• obtain and analyse data in an experiment which has been • make sure figures are not ambiguous.
devised by the examination board.
When deriving data remember to
In any experiment you may be required to determine • work out an appropriate unit
uncertainties in raw data, derived data, and the final result. • make sure that the precision is consistent with your raw data.

Designing experiments and making hypotheses When drawing graphs remember to

Remember that you can only gain marks for what you write, so • choose a suitable scale that uses the graph paper fully
take nothing for granted. Be thorough. A description that is too • label the axes with quantity and unit
long is better than one that leaves out important detail. • mark plotted points carefully with a cross using a
sharp pencil
Remember to • draw the best straight line or curve through the points so that
• use your knowledge of AS and A level physics to support the points are scattered evenly about the line.
your reasoning
• give quantitative reasoning wherever possible When analysing data remember to
• draw clear labelled diagrams of apparatus • use a large gradient triangle in graph analysis to improve
• provide full details of measurements made, equipment used, accuracy
and experimental procedures • set out your working so that it can be followed easily
• be prepared to state the obvious. • ensure that any quantitative result is quoted to an accuracy
that is consisted with your data and analysis methods
A good test of a sufficiently detailed account is to ask yourself • include a unit for any result you obtain.
whether it would be possible to do the experiment you describe
without needing any further infomation.

10 Practical assessment
Carrying out investigations Analysing data
This may include
• the calculation of a result
Keep a notebook
• drawing of a graph
Record
• statistical analysis of data
• all your measurements
• analysis of uncertainties in the original readings, derived
• any problems you have met
quantities, and results.
• details of your procedures
• any decisions you have made about apparatus or procedures Make sure that the stages in the processing of your data are
including those considered and discarded clearly set out.
• relevant things you have read or thoughts you have about
the problem. Evaluation of the investigation
The evaluation should include the following points:
Define the problem • draw conclusions from the experiment
Write down the aim of your experiment or investigation. Note • identify any systematic errors in the experiment
the variables in the experiment. Define those that you will keep • comment on your analysis of the uncertainties in the
constant and those that will vary. investigation
• review the strengths and weaknesses in the way the
Suggest a hypothesis experiment was conducted
You should be able to suggest the expected outcome of the • suggest alternative approaches that might have improved the
investigation on the basis of your knowledge and understanding experiment in the light of experience.
of science. Try to make this as quantitative as you can,
justifying your suggestion with equations wherever possible. Use of information technology (IT)
You may have used data capture techniques when making
Do rough trials measurements or used IT in your analysis of data. In your
Before commencing the investigation in detail do some rough analysis you should consider how well this has performed. You
tests to help you decide on might include answers to the following questions.
• suitable apparatus • What advantages were gained by the use of IT?
• suitable procedures • Did the data capture equipment perform better than you
• the range and intervals at which you will take measurements could have achieved by a non-IT approach?
• consider carefully how you will conduct the experiment in a • How well has the data analysis software performed in
way that will ensure safety to persons and to equipment. representing your data graphically, for example?
Remember to consider alternative apparatus and procedures
and justify your final decision. THE REPORT
Remember that your report will be read by an assessor who will
Carry out the experiment not have watched you doing the experiment. For the most part
Remember all the skills you have learnt during your course: the assessor will only know what you did by what you write, so
• note all readings that you make do not leave out important information.
• take repeats and average whenever possible If you write a good report, it should be possible for the reader to
• use instruments that provide suitably accurate data repeat what you have done should they wish to check your work.
• consider the accuracy of the measurements you are making
• analyse data as you go along so that you can modify the A word-processed report is worth considering. This makes the
approach or check doubtful data. report much easier to revise if you discover some aspect you
have omitted. It will also make it easier for the assessor to read.
Presentation of data Note:
Tabulate all your observations, remembering to The report may be used as portfiOllio evidence for assessment of
• include the quantity, any prefix, and the unit for the quantity Application of Number, Communication, and
at the head of each column IT Key Skills.
• include any derived quantities that are suggested by your
hypothesis Use subheadings
• quote measurements and derived data to an These help break up the report and make it more readable. As a
accuracy/significant figures consistent with your measuring guide, the subheadings could be the main sections of the
instruments and techniques, and be consistent investigation: aims, diagram of apparatus, procedure, etc.
• make sure figures are not ambiguous.

Graph drawing
Remember to
• label your axes with quantity and unit
• use a scale that is easy to use and fills the graph paper
effectively
• plot points clearly (you may wish to include 'error bars')
• draw the best line through your plotted points
• consider whether the gradient and area under your graph
have significance.

Carrying out investigations 11

Coping with coursework
TYPES OF COURSEWORK PLAN YOUR TIME
Coursework takes different forms with different specifications. Meeting the deadline is often a major problem in coping
You may undertake with coursework.
• short experiments as a routine part of your course
• long practical tasks prescribed by your teacher/lecturer Do not leave all the writing up to the end
• a long investigation of a problem decided by you and agreed Using a word processor you can draft the report as you go along.
with your teacher You can then go back and tidy it up at the end.
• a research and analysis exercise using book, IT, and
other resources. Draw up an initial plan
Include the following elements:
A short experiment
This may take one or two laboratory sessions to complete and
The aim of the project
will usually have a specific objective that is closely linked to
What are you going to investigate practically?
the topic you are studying at the time.
or
You may only be assessed on one or two of the skills in any
What is the topic of your research?
one assessment.

A list of resources
A long investigation
What are your first thoughts on apparatus?
This may take 5 to 10 hours of class time plus associated
or
homework time.
Where are you going to look for information?
You will probably be assessed on all the skills in a long
(Books; CD ROMs; Internet)
investigation.
or
Is there some organization you could write to for information?
Research and analysis task
This may take a similar amount of time but is likely to be
Theoretical ideas
spread over a longer period. This is to give you time to obtain
What does theory suggest will be the outcome?
information from a variety of sources.
or
You will be assessed on
What are the main theoretical ideas that are linked with your
• the planning of the research
investigation or research project?
• the use of a variety of sources of information
• your understanding of what you have discovered
• your ability to identify and evaluate relevant information Timetable
• the communication of your findings in writing or in an What is the deadline?
oral presentation. What is your timetable for?

Laboratory tasks
Make sure you know in detail what is expected of you in the course
How many lab sessions are there?
you are following. Consult the Pathways and Specification outlines
Initial thoughts on how they are to be used
on pages 4-7.
Non-laboratory tasks
STUDY THE CRITERIA Initial analysis of data
Each examination board produces criteria for the assessment of Writing up or word-processing part of your final report
coursework. The practical skills assessed are common to all Making good diagrams of your apparatus
boards, but the way each skill is rewarded is different for each Revising your time plan
specification. Ensure that you have a copy of the assessment Evaluating your data or procedures
criteria so that you know what you are trying to achieve and
how your work will be marked.

12 Coping with coursework

Key Skills A substantial activity is one that includes a number of related
tasks. The resu It of one task wi II affect the carrying out of
others. You will need to obtain and interpret information and
What are Key Skills?
use this to perform calculations and draw conclusions.
These are skills that are not specific to any subject but are
general skills that enable you to operate competently and
What standard should you aim for?
flexibly in your chosen career. Visit the Key Skills website
Key Skills are awarded at four levels (1-4). In your A level
(www.keyskillssupport.net) or phone the Key Skills help line to
courses you will have opportunities to show that you have
obtain full, up-to-date information.
reached level 3, but you could produce evidence that
While studying your AS or A level courses you should be able
demonstrates that you are competent at a higher level.
to gather evidence to demonstrate that you have achieved
You may achieve a different level in each Key Skill area.
competence in the Key Skills areas of
• Communication
What do you have to do?
• Application of Number
You need to show that you have the necessary underpinning
• Information Technology.
knowledge in the Key Skills area and produce evidence that
You may also be able to prove competence in three other key
you are able to apply this in your day-to-day work.
ski lis areas:
You do this by producing a portfolio that contains
• Working with Others
• evidence in the form of reports when it is possible to provide
• Improving your own Learning
written evidence
• Problem Solving.
• evidence in the form of assessments made by your teacher
Only the first three will be considered here and only an outline when evidence is gained by observation of your performance
of what you must do is included. You should obtain details of in the classroom or laboratory.
what you need to know and be able to do. You should be able
The evidence may come from only one subject that you are
to obtain these from your examination centre.
studying, but it is more likely that you will use evidence from
Communication all of your subjects.
You must be able to It is up to you to produce the best evidence that you can.
• create opportunities for others to contribute to group
The specifications you are working with in your AS or A level
discussions about complex subjects
studies will include some ideas about the activities that form
• make a presentation using a range of techniques to engage
part of your course and can be used to provide this evidence.
the audience
Some general ideas are summarized below, but refer to the
• read and synthesize information from extended documents
specification for more detail.
about a complex subject
• organize information coherently, selecting a form and style Communication: in science you could achieve this by
of writing appropriate to complex subject matter. • undertaking a long practical or research investigation on a
complex topic (e.g. use of nuclear radiation in medicine)
Application of Number • writing a report based on your experimentation or research
You must be able to plan and carry through a substantial and using a variety of sources (books, magazines, CO-ROMs,
complex activity that requires you to Internet, newspapers)
• plan your approach to obtaining and using information, • making a presentation to your fellow students
choose appropriate methods for obtaining the results you • using a presentation style that promotes discussion or
need and justify your choice criticism of your findings, enabling others to contribute to a
• carry out multistage calculations including use of a large discussion that you lead.
data set (over 50 items) and re-arrangement of formulae
Application of Number: in science you could achieve this by
• justify the choice of presentation methods and explain the
• undertaking a long investigation or research project that
results of your calculations.
requires detailed planning of methodology
• considering alternative approaches to the work and justifying
Information Technology
the chosen approach
You must be able to plan and carry through a substantial
• gathering sufficient data to enable analysis by statistical and
activity that requires you to
graphical methods
• plan and use different sources and appropriate techniques to
• explaining why you analysed the data as you did
search for and select information based on judgement of
• drawing the conclusions reached as a result of your
relevance and quality
investigation.
• automated routines to enter and bring together information,
and create and use appropriate methods to explore, develop, Information Technology: in science you could achieve this by
and exchange information • using CO-ROMs and the Internet to research a topic
• develop the structure and content of your presentation, using • identifying those sources which are relevant
others' views to guide refinements, and information from • identifying where there is contradictory information and
difference sources. identifying which is most probably correct
• using a word processor to present your report, drawing in
A complex subject is one in which there are a number of ideas,
some of which may be abstract and very detailed. Lines of relevant quotes from the information you have gathered
• using a spreadsheet to analyse data that you have collected
reasoning may not be immediately clear. There is a
• using data capture techniques to gather information and
requirement to come to terms with specialized vocabulary.
mathematics software to analyse the data.

