MOTION IN A PLANE

Physical quantities are broadly classified into two categories namely scalars and vectors.

Scalar Quantity: A scalar quantity has only magnitude, but no direction.

Ex: Mass, time, speed, volume, density, charge, current, pressure, work, power, energy,
temperature... etc.
Algebraic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division for scalar quantities follow
the usual rules followed in number system.
Vector quantity: A vector quantity is one which has both magnitude and direction.
Ex: Velocity, momentum, force, displacement, torque, angular momentum, etc.
While adding, subtracting and multiplying vector quantities their direction needs to be taken into
consideration. To add, subtract and multiply vector quantities vector algebra is used.

Graphical or Geometrical representation of a vector

Graphically, a vector is represented by drawing a
straight line with an arrow head at one of its ends.
Length of the line is equal to magnitude of the vector
and the arrow head indicates its direction. The point at
which the vector starts is called the initial point of the
vector. It is also called the tail of the vector. The point
at which the arrow ends is called the head or tip or
terminal point of the vector.
In the figure, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 represents ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 both in magnitude and direction. Length of the line OP is equal to
magnitude of the vector and the arrow head indicates its direction.

Types of vectors
1. Unit vector: A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction. It
is used to specify a direction only.
A unit vector of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 is represented by 𝐴̂.
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐴̂
𝐴
⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
𝐴̂ =
𝐴
Unit vectors along the X-, Y- and Z-axes of a rectangular coordinate
system are denoted by 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ respectively as shown in the figure.
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.
Since these are unit vectors, we have |𝑖̂| = |𝑗̂| = |𝑘̂| = 1

2. Zero or null vector: A vector which has zero magnitude is called a null vector or a zero
⃗
vector. Since its magnitude is zero, its direction cannot be specified. It is represented as 0

3. Collinear vectors: Vectors which act along the same line are called collinear vectors. Their
magnitude may or may not be equal. Parallel and anti-parallel vectors are the two types of
collinear vectors.
a) Parallel vectors: Two vectors are said to be
parallel if they act along the same direction. Their
magnitudes may or may not be equal. Angle
between two parallel vectors is 0.
b) Anti-parallel vectors: Two vectors are said to be
anti-parallel if they act opposite to one another.
Their magnitudes may or may not be equal, Angle
between two anti-parallel vectors is 180o.

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 4. Equal vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if they have same magnitude and act along
the same direction.

5. Negative vector:
Negative vector of a vector is a vector whose magnitude is same as
that of the given vector but it acts in a direction opposite to the given
vector.

6. Coplanar vectors: If two or more vectors are in the same plane, then they are referred to as
coplanar vectors.

7. Resultant vector: Resultant vector of two or more vector is a single vector which produces
the same effect as combination of vector does.

Graphical method of vector addition

Case-1: Parallel vectors: when two parallel vectors
are added, the magnitude of the resultant vector is
equal to the sum of magnitudes of individual
vectors and the direction of the resultant is same as
direction of the individual vectors.

Case-2: Anti-parallel vectors: When two anti-

parallel vectors are added, the magnitude of the
resultant vector is equal to the difference
between the magnitudes of the individual vectors
and the direction of resultant vector is in the
direction of the greatest vector.

Case-3: Two vectors acting in a plane

a) Triangle law of vector addition: It states that if two vectors can be represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in order, then the third side
taken in reverse order represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant completely.

Explanation:
 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ equal
Suppose A and B are the two vectors to be added as shown in figure. Draw a vector 𝑃𝑄

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , draw a vector 𝑃𝑄
and parallel to vector A as shown. From head P ofOP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ equal and parallel to
 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which joins the initial point of A to the
the vector B . Then the resultant vector is given by OQ

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
terminal point of B . According to triangular law of vector addition, 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ,

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   
R  A B
b) Parallelogram law of vector addition:
It states that if two vectors acting at a point can be represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from that point, then the diagonal drawn from that
point represents their resultant both in magnitude and direction.

Explanation:

Let 𝑃⃗ and 𝑄 ⃗ are the two vectors to be added as shown in figure. From a common point O, draw a
vector OA equal and parallel to𝑃⃗ and vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ OB equal and parallel to𝑄⃗ . Complete the parallelogram
OACB. According to parallelogram law of vector addition, the diagonal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OC gives the resultant vector

R.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OA
Thus,OC ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + OB
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

R = 𝑃⃗ + 𝑄⃗
NOTE: 1. Vectors representing physical quantities of same nature can only be added.
   
2. Vector addition is commutative i.e, A  B  B A

Analytical method of vector addition:

 
Let the two vectors A and B inclined to each
other at an angle  be represented both in
magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides
OP and OQ of the parallelogram OPSQ.
Then according to the parallelogram law of vector
 
addition the resultant of A and B is represented
both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal
OS of the parallelogram.


Magnitude of resultant R :
Draw SN perpendicular to OP produced, then
SP̂N  QÔP   ; OA  A, PS  OQ  B, OS  R .
From right angled SNP,
SN
 sin  or SN  PS sin   B sin 
PS
PN
 cos  or PN  PS cos   B cos 
PS
Using Pythagoras theorem in right angleONS,
OS2 = ON 2  SN 2

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R 2   OP  PN   SN 2
2

R2 = A  B cos   B sin 
2 2

= A2 + B2cos2 + 2ABcos + B2sin2

 
= A 2  B2 cos 2   sin 2   2AB cos 
= A2+ B2 + 2AB cos 
R = A 2  B2  2AB cos  Law of cosines

Direction of resultant R :
 
Let the resultant R make an angle with the direction of A .Then from right angled ONS,
SN SN
tan = 
ON OP  PN
B sin 
tan =
A  B cos 
Special cases:
  
Case(i): If the two vectors A and B are acting along the same direction, = 0o. the magnitude of R
is given by R = A + B. The resultant vector acts along the same direction.
 
