Semiconductor electronics

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

Resistivity 𝝆 10−8 − 10−2 Ω𝑚 10−5 − 106 Ω𝑚 1011 − 1019 Ω𝑚
Conductivity 𝝈 (𝜎 = 1/ 𝜌) 102 − 108 𝑆𝑚−1 10−6 − 105 𝑆𝑚−1 10−19 − 10−11 𝑆𝑚−1
Charge careers Electrons Electron and holes No charge careers

Resistivity 𝜌

Resistivity 𝜌
Resistivity 𝜌
Effect of temperature on
resistivity

Temperature T Temperature T (K) Temperature T (K)

(K)
Free electron density (300K) ~1028 𝑚−3 𝑆𝑖~1010 𝑚−3, 𝐺𝑒~1013 𝑚−3 ~0
Energy gap Zero < 3 𝑒𝑉(Si 1.1, Ge 0.7, GaAs 1.4 eV) > 3 𝑒𝑉

Semiconductors can be Elemental (Si and Ge), inorganic (GaAs, CdS, InP, CdSe etc.) and organic. We will concentrate mostly
on Si and Ge.
We will represent a Si – atom (electron configuration: 2, 8, 4) or a Ge – atom (electron configuration: 2, 8, 18, 4) as a core
of +4𝑒 charge surrounded by four valence electrons.
_

_ +𝟒 _

Intrinsic
Semiconductor n - type
Extrinsic
p - type

Intrinsic semiconductors: Pure semiconductors without any kind of doping (i.e. without impurities).

➢ At 0 K (at low temperature) no bond is broken, a semiconductor behaves as a perfect

insulator.
➢ As the temperature increases, bonds are broken, some of the electrons become free.
➢ A free electron at its original position leaves a vacancy with a +e charge, called a hole.
Hole: Vacancy created by an electron in a bond is called a hole. A hole behaves as an
apparent free particle of mass = mass of the electron and charge = +e.
➢ When the semiconductor is subjected to an external electric field, the holes move in the
direction of electric field. It is actually due to the motion of bound electrons and has
nothing to do with free electrons which move in the direction opposite to the field. Intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K
➢ Apart from e – h pair generation, there is a simultaneous process of recombination. At
the equilibrium, the rate of generation = rate of recombination.
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 , where 𝑛𝑒 is the free electron density - the number of free electrons per
unit volume, 𝑛ℎ , the hole density and either of the two is called the intrinsic charge
career density 𝑛𝑖 .
➢ As the temperature increases, more bonds are broken, 𝑛𝑖 increases, conductivity of the
intrinsic semiconductor increases. 𝑛𝑖 is the function of temperature.
➢ Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is very small at room temperature. Intrinsic semiconductor
➢ To break a bond, i.e. to set an electron free, an energy of 0.7 eV is required for Ge and at room temperature

1.1 eV for Si.

Extrinsic semiconductors

Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is very small at room temperature and is not of much use in semiconductor
electronics. However, when a small amount of suitable impurity (called dopant) is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, its
conductivity increases manifold. Such a semiconductor is called an extrinsic or doped semiconductor.

Doping: Deliberate addition of a suitable impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to increase its conductivity is called doping.
The impurity atoms are called a dopant.

Dopant have to be such that –

(I) It does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice structure. For this, size of the dopant atom should be
nearly equal to the size of the semiconductor atom
(II) No two dopant atoms sit together. This is done to ensure that dopant atoms are surrounded by only semiconductor
atoms from all the sides. For this, the doping level is kept very small, a few parts per million (a ppm) of
semiconductor atoms.

Two types of dopants for Si and Ge –

(I) Pentavalent: Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P), etc.; called donor impurity because these atoms provide
extra free electrons to intrinsic semiconductors.
(II) Trivalent: Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) etc.; called accepter impurity because these atoms take electrons
from intrinsic semiconductor and make more holes available for conduction.

n-type semiconductor

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity, the resulting material is called an n-type
semiconductor.

➢ When Si or Ge is doped with a pentavalent impurity, four of the

five valance electrons of the dopants make four covalent bonds
with the neighbouring four semiconductor atoms. The fifth
electron revolves alone around the dopant in a new orbit (at low
temperature). To set it free, a very small energy of 0.01 eV for
Ge and 0.05 eV for Si is required. This energy is available at room
temperature and hence all the fifth electrons are free at room
temperature. This increases the conductivity of the
semiconductor.
➢ Thus, there are two types of free electrons – intrinsic which are thermally generated and extrinsic which are
donated by the impurity atoms. 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ .
➢ Since 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ , electrons are the majority charge careers and holes, the minority. Since majority charge careers are
negative hence the name n-type.
➢ Further, since the rate of recombination with holes increases with increase in number of free electrons, 𝑛ℎ further
decrease. There’s a relation between 𝑛𝑒 , 𝑛ℎ , and 𝑛𝑖 ; 𝒏𝒆 𝒏𝒉 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 .
➢ Since a pentavalent atom donates an electron for conduction, it is called Free
+ _+ _+ _+ _ electron
a donor impurity. In the process donor atom becomes charged with a
Donor
charge +e. n-type semiconductor is then schematically represented as a + _+ _+ _ + _ core
positive core with its associated free electron as shown in the adjacent
figure. + _+ _+ _ + _

p-type semiconductor

➢ When Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity, three valance electrons of the

dopants make three covalent bonds with the neighbouring three semiconductor
atoms. To complete its forth bond it steels an electron from a neighbouring Si or
Ge atom. This leaves a hole at the original site of the stolen electron. This hole is
now available for conduction without making an electron free.
➢ Thus, there are two types of holes – intrinsic which are thermally generated and
extrinsic which are created by the impurity atoms. 𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑖 and 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2 .
 ➢ Since 𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑒 , holes are the majority charge careers which are positive, hence the name p-type.

➢ Since a trivalent atom accepts an electron to make a hole free, it is _° _° _° _° Hole

called an accepter impurity. In the process accepter atom becomes
negatively charged with a charge -e. p-type semiconductor is then _° _° _° _° Accepter
core
schematically represented as a negative core with its associated free
hole as shown in the adjacent figure.
_° _° _° _°

Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductors

1 Pure Doped

2 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ for n-type, 𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑒 for p-type, 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2

3 Resistivity is the function of temperature. Resistivity depends upon doping level.
4 Small conductivity Large conductivity as compared to intrinsic ones

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductors

1 Pentavalent dopant Trivalent dopant
2 Electrons are majority careers. Holes are majority careers.
3 Donor energy level is close to conduction band. Accepter energy level is close to valance band.
4 For the same doping level, conductivity of n-type For the same doping level, conductivity of p-type
semiconductor is greater than that of the p-type. This is semiconductor is less than that of the p-type.
because the mobility of free electrons in conduction
band is greater that the mobility of holes in valence
band.