Key Skills 13
Answering the question
This section contains some examples of types of questions with model answers showing how the marks are obtained. You may like
to try the questions and then compare your answers with the model answers given.

MARKS FOR QUALITY OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

In questions that require long descriptive answers or explanations, marks may be reserved for the quality of language used in
your answers.

2 marks if your answer 1 mark if your answer

• uses scientific terms correctly • generally uses scientific terms correctly
• is written fluently and/or is well argued • generally makes sense but lacks coherence
• contains only a few spelling or grammatical errors. • contains poor spelling and grammar.

An answer that is scientifically inaccurate, is disjointed, and contains many spelling and grammatical errors loses both these marks.

The message is: do not let your communication skills let you down.

ALWAYS SHOW YOUR WORKING

In calculation questions one examination board might expect to see the working for all marks to be gained. Another might
sometimes give both marks if you give the correct final answer. It is wise always to show your working. If you make a mistake in
processing the data you could still gain the earlier marks for the method you use.

Question 1 Answer to question 1

Description and explanation question (a) The atom consists of a small nucleus (.f) which contains
(a) Describe the nuclear model of an atom that was proposed most of the mass (.f) of the atom. The nucleus is positive
by Rutherford following observations made in Geiger and (.f). Electrons orbit the nucleus (.f).
Marsden's alpha-particle scattering experiment. (4 marks) (b) (i) A few alpha particles pass close to a nucleus (.f). There
(b) Explain why when gold foil is bombarded by alpha is a repelling force between the alpha particle and the
particles gold nucleus because they are both positively charged
(i) some of the alpha particles are deviated through large (.f). This causes deflection of the alpha particle. Because
angles that are greater than 90°; (3 marks) the alpha particle is much less massive than the gold
(ii) most of the alpha particles pass through without nucleus it may deviate through a large angle (.f).
deviation and lose little energy while passing through (ii) Few alpha particles collide with a nucleus since most
the foil. (2 marks) of matter is empty space occupied only by electrons
Note: In explanations or descriptive questions there are often (.f). The alpha particles deviate only a little and lose
alternative relevant statements that would earn marks. For very little energy because an electron has a very small
example in part (a) you could earn credit for stating that mass compared to that of an alpha particle (.f).
electrons have small mass or negative charge.
Answer to question 2
Question 2 (a) (i) Current in circuit= EMF/total resistance (.f)
Calculation question =12.0/20.0
The supply in the following circuit has an EMF of 12.0 V and Current in circuit= 0.60 A (.f)
negligible internal resistance. (ii) Power = t2 R (.f)
= 0.60 2 X 5.0
12.0V 10.012 Power = 1.8 W (.f)
(iii) PD = IR = 0.60 x 10.0 = 6.0 V (.f)
(b) (i)

S.OQ s.on
--l f-
(a) Calculate
(i) the current through each lamp; (2 marks)
(ii) the power dissipated in each lamp; (2 marks) -----1 r----
(iii) the potential difference across the 10.0 Q resistor. Correct circuit as above. (.f)
(1 mark) (ii) Parallel combination must be 10.0 Q (.f)
(b) A student wants to produce the same potential difference Two similar parallel resistors have total
across the 10.0 Q resistor using two similar resistors resistance equal to half that of one resistor. (,f)
in parallel. (or ~=t+t)
(i) Sketch the circuit the student uses. ( 1 mark) Each resistor= 20 Q (.f)
(ii) Determine the value of each of th~ series resistors
used. Show your reasoning. (J marks)

14 Answering the question

Question 3 Answer to question 3
Graph interpretation and graph sketching (a) For a change at constant temperature, pV =constant (.I).
The diagram shows how the pressure p varies with the volume Use co-ordinates from three points A, B, and Con the
V for a fixed mass of gas. graph (,/) (NB using only two would lose this mark).
e.g. units (m 3 , 105 Pa). A (0.005, 3) B (0.01, 1.5) C ( 0.03, 0.5).
3 Product in each case is 0.015 x 105 m 3 Pa.
The product pV is constant within limits of experimental
uncertainties, so the changes take place at constant
temperature (,/).
2 (b) Straight line through the origin (,/).
ctl
c.. pVfor the line is consistent with data in given graph(,/).
"'0
~

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

V/m 3

(a) Use data from the graph to show that the changes take
place at constant temperature. (3 marks)
(b) Sketch a graph to show how the pressure varies with 1/V
for this gas. (2 marks)

Question 4
Experiment description
The fundamental frequency f of a stretched string is given by
Answer to question 4
the equation f = ~ + [£,
where Tis the tension and J1 is the
(a)
mass per unit length of the string.
(a) Sketch the apparatus you would use to test the
relationship between f and T. (2 marks) bench
wire or string
(b) State the quantities that are kept constant in the pulley
experiment. (2 marks)
(c) Describe how you obtain data using the apparatus you
have drawn and how you would use the data to test masses
the relationship. (7 marks) to
provide
Synoptic Questions tension
vibrator driven by
Application type (AEB 1994 part question) variable frequency
Figure 1 shows the principle of the operation of a hydro- signal generator
electric power station. The water which drives the turbine
comes from a reservoir high in the mountains.

Means of determining frequency. (,I)

Sensible arrangement with means of changing tension. (,I)
(b) The constant quantities are:
• The mass per unit length of the wire. The material and
the diameter must not be changed. (,I)
• The length of the wire used. (,I)
(c) A suitable tension is produced by adding masses at the
end of the wire. The tension is noted (.I). When the mass
used to tension the wire is m the tension is mg (,/). The
oscillator frequency drives the vibrator which causes the
wire to vibrate(,/). The oscillator frequency is adjusted
Figure 1 until the wire vibrates at its fundamental frequency (i.e.
a single loop is observed) (,I). The output frequency of the
oscillator is noted(,/). The tension is changed and the
new frequency at which the wire vibrates with one loop is
...____ determined (,/). A graph is plotted of frequency f against

-~----_-
~_-._~,_-.·_ -_ .·j\, the square root of the tension, ...JT (,/). Iff= ...JTthe graph
1:'

--·_j
',\ flat ._-_-_-_.•.•. _ _ curved should be a straight line through the origin(,/).
c~----),: ''l' blade :?)'blade

---
water recoil

Figure 2 Figure 3

Answering the question 15

The water level in the reservoir is 300 m above the nozzle Answer to application question
which directs the water onto the blades of the turbine. The (a) (i) lmv2 =mghorlv 2 =9.8x300
2 . 2
diameter of the water jet emerging from the nozzle is veloc1ty = 77 m s-1 (.I')
0.060 m. The density of the water is 100 kg m-3 and the (ii) Mass (per s) = volume (per s) x density (.I')
acceleration of free fall, g, is 9.8 m s-2 • Volume per s = 2.8 X 1o-3 m3 (.I')
(a) Assuming that the kinetic energy of the water leaving the = 220 kg s- 1 (.I')
nozzle is equal to the potential energy of the water at the (iii) Power available= KE per s (.I')
surface of the reservoir, estimate = 650 kW (.I')
(i) the speed of the water as it leaves the nozzle;
(ii) the mass of water flowing from the nozzle in 1.00 s; Note: You could gain full marks for a correct method and
(iii) the power input to the turbine. (6 marks) workings in parts (ii) and (iii) if you made errors in previous
(b) (i) Explain why the mass flow rate at the exit from the parts.
turbine is the same as your answer to (a)(ii). (b) (i) All the water that enters the turbine must leave it
(ii) After colliding with the blades of the turbine the water otherwise there would be a build up of water. (.1')
moves in the same direction at a speed of 10.0 m s- 1. (ii) Force = rate of change of momentum (.I')
Estimate the maximum possible force that the water OR 220 X (77 - 10)
could exert on the turbine blades. Force = 14.7 kN (.1')
(iii) Estimate the maximum possible power imparted to (iii) Maximum power output = loss of KE per second (.I')
the turbine. = l x mass flow rate x {(initial velocity) 2 - (final
2 .
(c) When a jet of water hits a flat blade it tends to spread as veloc1ty) 2 } (.I')
shown in Figure 2. Suggest why turbine blades are usually OR
shaped to give the recoil flow shown in Figure 3. = l X 220 X {77 2 - 10 2 }
2
=MOW ~
Comprehension type Note: Throughout part (b) errors rnay be carried forward from
Comprehension passages are used to test whether you can use earlier answers.
your knowledge of physics to make sense of an article relating (c) Using the system in Figure 3 the change in momentum
to a context that is likely to be unfamiliar to you. Most is greater. (.1')
comprehension questions also include some data analysis. This results in a greater force on the wheel. (.1')
Questions may require you to
• extract information that is given directly in the article
transmission Power Electronic
• use data in the article to deduce further information or losses over fuses
line Inverter and
deduce whether it agrees with a given law Maximum and diodes
• use your knowledge and understanding of physics to
confirm that the data that is given in the article is sensible
• show that you have a broad understanding of physics and
its applications that is relevant to the article.

Example comprehension (AEB 1994)

Photovoltaic Solar Energy Systems
spatial structure
Based on an article by Gian-Mattia Schucan (Switzerland),
of the solar cell
Young Researcher, European journal of Science and field
Technology, September 1991. losses over
contact points
1 One means of converting the Sun's energy directly into
electrical energy is by photovoltaic cells.
detailed spatial electrical structure
2 In 1989 photovoltaic installations in Switzerland provided
and electrical panel of the solar cell
approximately 4.0 x 105 kW h of electricity, sufficient specifications field
for 100 households. It is hoped that 3.0 x 10 9 kW h of Figure 1
electrical energy per year will be produced by photovoltaic 40
installations by the year 2025. This is about seven per cent 1 1
35 106o0m 2
of Switzerland's present annual energy consumption. 30
3 The yield (output) of a photovoltaic installation is ~ 25 I I I I \
determined by technical and environmental influences. c~ 20
I I I I \
500W m-2
The technical factors are summarised in Figure 1. :; 1\
u 15
I I I I \
"'
4 Single solar cells are interconnected electrically to form a solar
10
panel. A typical panel has an area of-l-m 2 and an output of 50
W under standard test conditions whfch correspond to 1000 5 100W m-2 .\
0 1\\
W m-2 of solar radiation and 25 °C cell temperature. The 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
electrical characteristics of a larger panel are given in Figure 2. output voltage IV
5 Panels are connected together in series and parallel to Figure 2
form a Solar Cell Field, and a Maximum Power Tracker
adjusts the Field to its optimum operating point. In order to
change the direct current from the solar panels into
alternating current for use in the country's power
transmission system a device known as an inverter is used.
6 Figure 3 shows a weatherproof photovoltaic solar module
suitable for experiments in schools and colleges. Its
nominal output is 6 V, 0.3 W, rising to a maximum of
about 8 V, 0.5 W.

16 Answering the question

Questions 3 (a) (i) 32 or 33 A (..')
1 Using the information in Paragraph 2 estimate: (ii) P= VI (v')
(a) the annual energy consumption in kWh in 384 W or 396 W (v')
Switzerland in 1991; (2 marks) Note: Strictly this should be rounded off to 2 significant figures.
(b) the number of Swiss households which could be (iii) VN 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
powered by energy generated from photovoltaic 1/A 32 32 32 31 29 27 19
installations in the year 2025. State any assumpt- PoufVV 380 420 450 470 460 460 340
ions made. (3 marks) (v' v') for complete table
2 Using data in Figure 2 determine whether the output (..') e.g. only even voltages used
current is directly proportional to the solar irradiation in (iv) Sketch graph shown is general shape. This should
W m-2 , for a photovoltaic solar panel operating up to be drawn accurately on graph paper.
14 V. (4 marks) 3: 480
3 This question is about the characteristic A in Figure 2. ')460
(a) (i) What is the current when the output voltage is Q. 440

12.0 V? (I mark) ~ 420

(ii) What is the output power when the output voltage 8. 400
"5 380
is 12.0 V? (2 marks) .9- 360
(iii) Draw up a table showing the output power and ::J
0 340 ~11~~1~2--~1~3--~1~4--~1~5~~1~6~~1~7~~~
corresponding output voltages, for output voltages
output voltage VN
between 12.0 V and 18.0 V. (2 marks)
(iv) Plot a graph of output power (y-axis) against Axis labelled with units (..')
output voltage (x-axis). (6 marks) Axis with scales shown (..')
(v) Use your graph to determine the maximum output Good scale (..')
power and the corresponding output voltages. Correct plotting (..')
(2 marks) Smooth curve (..')
(b) From the information given in Paragraph 4, estimate (v) Peak around 470 W (..')
the area of the solar panel which was used for when output voltage is about 15 V (..')
producing Figure 2. (3 marks) (b) 50 W output corresponds to a panel of area 1/3 m 2 .(v')
(c) What is the maximum efficiency of this panel? (3 marks) 470 W output requires a panel of area
4 Why is alternating current used in power transmission (470/50) X 1/3 (..')
systems? (3 marks) = 3.1 m2 (..')
5 Suggest three environmental factors which will affect the Note: If you obtained an incorrect power in (a)(v) you could still
power output from a particular panel. (3 marks) gain full marks here if you use the correct method and working.
6 Draw a circuit which would enable you to measure the (c) Efficiency = output power/input power (..')
output power, on a hot summer's day, of the module shown Input power= 3.1 x 1000 W = 3200 W (..')
in Figure 3 and described in Paragraph 6. Give the ranges of Efficiency = 0.15 or 15% (..')
any meters used and the values of any components in your Note: Again you could gain full marks even if you
circuit, showing all relevant calculations. (6 marks) determined the area of the solar panel incorrectly in (b).
4 You could give any three of the following or some other
sensible comment that is relevant: (v' v' v')
Useful tips for comprehension passage AC is easy to transform
• Read the passage carefully. Power loss in cables can be reduced by transforming
• Questions frequently refer to particular lines in the passage. Currents in cable can be reduced
When answering a question highlight or underline such Power loss in cables= J2R
references. 5 You could give any three of the following or some other
• Data is not always easy to keep in mind when in a long sensible comment that is relevant: (..'v' v')
sentence. Make a note of any data you consider relevant to Weather conditions (rain cloud)
the question in a form that is easier to use. Make a list. Shading by buildings or trees
• Use number of marks per question to judge the detail Pollution in atmosphere
required in an answer. Dirt on panel

Answers to comprehension questions

1 (a) 7% of 1991 consumption = 3.0 x 10 9 kW h (..')
1991 consumption = (1 00/7) x 3.0 x 109
= 4.3 X 10 10 W (..')
(b) Each household uses 4.0 x 105/100 = 4000 kWh (..')
3.0 x 109 kWh supplies 3.0 x 109/4000
= 750 000 households (..') On diagram
assuming average electricity use per house is same in Load resistor (..')
2025 as in 1991. (v') Ammeter in series with load (..')
2 Check whether 1/P is constant: (..') Voltmeter across cell (or across load) (..')
For100W, 1=3A I/P=0.030 Clearly stated
ForSOOW 1=15A I/P=0.030 Voltmeter range 0-1 0 V (..')
For 1000 W I= 32 A 1/P = 0.032 (..') Ammeter range 0-1 00 mA (..')
Within uncertainties reading from the graph 1/P is Maximum current= 0.5/8 = 62 mA (..')
constant and I is therefore proportional to P. (v') Load resistance required about 130 Q
Note: This could also be shown by plotting a graph of I against Note: You would need to show at least one calculation (of
P. This would produce a straight line through the origin. load or current) to gain full marks.

Answering the question 17

A1 Units and dimensions Unit
Physical
Physical quantity quantity
Name Symbol
Say a plank is 2 metres long. This measurement is called a
physical quantity. In this case, it is a length. It is made up of
two parts:
length metre m
2m
/ ~ mass kilogram kg
magnitude unit
time second s
(number)

Note: current ampere A

• '2m' really means '2 x metre', just as, in algebra, 2y temperature kelvin K
means '2 x y'.
amount* mole mol
Sl base units
Scientific measurements are made using 51 units (standing for
Systeme International d'Unites). The system starts with a series * In science, 'amount' is a measurement based on the
of base units, the main ones being shown in the table above number of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) present.
right. Other units are derived from these. One mole is 6.02 x 1023 particles, a number which gives
a simple link with the total mass. For example, 1 mole
51 base units have been carefully defined so that they can be
(6.02 x 10 23 atoms) of carbon-12 has a mass of 12 grams.
accurately reproduced using equipment available to national
6.02 x 1023 is called the Avogadro constant.
laboratories throughout the world.

Sl derived units Prefixes

There is no 51 base unit for speed. However, speed is defined Prefixes can be added to 51 base and derived units to make
by an equation (see 81 ). If an object travels 12 min 3 s, larger or smaller units.

s eed = distance travelled = 12 m = 4 ~ Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value

p t1me taken 3s s
pi co p 1Q-12 kilo k 103
The units m and shave been included in the working above nano n 10-9 mega M 106
and treated like any other numbers or algebraic quantities. To micro 10-€ gig a G 109
ll
save space, the final answer can be written as 4 m/s, or 10-3 1012
milli m tera T
4 m s- 1 . (Remember, in maths, 1/x = x- 1 etc.)
For example,
The unit m s- 1 is an example of a derived Sl unit. It comes
from a defining equation. There are other examples below. 1 mm =10-3 m 1 km =10 3 m
Some derived units are based on other derived units. And
Note:
some derived units have special names. For example, 1 joule
• 1 gram (1 o- 3 kg) is written '1 g' and not '1 mkg'.
per second Us- 1 ) is called 1 watt (W).

Physical Defining equation Derived Special symbol

quantity (simplified) unit (and name)

speed distance/time ms-1 -

acceleration speed/time ms-2 -

force mass x acceleration kg m s-2 N (newton)

work force x distance Nm J Uoule)

power work/time J s-1 W (watt)

pressure force/area Nm-2 Pa (pascal)

density mass/volume kgm-3 -

charge current x time As C (coulomb)

voltage energy/charge JC-1 V (volt)

resistance voltage/current VA-1 Q (ohm)

18 Units and dimensions

Dimensions
Here are three measurements: Example 1
distance travelled = =
length = 10m area = 6m 2 volume = 4m 3 speed = --,t'"""im-e--:-ta'k-en--
[L]
[T]
These three quantities have dimensions of length,
So the dimensions of speed are [LT- 1].
length squared, and length cubed.
Example 2
Starting with three basic dimensions- length [L], mass [M],
mass [M] 3
and time [T] -it is possible to work out the dimensions of density = volume = [L3] = [ML- ]
many other physical quantities from their defining equations.
There are examples on the right and below.

So the dimensions of density are [ML- 3 ].

Dimensions
Physical Defining equation In terms of
quantity (simplified) base units
from equation reduced form

length - [L] m

mass - [M] kg

- [T] s
time

distance ill [LT-1] ms-1

speed
time [T]
speed [LT-1] ms-2
acceleration [LT-2]
time [T]

force mass x acceleration [M] x [LT-2] [MLT-2] kgms-2

work force x distance [MLT-2] x [L] [ML2T-2] kgm2s-2

work [ML2T-2] kgm2s-3

power [ML2T-3]
time [T]
force [MLT-2] kgm-1 s-2
pressure [ML-1 T-2]
area ---yL2]

Using dimensions or base units to check Dimensionless numbers

equation·s A pure number, such as 6, has no dimensions. Here are two
Each term in the two sides of an equation must always have consequences of this fact.
the same units or dimensions. For example, Dimensions and units of frequency The frequency of a
work force x distance moved vibrating source is defined as follows:
[ML 2 T-2] = [ML T-2 ] X [L]
f •. ····.· ..•.... number ofvi~rations
= [ML2 T-2 ] requency = · · • ··time taken
An equation cannot be accurate if the dimensions on both As number is dimensionless, the dimensions of frequency are
sides do not match. It would be like claiming that '6 apples [T-1 ]. The 51 unit of frequency in the hertz (Hz):
equals 6 oranges'. 1 Hz= 1 s- 1
Dimensions are a useful way of checking that an equation is Dimensions and units of angle
reasonable. On the right, the angle e
Example Check whether the equation PE = mgh is in radians is defined like
dimensionally correct. this:

To do this, start by working out the dimensions of the right-

hand side:
mgh = [M] x [LT-2] x [L] = [ML 2T-2] sir has no dimensions because
[L] x [L-1 ] = 1. However,
These are the dimensions of work, and therefore of energy. So when measuring an angle in
the equation is dimensionally correct. radians, a unit is often
Note: included for clarity: 2 rad, for
• A dimensions check cannot tell you whether an equation example.
is accurate. For example, both of the following are
dimensionally correct, but only one is right:
PE = mgh PE = 2mgh

Units and dimensions 19

A2 Measurements, uncertainties, and graphs
Scientific notation
The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is '1.50 x 108 ' tells you that there are three significant figures-
150 000 000 km. 1, 5, and 0. The last of these is the least significant and,
therefore, the most uncertain. The only function of the other
There are two problems with quoting a measurement in the
zeros in 150 000 000 is to show how big the number is. If the
above form:
distance were known less accurately, to two significant
• the inconvenience of writing so many noughts, figures, then it would be written as 1.5 x 10 8 km.
• uncertainty about which figures are important
Numbers written using powers of 10 are in scientific notation
(i.e. How approximate is the value?
or standard form. This is also used for small numbers. For
How many of the figures are significant?).
example, 0.002 can be written as 2 x 10-3 .
These problems are overcome if the distance is written in the
form 1 .50 x 10 8 km.

Uncertainty Combining uncertainties

When making any measurement, there is always some Sums and differences Say you have to add two length
uncertainty in the reading. As a result, the measured value readings, A and 8, to find a total, C. If A= 3.0 ± 0.1 and
may differ from the true value. In science, an uncertainty is B = 2.0 ± 0.1, then the minimum possible value of Cis 4.8
sometimes called an error. However, it is important to and the maximum is 5.2. SoC= 5.0 ± 0.2.
remember that it is notthe same thing as a mistake.
Now say you have to subtract B from A. This time, the
In experiments, there are two types of uncertainty. minimum possible value of Cis 0.8 and the maximum is 1.2 .
So C = 1.0 ± 0.2, and the uncertainty is the same as before.
Systematic uncertainties These occur because of some
inaccuracy in the measuring system or in how it is being If C = A + B or C = A - B, then
used. For example, a timer might run slow, or the zero on an
uncertainty = uncertainty + uncertainty
ammeter might not be set correctly.
inC in A in B
There are techniques for eliminating some systematic
The same principle applies when several quantities are added
uncertainties. However, this spread will concentrate on
or subtracted: C = A + B- F- G, for example.
dealing with uncertainties of the random kind.
Products and quotients If C =Ax B or C = NB, then
Random uncertainties These can occur because there is a
limit to the sensitivity of the measuring instrument or to how % uncertainty = % uncertainty + % uncertainty
accurately you can read it. For example, the following inC in A in B
readings might be obtained if the same current was measured
· For example, say you measure a current /, a voltage V, and
repeatedly using one ammeter:
calculate a resistance R using the equation R = VII. If there is
2.4 2.5 2.4 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.5 a 3% uncertainty in Vand a 4% uncertainty in /, then there is
a 7% uncertainty in your calculated value of R.
Because of the uncertainty, there is variation in the last figure.
To arrive at a single value for the current, you could find the Note:
mean of the above readings, and then include an estimation • The above equation is only an approximation- and a poor
of the uncertainty: one for uncertainties greater than about 10%.
• To check that the equation works, try calculating the
current = 2.5 ± 0.1
maximum and minimum values of C if, say, A is 100 ± 3

mean
/ ~-
uncertamty
and B is 100 ± 4. You should find that Ax B is
10 000 ± approximately 700 (i.e. 7%).
Writing '2.5 ± 0.1' indicates that the value could lie • The principle of adding% uncertainties can be applied to
anywhere between 2.4 and 2.6. more complex equations: C = A 2 B!FG, for example.
As A 2 =Ax A, the% uncertainty in A2 is twice that in A.
Note:
• On a calculator, the mean of the above readings works out
at 2.5125. However, as each reading was made to only
two significant figures, the mean should also be given to
only two significant figures i.e. 2.5.
• Each of the above readings may also include a systematic
Calculated results
Say you have to calculate a resistance from the following
uncertainty.
readings:
voltage= 3.3 V (uncertainty± 0.1 V, or± 3%)
current= 2.5 A (uncertainty± 0.1 A, or± 4%)
Uncertainty as a percentage
Sometimes, it is useful to give an uncertainty as a percentage. Dividing the voltage by the current on a calculator gives a
For example, in the current measurement above, the resistance of 1.32 Q. However, as the combined uncertainty
uncertainty (0.1) is 4% of the mean value (2.5), as the is ±7%, or± 0.1 n, the calculated value of the resistance
following calculation shows: should be written as 1.3 Q. As a general guideline, a
calculated result should have no more significant figures than
.
percentage uncertamty = 20.1
_5 x 100 = 4 any of the measurements used in the calculation. (However, if
the result is to be used in further calculations, it is best to
So the current reading could be written as 2.5 ± 4%. leave any rounding up or down until the end.)

20 Measurements, uncertainties, and graphs

Another random document with
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the Council Board. Evelyn thus records the event: ‘The Attorney-
General Som̅ ers made Lord Keeper, a young lawyer of
extraordinary merit.’
The appointment (with the exception, naturally, of adverse
politicians) was generally popular. Burnet says: ‘Som̅ ers is very
learned in his own profession, with a great deal more learning in
other professions,—divinity, philosophy, and history.’
He had great capacity for business, a fair and gentle temper,
having all the patience and softness, as well as the justice and
equity, becoming a great magistrate. He had always agreed in his
notions with the Whigs, and had striven to bring them to better
thoughts of the King, and greater confidence in him. During the
seven years he presided in the Court of Chancery he won golden
opinions, having most important judicial duties to perform, and
acting on several occasions as Lord Steward in State trials. A close
friendship now existed between the King and Som̅ ers, but the
latter knew how to uphold both his personal and official dignity,
which he proved in a most remarkable manner at the beginning of
this reign, in a passage of arms that occurred between his Royal
master and himself. During the time that the Seal was in
commission, his Majesty had exercised unlimited judicial
patronage, and conceived the idea of continuing to do so,
unquestioned. He was on the eve of embarking for Flanders at the
time of Som̅ ers’s appointment, and he sent Lord Nottingham to the
new Minister, with orders to make out patents for the Chief Baron
of the Exchequer, the Chief-Justice of Chester, and for the
Attorney-General. This cavalier manner of proceeding did not suit
Sir John Som̅ ers, and as the King was still detained at Harwich,
waiting for favourable winds, he wrote a respectful but resolute
letter to his Majesty on the subject, pointing out, in clear, distinct
terms, that, under the conditions imposed on him, he must tender
his resignation—Anglicè, he would not accept a post shorn of all
judicial patronage. The King responded nobly to this
straightforward appeal, declined the resignation, paid the Lord
Keeper the highest tribute as to ability and fitness for the great
office, announced his intention of non-interference for the future,
but ended by the hope that Som̅ ers would take the names of the
candidates already mentioned into consideration.
In fact, this short misunderstanding increased and cemented the
cordiality between King and Minister. The three men William had
named were continued, but the office of Attorney-General soon
after falling vacant, was filled up by a nominee of Som̅ ers’s own
selection. Although he declined the offer of a Peerage, he sat in
the House of Lords as Speaker, and exercised a weighty influence
over William’s opinions. On the subject of ‘unlicensed printing,’ the
liberal King and the liberal Minister were agreed, and the Bill was
passed by which, says Macaulay, ‘English literature was
emancipated for ever.’
It was strange how little excitement was caused by so great an
event. Neither Evelyn nor Luttrell allude to it in their Diaries, and
the Dutch Minister forgot to mention it in his despatches.
However, from this time forth, the liberty of the Press was
assured; and ‘now we have only to be watchful,’ Lord Campbell
sapiently remarks, ‘lest the Press itself be not turned into an
engine of tyranny.’
In 1690 Queen Mary was attacked with small-pox, and to the
inexpressible grief of her husband, shared by the greater part of
the nation, she died after a very short illness. Friendly messages
had been exchanged between her and her sister, but Mary’s state
was too critical to allow of her being exposed to the excitement of
an interview. When the last scene was over, and the last duties
paid to the beloved Queen and consort, the attempt at reconciling
the Princess of Denmark and her brother-in-law was renewed, and
Lord Sunderland, the Duke of Marlborough, and Sir John Som̅ ers,
joined to promote the wished-for result. Anne had been persuaded
to write to the King, who, stunned by grief, showed little inclination
to respond to her advances. Som̅ ers therefore, bent on carrying
out his object, made his way into the Royal presence at
Kensington, where he found William absorbed in speechless grief.
He waited for some time in respectful sympathy, hoping that the
King would break the painful silence, but was at length compelled
to take the initiative.
With the gentle delicacy that characterised him, the Lord Keeper
broached the subject, pointing out how essential it was, on public
as well as private grounds, that the enmity between his Majesty
and his wife’s sister should cease. ‘Do as you will,’ replied the
unhappy widower, ‘I can think of no business.’ An interview was
accordingly arranged. Anne was graciously received, apartments
assigned her in St. James’s Palace, and due honour paid her as
heir-presumptive to the Crown. William once more pressed a
Peerage on Sir John (through his friend, now Duke of Shrewsbury),
but it was again declined. He was placed virtually at the head of
the Regency (the Archbishop of Canterbury presiding only in
name), when the King again left England for a foreign campaign.
He took a prominent part in the great measure for the
reformation of the coinage, and drew up and strongly advocated a
plan by which clipping money could be prevented; but this was not
carried into effect. Lord Macaulay praises him highly for the
appointments he made of such eminent men as Sir Isaac Newton
and John Locke, for the respective posts of Warden of the Mint
and a Lordship of Trade.
In 1697 Sir John resigned the Seals, only to have them returned
to him, with the title of Lord Chancellor and Baron Som̅ ers of
Evesham, county Worcester, as also grants of the manors of
Reigate and Howleigh in Surrey, with a yearly income to enable
him to keep up the same. On the retirement of Lord Godolphin,
the Ministry became wholly Whig,—Montagu, Russell, Som̅ ers, and
Wharton forming ‘the Junto.’ In the same year the Peace of
Ryswick was signed, by which France made great concessions, and
acknowledged William as King of England, and Anne as his
successor, a circumstance which gave rise to much rejoicing. But
serious differences took place between the King and his
Parliament, which required the disbanding of the troops that had
done such good service in foreign campaigns. The most stormy
discussions ensued, and the press, in all the wild ardour of recent
emancipation, thundered with controversy. To Lord Som̅ ers was
attributed (indeed Macaulay speaks of the authorship as a
certainty) a treatise, called ‘The Balancing Letter,’ which made a
great noise at the time, weighing, as it did, the arguments for and
against the momentous question, but undoubtedly leaning towards
the advisability of maintaining a small standing army. In spite of
William’s vehement opposition, he found himself compelled to ship
off his beloved Dutch Guards, and to diminish the English forces.
Until this time the life of John Som̅ ers had been uninterrupted in
its prosperity and advancement; but a change in his fortunes was
now impending. Henceforward he had both public and private
trials to encounter, added to which, his health had become much
impaired. In July 1698, Parliament being dissolved, and the King
gone to Holland, Lord Som̅ ers gladly availed himself of the
opportunity to recruit his bodily powers, by drinking the waters in
the pleasant retirement of Tunbridge Wells. The question of the
Spanish succession (Charles II., king of that country, being at the
time in a dying state) belongs rather to the political history of
Europe than to the biography of an individual, yet Lord Som̅ ers
was so intimately connected with the so-called ‘Tradition Treaties,’
that we cannot altogether keep silence on the matter. Before the
King’s departure for Holland, William had already consulted Som̅ ers
on the subject, and, on arriving at the Loo, he wrote, authorising
him to consult with any of his colleagues, on whose discretion and
secrecy he could rely, and asking for opinions on the arrangement
proposed, which his Majesty detailed at full length. Now such a
treaty could not be concluded without the appendage of the Great
Seal and the signature of one Secretary of State. The Lord
Chancellor was therefore directed to send full powers to the Loo,
sealed, but with blanks left for the names of the Plenipotentiaries;
and it was strongly urged that the clerks whose duty it was to
draw up the documents should be kept in profound ignorance of
the subject, and the importance of the work they were performing.
The Royal missive found ‘Som̅ ers at a distance from his political
friends, his delicate frame enfeebled by the labours and vigils of
many months, and his aching head giddy with the first draughts of
the chalybeate spring.’ But he lost no time, and communicated
promptly with all the leading statesmen, who agreed with the King
in wishing to see the question of the Spanish succession settled
without delay. Som̅ ers, however, delicately hinted to his master
that he and his colleagues had misgivings on many points of the
treaty, although the Royal wishes had been complied with.
The powers were sent off, the enjoined secrecy observed, the
blanks left for the names of two Commissioners, who, the Lord
Chancellor suggested, should be English, either by birth or
naturalisation, and consequently responsible to Parliament.
A second Partition Treaty was shortly afterwards drawn up and
signed, with fresh clauses and allotments to the different European
powers, with the same secrecy; and when the terms of these
treaties became known in England, a great outcry was raised
against the Whigs, and strenuous efforts made to overthrow the
Administration. The Lord Chancellor, in particular, became the mark
for attacks of different kinds, such as his misconduct in the
appointment and dismissal of magistrates, while a novel charge for
the dignitary of the Woolsack was adduced against John Lord
Som̅ ers, namely that of piracy on the high seas,—not in person,
indeed, but by proxy. Thus it came about: he, in common with
other Ministers, had subscribed a sum of several hundreds towards
the fitting out of a ship called The Adventure Galley, for the
purpose of ridding the Indian seas of pirates. The command was
given to Captain William Kid, a naval officer, who had hitherto
borne a high character for honour as well as courage.
As may easily be believed, Lord Som̅ ers knew nothing of the
matter further than that he thought it became the post he
occupied to assist in such a public service; and a grant was made
to all the undertakers of the scheme that they should become
possessed of any booty taken from the pirates by their ship.
Captain Kid was armed with full powers to sink, burn, and destroy
the pirates, but on breathing the air of the buccaneering seas, he
turned pirate himself, and became a dangerous foe to honest
traders of all nations, till, after a sharp encounter with an English
frigate, he was taken, and brought home in irons. A motion was
now brought forward by his (Som̅ ers’s) political adversaries, that
the Lord Chancellor should be made responsible for all the
outrages committed by Kid, with whom, they affirmed, he had
intended to go shares for the purpose of swelling his own coffers,
—‘Such black constructions,’ says Burnet, ‘are men apt to put on
the actions of those whom they intend to disgrace.’ The charge,
being preposterous, was rejected by a large majority.
A Bill was now brought in to resume the Irish forfeited estates,
which the King had bestowed on his Dutch favourites, and Lord
Som̅ ers incurred both the Royal displeasure and that of the
Opposition in Parliament for his absence during the debates,
although he pleaded the excuse of bad health. William expected
assistance from the Chancellor in opposing this measure, but the
public opinion was so strong that Som̅ ers did not consider it
advisable to support his Majesty. His enemies had now become
persistent in their attacks; and a motion was made in the House of
Commons to the effect that ‘the King should be advised to remove
the present Lord Chancellor from his councils for ever,’ in common
with other leading Ministers.
He had been absent from his duties for some time, in
consequence of failing health, in spite of which the Opposition did
all in their power to induce him to coalesce in the formation of a
new Government; and in answering the overtures made him by
Lord Sunderland, Som̅ ers replied that he considered such a step
would be inconsistent with honour.
The refusal naturally increased the bitterness of his adversaries,
and Harley especially, who rose in arms against him.
William, with all his predilection for the Chancellor, was at length
persuaded of the expediency of removing him, and Lord Som̅ ers
received a hint to that effect, ‘which determined him to wait on his
Majesty at Kensington, in order to know his real mind.’ The King
told him plainly that the time had come when it was necessary for
the Seals to pass into other hands, at the same time expressing a
wish that Som̅ ers himself would resign.
The Chancellor begged his Majesty’s pardon for following the
advice of numerous friends, who had warned him against such a
step, which would be ascribed to guilt or fear; adding that he well
knew the designs of his enemies; that the Great Seal was his
greatest crime, and if permitted to keep it, in spite of their malice,
he would do so, being well aware what a bad use they would
make of it. He had no fear of them, but he would be firm to his
friends, with more in that style; but the King only shook his head,
and said, ‘It must be so.’ And thus was Lord Som̅ ers discharged
from the great office which he had held for so many years, ‘with
the highest reputation for capacity, integrity, and diligence.’
Strangely enough, this ever-coveted post was offered to and
refused by several men ‘high in the law,’ possibly from the fear of
comparison with such an illustrious predecessor. The Seals were at
length delivered to Sir Nathan Wright, ‘in whom,’ says Burnet,
‘there was nothing equal to the post, much less to the man who
had lately filled it.’
Wright represented a dark shadow between two such shining
lights as Som̅ ers and Cowper.
After a short residence at Tunbridge Wells for the benefit of the
waters, the ex-Chancellor retired to his villa, and, resuming his
literary pursuits, strove to forget all the mortification and
humiliation to which he had lately been exposed. Louis XIV.,
breaking through the conditions imposed by the Tradition Treaty,
took advantage of a will made by the Spanish king on his
deathbed, in which the imbecile Charles had been made to
bequeath his dominions to the French king’s grandson, Philip of
Anjou; and the young prince was despatched to Madrid with a
splendid and exulting Court. A violent outcry ensued in England
against the Whigs, and Lord Som̅ ers in particular, to whom this
public catastrophe was in a great measure attributed. Parliament
was dissolved, and on the reassembling of the new House, the
Commons proposed to impeach the ex-Chancellor for the part he
had taken in concluding these treaties, and for other high crimes
and misdemeanours. Prior thus alludes to the circumstance in
writing to the Duke of Manchester: ‘I congratulate you on being
out of this noise and tumult, where we are tearing and destroying
every man his neighbour. To-morrow is the great day, when we
expect my Lord Chancellor to be fallen upon, though God knows of
what crime he is guilty, but that of being a great man and an
upright judge.’ Som̅ ers begged to be heard in his own defence,
and his demeanour was so dignified, and his explanation so clear,
as to enlist many members on his side, notably Robert Walpole, a
young senator, afterwards Prime Minister, who took the warmest
interest in Lord Som̅ ers’s cause, and voted in his behalf.
Notwithstanding, the motion for the impeachment (with that of
four other noblemen) was carried in the House of Commons—a
measure which caused tremendous indignation in the Upper
House, ‘at the infringement of their privileges;’ while the King’s
reply to the Lower House conveyed a rebuke (though couched in
mild terms) for the irregularity of their proceedings. In spite of
King and Peers the impeachment commenced, and fourteen
articles were exhibited against Lord Som̅ ers. The six first
concerned his share in carrying out the Partition Treaties; the next
five accused him of passing illegal grants of Crown property in his
own favour; the thirteenth, of giving a commission to William Kid,
pirate; ‘while the last,’ says Lord Campbell, ‘was a frivolous charge
of judicial delinquency.’
A violent altercation now took place between the two Houses of
Parliament regarding the time and manner of the trial, the Whig
element at that time being paramount among the Lords, while the
Tories preponderated in the Commons. So it came to pass, when
the Peers were seated in great state in Westminster Hall, and Lord
Som̅ ers placed within the bar, the Commons were summoned to
make good their indictment, but in vain. A long pause ensued, but
not one member appeared, and after another solemn procession
to and from their own House, their Lordships decided the question
by themselves.
John Lord Som̅ ers was acquitted by a majority of his peers, and
the impeachment dismissed. ‘The following comparison between
his demeanour and that of a former Chancellor, Lord Verulam, on a
similar occasion, is thus drawn by Joseph Addison: ‘The conduct of
these extraordinary persons under the same circumstances was
vastly different. One, as he had given just occasion for his
impeachment, sank under it, and was reduced to such abject
submission as diminished the lustre of so exalted a character. But
Lord Som̅ ers was too well fortified in his integrity to fear the
impotence of an attack on his reputation, and though his accusers
would gladly have dropped their impeachment, he was instant for
the prosecution, and would not let the matter rest till it was
brought to an issue.’
The two Houses fell to fighting once more, and fierce and bitter
hatred was fostered by the late proceedings. The Duke of
Shrewsbury, Som̅ ers’s early and faithful friend, alluding to these
squabbles, thus writes to him from Rome: ‘I cannot help referring
to my old opinion, and wonder that a man can be found in
England, who has bread, that will be concerned in public business.
Had I a son I would sooner breed him a cobbler than a courtier,
and a hangman than a statesman.’
In 1701 James II. died, and Louis XIV. astonished Europe in
general, and England in particular, by recognising the Pretender as
King of England,—a step which even incensed the Jacobites,
jealous of foreign interference, and set the Whig party in a flame.
A reaction now took place in favour of the latter faction: the King
dismissed his Tory Ministers, and it was confidently believed that in
the formation of a new Cabinet Lord Som̅ ers would resume office.
But William’s days were numbered. His health had long been a
source of anxiety to his friends and the nation at large, when a
fatal accident hurried the crisis. He had not yet relinquished his
favourite exercise of riding, and even occasionally hunted, but
neither his seat nor his hand was what it had been. Riding one day
through his favourite haunt of the Home Park at Hampton Court,
mounted on ‘Grey Sorrel,’ the horse, having just broken into a
gentle canter, stumbled at a molehill, and fell on his knees,
throwing his rider, who broke his collar-bone, and otherwise
injured himself. The bone was set; William proceeded in his coach
to Kensington, but he never rallied. ‘His last days,’ says his
enthusiastic admirer Macaulay, ‘were worthy of his life.’ He
transacted business calmly, took an affectionate leave of his
friends, joined in prayer with the two Bishops who attended him,
and breathed his last. Round his neck was found, suspended to a
black riband, the locket which contained the hair of his beloved
wife.
In William III. Lord Som̅ ers lost a sincere and admiring friend,
and far different was the treatment he met with from the new
Sovereign. In a combined Ministry of Whigs and Tories, not only
had he no post assigned him, but he was not allowed to renew the
oaths of a Privy Councillor. His name was struck out of the
Commission of the Peace in every county in England, and it was
intimated to him that her Majesty would not admit him to the
Royal presence. Anne condescended to the mean spite of
suspending the pension granted to Addison, whose only crime was
that Lord Som̅ ers esteemed and protected him. Such petty conduct
on the part of the Queen called forth no reprisals from the man
who had his country’s welfare at heart. Finding that Godolphin and
Marlborough considered it expedient to adopt the home and
foreign policy which he advocated, Som̅ ers gave his support to the
Government, and was a diligent attendant in the House of Lords.
Indeed, he now divided his time between his Parliamentary duties
and the enjoyment of literary and scientific pursuits. President of
the Royal Society, he continued his friendship with Addison, and
exerted himself unwearyingly in his behalf. Although an ex-
Minister, and slighted by the Court, he still carried great weight in
public measures, especially in the famous case of the Aylesbury
election trial. This was an action brought against the returning
officer by a man who accused him of not recording his vote, and
the case coming by appeal before the Lords, the Commons
declared it a breach of privilege. The warfare between the two
Houses was now resumed, and waged for some time as fiercely as
that between France and England. In 1706 Lord Som̅ ers was most
instrumental in negotiating the Union with Scotland, as, in the
fluctuating state of parties, the constant coalitions and mosaic
Governments which were formed, his great talents were generally
recognised in an emergency. The death of Prince George of
Denmark in 1708 brought about further changes, and the
presidency of the Council becoming vacant, Lord Som̅ ers
succeeded to the post. The appointment gave general satisfaction,
for, says Burnet, ‘it was expected that propositions for a general
peace would shortly be made, and so they reckoned that the
management of that upon which not only the safety of the nation,
but all Europe, depended, would be in sure hands. Som̅ ers was a
man of inflexible integrity, on whom neither ill practices nor false
colours were like to make any impression.’
He remained President of the Council until the famous trial of Dr.
Sacheverell. Impeached by the Whigs for preaching against them
and the Government, Sacheverell escaped with a light sentence,
but the proceedings were followed by the downfall of the
Administration, which was replaced by one composed entirely of
Tories,—Harley, St. John, etc.
When the news of the Queen’s dangerous illness became
known, Som̅ ers put himself into communication with the Elector of
Hanover, but the curious scene which took place at the last Privy
Council held in this reign is given in our notice of Lord Chancellor
Cowper, between whom and Lord Som̅ ers a warm friendship had
long existed. On the morning of Sunday, the 1st of August 1714,
Queen Anne expired, and a meeting of the Lords Justices was
immediately held. Lord Som̅ ers was not present, on account of his
infirm health, but he attended the Privy Council, and took the
oaths of allegiance to George I. On the arrival of that monarch in
England, and the reinstatement of the Whigs in office, Som̅ ers
would inevitably have joined the Ministry in his former capacity of
Chancellor, but his increasing indisposition determined him to
decline any public post, even the comparatively light duties of
President of the Council having become irksome to him; but he
promised to attend the meetings of the Privy Council as often as it
was possible for him to do so, and he received an additional
pension as a mark of public gratitude. He made a point of being
present at the first council, which was held in George I.’s reign, but
his infirmities gained upon him, and a paralytic affection
incapacitated him from the exertion consequent on public
business. He became torpid and inactive in mind and body; when
a sudden fit of the gout roused him for a time from his lethargy.
This happened at the moment that the Septennial Bill, a measure
in which he had always taken the deepest interest, was pending.
His mind brightened up, his intellect was re-sharpened, and he
took to conversing with his well-named physician, Dr. Friend, on
passing affairs, with all the clearness and vigour of former times.
The good doctor hurried off with the good news to Lord
Townshend, one of the chief promoters of the Bill, who instantly
flew to his ancient colleague to consult him on the subject. On
entering the room, the dying statesman embraced his old friend,
cordially congratulated him on the work in which he was employed
(having, he said, never approved of the Triennial Bill), and ended
by assuring him of ‘my hearty approbation in the business, for I
believe it will be the greatest support possible to the liberty of the
country.’
When the gout subsided, Lord Som̅ ers fell back into a state of
torpor and helplessness, from which he was released by death on
the 26th of April 1716, the very day the Bill in question was
passed. He died of apoplexy at his villa in Hertfordshire, and was
buried in the parish church of North Mymms, where a plain
monument bears this modest inscription:—
 The Right Honourable JOHN LORD SOM̅ ERS,
Baron of Evesham,
LORD CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND IN THE REIGN OF
WILLIAM THE THIRD,
TO WHOSE MEMORY THIS MONUMENT WAS ERECTED BY
DAME ELIZABETH JEKYLL.

The sister who loved and admired him so ardently felt doubtless
that eulogium would be misplaced, and that all who read the name
would recall the virtues, talents, and patriotism of her noble-
hearted brother. Lord John Russell does him ample justice when he
says, ‘Som̅ ers is a bright example of a statesman who could live in
times of revolution without rancour, who could hold the highest
posts in a Court without meanness, who could unite mildness and
charity to his opponents with the firmest attachment to the great
principles of liberty, civil and religious, which he had early
espoused, long promoted, and never abandoned;’ while
Mackintosh says, ‘Som̅ ers seems to have nearly realised the
perfect model of a wise statesman in a free community.’
Notwithstanding the accumulation of professional and public
business which fell to his share, from the day he arrived in London,
he not only found time (as we have observed before) for literary
studies and compositions, but for indulging in the society and
correspondence of distinguished men of letters—foreigners as well
as English. He held the poet Vincenzo Filicaja in high estimation,
which was indeed reciprocal, as a Latin ode written in honour of
‘My Lord Giovanni Som̅ ers, Cancelliere di Gran Brettagna,’ testifies.
Steele, Prior, and Congreve were among his associates. Newton,
Locke, Addison, and Swift were marked out by him for preferment.
He was a noble patron, and rewarded merit wherever he found it,
and had it in his power. Lord Som̅ ers was an exemplary son, and
his mother (who survived her husband many years) had the
satisfaction of seeing ‘little Johnnie’ rise to the highest honours of
the State. Addison vouches for the religious faith of his benefactor,
and tells us how unremitting he was in the performance of his
devotional services, both in public and in his own family. Som̅ ers
never married, although in early life he wooed and won the
affections of one Mistress Rawdon, the daughter of a rich
Alderman, who broke off the match on the plea of the insufficiency
of marriage settlements. We feel an inward conviction that in later
days Sir John Rawdon must have repented his arbitrary decision.
The title became extinct at Lord Som̅ ers’s death, his property being
shared by his two sisters, of whom the elder married Charles
Cocks, Esquire of Castleditch, and the younger Sir John Jekyll,
Master of the Rolls, an early friend and fellow-lawyer of her
brother. From Mrs. Cocks descended the late Earl Som̅ ers, to
whom the present imperfect sketch of his ancestor was submitted
in manuscript, but who has not, alas! lived to read it in the
completed form.
He was indeed a worthy descendant of a great man, and by his
death society at large, and a band of admiring and loving friends,
have sustained an irreparable loss; while on the domestic hearth
that light has been quenched which shed so radiant a glow on all
those who clustered fondly round it. A scholar, an artist, a traveller,
a linguist, the versatility of his information could only be equalled
by the graceful refinement of his wit and the tenderness of his
sympathy. He was one of those rarely gifted men, on whom the
mantle of moral and intellectual qualities sit so easily, that in his
genial company no feeling of inferiority was imposed on others. On
the contrary—as the writer of these lines can testify, from grateful
experience,—those who had the privilege of conversing with him
partook for the moment, in some slight degree, of the brightness
and intelligence of his rich nature.

No. 6.
FIELD-MARSHAL HENRY DE NASSAU, LORD OF AUVERQUERQUE.
 In armour, holding a truncheon. Wig. Table in the background.

DIED OF HIS WOUNDS 1708.

By Sir Godfrey Kneller.

E was the third son of Lewis de Nassau, Lord of Leek,

Odyke, Auverquerque, and Beverwaart, by Elizabeth,
daughter of the Count de Horn. He formed part of
William of Orange’s suite when that Prince came over
to England in 1670, and on the occasion of a visit to
Oxford, De Nassau had the degree of D.C.L. conferred upon him. In
the campaigns which ensued in Flanders, he was brother-in-arms to
his cousin and Royal master, and gained general approbation for his
courage and patriotism. When William III. ascended the throne of
England, Auverquerque was appointed Master of the Horse, and
allowed to retain his post of Captain of the Dutch Guards who had
come over to this country. He was also naturalised by Act of
Parliament. Macaulay speaks of this ‘gallant soldier as uniting the
blood of Nassau with that of Horn. He wore with just pride a costly
sword, presented to him by the States-General, for having, on the
bloody day of St. Denis, saved the life of William of Orange by
interposing himself between his Highness and a French soldier,
whom he killed on the spot.’ Auverquerque likewise received a brace
of pistols, richly mounted in gold, and a pair of horse-buckles of the
same precious metal.
In 1690 he was with the army that embarked for Ireland,
headed by the King in person; fought with his Royal master at the
battle of the Boyne, and was afterwards sent to Dublin (hastily
evacuated by James II. and his adherents) to take possession of
the city and keep the peace. He was also with William at the
unsuccessful siege of Limerick, and subsequently served with great
distinction in the campaigns in Flanders against the French.
 But it was at the battle of Steinkirk, in 1692, that Auverquerque
immortalised himself by his gallantry. The French army,
commanded by the brave and eccentric Duke of Luxembourg, was
encamped at Steinkirk, six miles from the King of England’s
headquarters. Luxembourg was one of the most extraordinary
compounds of physical and moral incongruities. Macaulay
describes him as a valetudinarian and a voluptuary, whose camp
was of the most luxurious, who usually selected his quarters with a
view to his culinary department, and whose thoughts were almost
as much taken up with his batterie de cuisine as with his batteries
in the field,—a little ugly hump-backed gnome, who was accredited
with powers of witchcraft, and had the spirit of a lion. On his camp
William made a night surprise, but Luxembourg was one of those
spirits who, in the literal meaning of the word, cannot be
surprised. He was the king of emergencies; ‘his mind’—we again
borrow the language of Macaulay—‘nay, even his sickly and
distorted body, seemed to derive health and vigour from disaster
and dismay.’
In his army were the flower of the French chivalry. The noble
historian, whom we are never tired of quoting, describes the
appearance of the young Princes of the blood-royal of France,
—‘brave not only in valour, but in the splendour of their brilliant
uniforms, hastily donned and half fastened.’ They had orders to
charge the English: ‘No firing was the word; sword in hand, do it
with cold steel.’
In the order of battle, the division which was to lead the van
was that of General Mackay (the brave soldier who had done such
good service in Scotland, Ireland, and elsewhere). They first
encountered the Swiss, and drove them back with fearful
slaughter, after so close a fight that the muzzles of the muskets
crossed.
But the English were borne down, after a noble resistance, by
the French troopers. They never ceased to repeat that, if Count
Solmes, who commanded them, had done his duty, they would
have been successful; but he forbade his infantry to stir; he would
not send them, he said, to be slaughtered. The Duke of Ormonde
wished to advance to the assistance of his countrymen, but was
not permitted to do so.
Mackay sent to say if he were not reinforced, his men were
doomed to destruction. It was of no avail; ‘God’s will be done,’ said
the brave veteran with his latest breath, and ‘he died as he had
lived, a good Christian.’ Five regiments were entirely cut to pieces.
It was at this juncture that Auverquerque came to the rescue with
two fresh battalions, and the splendid manner in which he brought
off the remains of Mackay’s division was long remembered and
gratefully acknowledged by the English. In the debates which
ensued in the House of Commons, when the events of the war by
land and sea were discussed, there was much difference of
opinion, and the question of the disadvantages of English troops
being commanded by aliens was mooted. The conduct of Solmes
was almost universally reprehended. Four or five of the colonels,
who had been present at Steinkirk, took part in the debate, and,
amid many warring opinions, full justice was done to the valour
and conduct of Auverquerque.
On the other hand, the exultation of the French over this
dashing victory was unspeakable; and it was commemorated by
the votaries of fashion in all sorts of ‘modes à la Steinkirk,’ the
most captivating of which, we are told, was the loosely arranged
and scarcely knotted cravats of white lace, worn round the fair
necks of Parisian beauties, in imitation of the hasty toilettes of the
young princes and nobles of the King’s household troops.
In Macaulay’s pathetic account of the last days of William III., he
tells us ‘there were in the crowd surrounding the Monarch’s dying
bed those who felt as no Englishman could feel, friends of his
youth, who had been true to him, and to whom he had been true,
through all vicissitudes of fortune, who had served him with
unalterable fidelity (when his Secretaries of State, of his Treasury,
and his Admiralty had betrayed him), who had never on any field
of battle, or in an atmosphere tainted with loathsome and deadly
disease, shrunk from placing their own lives in jeopardy to save
his, and whose truth he had, at the cost of his own popularity,
rewarded with bounteous munificence.’
Amid the group of his countrymen, the nearest to him was
Auverquerque, to whom he stretched out a feeble hand, thanking
him for the affectionate and loyal service of thirty years.
After the King’s death Auverquerque felt no inclination to remain
in England, but returned to his native land, and once more
engaged in the war which was still waging against France; and the
States-General, in acknowledgment of his services, bestowed on
him the highest military honours, by making him Field-Marshal of
the whole army. He closed his noble career by dying (as he had
always desired) on the field. The gallant Marshal had for some
time suffered from bad health, which he never allowed to interfere
with his duties. He died in the camp at Rouselaer, on the 17th day
of October 1708, after the battle of Lille. Collins gives a detailed
account of the funeral, with more than common military honours,
even for an officer of such exalted rank. The funeral car was
escorted by squadrons of life guards, horse guards, and dragoons,
the colours of the regiments, as well as the men, being in
mourning, two battalions of foot guards, with arms reversed, etc.
The body was followed for a quarter of a league by a band of
mourners, consisting of the Marshal’s sons and most of the
generals, headed by the Duke of Marlborough. The troops were
then drawn up, and saluted, after which there was a triple
discharge of cannon; the generals returned to the camp, and the
melancholy cortége passed on towards the place of interment at
Auverquerque.
The Marshal married Isabella van Arsens, daughter of Cornelius,
Lord of Sommerdyke and Placata (who survived him), by whom he
had five sons and two daughters. The eldest surviving son, Henry,
was made an English peer in 1698, by the title of Earl of
Grantham, Viscount Boston, and Baron Alford. He had to wife his
cousin, Lady Henrietta Butler, daughter of the celebrated Earl of
Ossory (son to the first Duke of Ormonde), by whom he had two
sons and three daughters. The youngest, Lady Henrietta
Auverquerque, married William, third Earl Cowper, and through
this union the present noble owner of Panshanger boasts a lineal
descent from the hero, William the Silent, and Maurice, Princes of
Orange, whose portraits Lady Henrietta brought into the Cowper
family, together with the splendid Vandyck of John of Nassau—
purchased by Lord Grantham at the Hague, in 1741, for the sum of
5000 florins, from the Van Swieten collection,—also several other
Dutch pictures, which may be found in this Gallery. From the
aforesaid lady the present Lord Cowper derives his title of
Dingwall, though only called out of abeyance so recently as 1880.
Lord Albemarle, in his delightful volume entitled Fifty Years of
My Life, speaks in the highest terms of the valour and generalship
of Field-Marshal d’Auverquerque, and says the history of the War
of Succession best attests his merits as General, and the
Marlborough despatches best show the estimation in which he was
held by that consummate commander. The titles of Earl Grantham
and Baron Alford were bestowed upon him for his services, but he
never assumed these honours.

No. 7.
ADMIRAL CORNELIUS VAN TROMP.

In a leather jerkin. Holding a truncheon. The other arm akimbo.

Ship blowing up in the background.

BORN 1629, DIED 1691.

By Sir Peter Lely.

 NATIVE of Rotterdam, the son of Martin Van Tromp,
who, at the age of eleven years, stood by his father
when he was shot down in action, the boy crying
wildly to his messmates, ‘Comrades, will you not
revenge my father’s death?’
Martin’s father before him had also been killed on the deck of his
own vessel, in an engagement with the English, and Cornelius
proved himself worthy of his brave progenitors. At the age of
twenty-one he had attained the rank of post-captain, and was
employed against the Emperor of Morocco, whom he compelled to
make advantageous terms with the Dutch. In 1652 he fought the
English at Porto Longone, and captured one of their finest vessels,
the Sampson, which he boarded, his own ship being disabled; but,
to the great mortification of Van Tromp, the Sampson was
recaptured by the enemy. The following year, in a fresh encounter
with the English, he made a violent effort to regain possession of
his former prize, but the Sampson was blown up. The Dutch were
victorious on this occasion, but they lost their Admiral, and Van
Tromp was promoted to the vacant post. In 1656, in connection
with Oldham and De Ruyter, he distinguished himself on the high
seas, and then retired for a while from public life, and did not go
afloat till 1662, when he fought the Algerine pirates in the
Mediterranean. He also performed an arduous task in convoying
several richly freighted Dutch merchantmen from the East Indies
safely into port, in spite of numerous enemies who were on the
look-out for such valuable prizes. Van Tromp was constantly
opposed to the English, and in one engagement he gained
universal praise for the manner in which he defended his disabled
and shattered ship, when the Dutch were defeated, and sad havoc
made in their fleet. New ships had to be constructed in all haste,
and the States-General were placed in a dilemma as to the
appointment of the command of the naval forces. Popular De
Ruyter was absent, battling with other foes, and although Van
Tromp’s knowledge and skill were almost universally
acknowledged, there was a very powerful faction against him, led
by the brothers De Witt, then in the plenitude of their power. The
head and front of the gallant seaman’s offending seemed to
consist in his unswerving loyalty to the House of Orange. There
was, however, no alternative, and the command of the fleet was
grudgingly bestowed on Cornelius Van Tromp, who had many hard
conditions, to which his patriotism alone induced him to submit.
He had not the sole command, but was joined therein by De Witt
and others, who received instructions to watch over and supervise
all his movements. Worse treatment was in store for him; no
sooner had he hoisted his flag, than the sudden return of De
Ruyter changed the whole aspect of affairs; Van Tromp’s
appointments were cancelled, and De Ruyter ordered to supersede
him. We can imagine with what feelings of wrathful indignation
Van Tromp went on shore, proudly refusing to serve under the
man who had supplanted him. In the ensuing year, spite of much
bitterness of feeling, he who had been so unjustly treated was
induced (partly by the bribe, perhaps, of a splendid ship) to join
De Ruyter in an attack on the English, when, after a fierce
struggle, of several days’ duration, the Dutch were victorious.
Hostilities continuing between the two nations, in another
engagement Van Tromp defeated the British Admiral Smith, but De
Ruyter was worsted; and on their return violent recriminations
passed between them. De Ruyter complained that his colleague
had acted quite independently, had afforded him no support
whatsoever, and, in fact, had left him and his portion of the fleet
completely in the lurch, while Van Tromp retaliated with counter-
charges. The States-General, as usual, espoused the cause of De
Ruyter, deprived Van Tromp of his commission, forbade him to hold
any communication with the fleet, and placed him under provisory
arrest at the Hague. It was at this moment, while smarting
beneath the ingratitude and injustice of the country which he had
so nobly served, that tempting offers were made to the gallant
seaman to enter the service of France, but these overtures were
answered with becoming indignation. He now gained permission to
leave the Hague, and repair to a country house which he
possessed near Gravensand, called Trompenburg, and built in the
fanciful form of a man-of-war. But being in the Hague at the time
of the murder of the De Witt brothers, there were slanderous
rumours set abroad that he encouraged the assassins. This arose
doubtless from the fact that some voices in the crowd on the day
of the murder called out, ‘Down with the De Witts! Long live Van
Tromp!’
The Admiral remained for some time in retreat, but in 1673 he
was reinstated in all his dignities by the Prince of Orange
(afterwards William III.). A formal reconciliation took place between
him and De Ruyter, and they once more agreed to make common
cause against the enemies of their country. In an engagement with
the combined forces of France and England, Van Tromp was sorely
pressed, compelled to change his ship three times, and three times
he was rescued by the gallantry of De Ruyter. The war continued,
and they were both in constant service, and, whether successful or
not, both famed alike for their patriotism and courage.
In 1675, the Dutch being then at peace with England, Charles II.
invited Van Tromp to visit London, where he welcomed him with
great honour, and gave him the title of Baron. The citizens also
crowded to see the man whose name, as well as that of his father,
had long been used with them as a bugbear to frighten naughty
children (as was the case with ‘Boney’ in later days), and whose
advent on the shores of England had at one time been so much
dreaded that prayers had actually been printed against such a
calamity.
Next year the Admiral was despatched to the assistance of
Denmark against Sweden, and the King of that country also did
him great honour, creating him a Count, and decorating him with
the Order of the Elephant. On his return, the death of De Ruyter
had made a vacancy in the highest naval command which it was in
the power of the States-General to bestow, and it was conferred
on Van Tromp. His last expedition was to accompany the Prince of
Orange in his attack of St. Omer, and in 1691, William (then King
of England) proposed to him to hoist his flag on the new fleet
equipping against France, but Van Tromp died before he could
undertake the trust. He expired at Amsterdam, and was buried
with great solemnity in the paternal mausoleum at Delft.
Cornelius Van Tromp, with many great qualities, had something
of a braggadocio in his nature. Witness his vain boast, when, after
some successful encounter with the English, he attached a broom
to his main mast, at a time when our superiority as a naval power
was almost universally admitted.
Van Tromp had one brother, and an only sister, who had been
christened by her father (in commemoration of one of his victories,
at the time of her birth) by the following names, ‘Anna Maria
Victoria Hardensis Trompensis-Dunensis.’ We sincerely hope, for
the sake of her playmates, that the young lady had at least one
nickname.
DRAWING-ROOM.
 DRAWING-ROOM.

No. 1.
LADY CAROLINE COWPER.

Red gown. Black and white cloak.

BORN 1733, DIED 1773.

By Sir Joshua Reynolds.

HE only daughter of William, second Earl Cowper, by

Lady Henrietta Auverquerque, daughter of the Earl of
Grantham. Married in 1753 to Henry Seymour, Esq. of
Sherborne, Redland Court, and Northbrook, nephew to
the Duke of Somerset. They had two daughters,—
Caroline, wife to Mr. Danby of Swinton Park, county York (who
bequeathed this picture to Lord Cowper), and Georgiana, married to
the Comte de Durfort, Ambassador at Venice.

No. 2.
MRS. SAMUEL REYNOLDS.
 Green gown, with short sleeves. Holding a basket.

A Study by Opie.

ISS JANE COWING married in 1793 Samuel Reynolds,

who became identified with his great namesake, Sir
Joshua, by his beautiful and delicate engraving of the
works of that master, and of many other celebrated
painters. His son and daughter were also artists in oil
and miniature, and his grandchildren still keep up the character of the
family for the love and practice of art. Mr. and Mrs. Reynolds were
intimate friends and constant guests of Lord and Lady John
Townshend at Balls Park, Hertford, where the agreeable and versatile
talents of the former, and the gentle and kindly disposition of the
latter, ensured them a cordial welcome. They were also occasional
visitors to Panshanger, and it is easy to imagine how fully the
treasures of this noble gallery must have been appreciated by the
practised eye and refined taste of Samuel Reynolds.

No. 3.
SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS, P.R.A.

Red coat. Fur collar. No spectacles.

BORN 1723, DIED 1792.

By Himself.

ORN at Plymouth, where his father, Samuel, was master

of the Grammar-School. His mother was Theophila
Potter, of Bishops Plympton, South Molton, who had
many children. Samuel Reynolds was a good man, and
sensible withal; yet we are told, on the authority of a maid who lived
in the family, that he was given to astrology, and would go out on the
house-top to consult the stars; moreover, that he once cast the
horoscope of a little daughter, for whom he predicted a violent death,
—a prophecy which was, unfortunately, fulfilled, as the child fell out of
a window, and was killed. When only eight years old, Joshua had
benefited so much by studying Richardson’s treatise on Perspective,
that he was enabled to draw the schoolhouse according to rule, a feat
which much delighted his father. The boy also busied himself in
copying all the engravings he could lay hands on, more especially a
volume of Catt’s Emblems, which his grandmother had brought with
her from Holland. His sisters had all a turn for drawing, and the little
band of artists used to decorate the whitewashed walls of the
passages with designs in charcoal, whereof the least admired were the
brother’s handiworks. Indeed, in those days Joshua was not
considered a prophet by his sisters, who had nicknamed him ‘The
clown,’—a sobriquet certainly not applicable to him in after life. Mrs.
Parker, a friend and neighbour of the Reynolds family, sent the
children a present of pencils,—a gift which the great painter lived to
pay back with interest, for the walls of Saltram are rich in his
paintings. When about twelve years of age, Joshua is said to have
made his first essay in oils under considerable difficulties,—the portrait
of Richard (afterwards Lord) Edgecumbe,—in the boat-house on
Cremel Beach, below Mount Edgecumbe. This work was executed on
the rough canvas of a boat-sail, with the common paints used by
shipwrights!
After much consultation with friends and relations, and many
pecuniary obstacles, Joshua proceeded to London as an apprentice
to Hudson, the fashionable portrait-painter of the day, son-in-law to
Richardson, whose writings on Art had been so useful to the young
beginner. Shortly after his departure, his father writes to a friend
that no one could be more delighted than the dear fellow with his
new life, his master, his employment,—indeed, he was in the
seventh heaven.
Joshua was an enthusiast in all things, and a characteristic
anecdote is told of him when he first went to London. Hudson sent
him to a picture sale, on a commission to make a purchase, when a
whisper ran through the crowded room—‘Mr. Pope! Mr. Pope!’ A
passage was instantly made for the great man, and Joshua, in a
fever of excitement, stretched out his hand under the arm of the
person who stood before him, desirous even to touch the hem of the
poet’s garment. To his delight, his hand was warmly shaken by the
man whose homely but expressive features, and poetical creations,
he was destined to portray in later days.
Reynolds left Hudson’s studio before his apprenticeship had
expired, for which step many reasons were assigned at the time by
those who, perhaps, were not in possession of the truth. Some said
his master was unkind to him, from a feeling of jealousy; but as
both father and son (Reynolds) remained on friendly terms with the
painter, this does not appear probable. Joshua went down to
Plymouth, and painted all the remarkable people in the
neighbourhood, including the greatest dignitary of all,—the
Commissioner of the dockyard!
In 1746 his father died, and when the household broke up, he
went to live with his two unmarried sisters at Plymouth. It was here
he made the acquaintance of Commodore Keppel, whose portrait is
so well known and so justly admired. This gallant sailor had been
appointed to the command of the Mediterranean Fleet, and intrusted
with a diplomatic mission, before he had completed his twenty-
fourth year. He met Joshua at Mount Edgecumbe, and proposed to
take him for a cruise, an offer that was gladly accepted. After
visiting Portugal, the Balearic Isles, and different portions of the
Italian coast, the young painter took leave of the Commodore, and
proceeded on a prolonged tour through all the principal towns of
Italy, carefully admiring, studying, copying, and writing essays on all
the treasures of art in his progress. His long and patient worship of
Raphael, in the chambers of the Vatican, cost him one of his senses,
for the extreme cold of those vast apartments brought on a chill,
which deprived him of hearing, even at that early age. Returning to
London, he established himself in St. Martin’s Lane, in a house
formerly occupied by Sir James Thornhill, immediately behind which
stood the school for drawing and design. He now wrote to his sister