Case (ii): If the two vectors A and B are acting along mutually opposite directions, = 180o, the

magnitude of R is given by R = A – B. The resultant vector acts along the direction of bigger vector.

Case (iii): when the two vectors are acting at right angles to each other, = 90o, the magnitude of R
B
is given byR = A 2  B2 . The direction is given bytan =
A
Law of sines:
NE
In ∆ONE, sinα = ON
R sinα =NE --------(1)
NE
In ∆NPE, sinθ =PN
B sinθ =NE ------(2)
R sinα =B sinθ
R B
=
sinθ sinα
-------(3)
Draw PM perpendicular to ON
PM
In ∆OMP, sinα = OP
A sinα= PM ----(4)
PM
In ∆PMN, sinβ =
PN
Bsinβ = PM ------(5)
A sinα = Bsinβ
A B
=
sinβ sinα
------(6)
R A B
Hence, = =
sinθ sinβ sinα
Magnitude of each vector is directly proportional to sine of angle between the other two vectors.

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Graphical method of vector subtraction:
 
Subtraction of a vector B from vector A is
 
defined as the addition of vector - B to vector A
Thus,
  
  
A  B  A    B  R
 
 
The vector  B is the negative of vector B . It has
the same magnitude but opposite direction.
 
In figure, PQ represents A and QS represents B ,
 
QT represents  B . Then, PT represents R .

R = A    B   A  B
   

 
Resolution of vectors:
It is the process of splitting a vector into two or more vectors in such a way that their combined
effect is same as that of given vectors.
The vectors into which the given vector is resolved are called component vectors.
Rectangular components: when a vector is resolved along mutually perpendicular directions then
the components are called rectangular components of the given vector.

Resolution of a vector in a plane (or) rectangular components of a vector in a plane:

⃗⃗⃗
A is a vector in X-Y plane. Let the vector ⃗A is to be
resolved along X and Y axes. Taking the initial point
of ⃗A as the origin O, draw two axes OX and OY
perpendicular to each other. From P draw PM
perpendicular to OX and PN perpendicular OY.
Then according to parallelogram law of vector
addition,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = OM
OP ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ON
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
  
A  A x  A y ---------(1)
   
Where A x is the horizontal or X-component of A and A y is the vertical or Y-component of A .
Let î and ˆj be the unit vectors along X and Y axes respectively and A x and Ay be the magnitudes of
   
A x and A y respectively. Then A x  A x î and A y  A y î

 A = Ax𝑖̂+ Ay𝑗̂-----------(2)

Vector A makes an angle  with X-axis. In ∆OPM, Ax = A cos and Ay = A sin

Then, the vector A can be resolved into its rectangular components as below.

A  A x î  A y ĵ

A  A cos î  (A sin ) ĵ
Conversely, if Ax and Ay are given, we can find A and  as follows


A2x  A2y  A2 cos 2   sin 2   A2 
Ay
A= A x  A y AND tanθ = 𝐴
2 2
x

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RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR IN SPACE (OR) RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR IN THREE
DIMENSIONS:

Let the vector A is represented by OP as shown
in figure. Taking O as origin, construct a
rectangular parallelepiped with its three edges
along the three rectangular axes i.e., X Y and Z

axes. Then A represents the diagonal of the
parallelepiped whose intercepts along X, Y and Z
  
axes are A x , A y and A z respectively. Thus
  
A x , A y and A z are the three rectangular

components of A .
   
A  Ax  Ay  Az

A  A x î  A y ĵ  A z k̂

If ,  and  are the angles between A and X, Y and Z axes respectively, then
Ax = Acos, Ay = Acos, Az = Acos 

 A  A cos  î  A cos  ĵ  A cos  k̂

Magnitude of A :
OP2 = OT2 + TP2 = OQ2 + QT2 +TP2
A2 = A2x  A2y  A2z

A  A 2x  A 2y  A 2z

Multiplication of vector by a real number:

 
When a vector A is multiplied by a real number , it results in another vector  A .
  
The magnitude of  A . If  is positive, then the direction of  A is same as that of A . If  is
 
negative, then the direction of  A is opposite to that of A .

(a) Multiplication of A by   2

(b) Multiplacation of A by   2

Multiplication of vector by scalar:


(i)If  is a pure number having no units or dimensions, then the unit of  A are the same as that of

A
 
(ii)When a vector A is multiplied by a scalar  which has certain units, the units of resultant  A are

obtained by multiplying the units of A by the units of .
Ex: momentum = mass x velocity
Units of momentum = (unit of mass) (unit of velocity)= kg ms-1.

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Product of two vectors:
There are two ways in which a vector can be multiplied by another vector.
(i) One way produces a scalar and is known as scalar product.
(ii) Another way produces a new vector and is known as vector product.

Analytical method of vector addition:


⃗ and B
Let A ⃗ be two vectors in x-y plane such that A = Ax 𝑖̂+ Ay 𝑗̂and B
⃗ = Bx 𝑖̂+ By 𝑗̂
  
We have R = A  B

⃗ = Bx 𝑖̂+ By 𝑗̂)
R = (Ax 𝑖̂+ Ay 𝑗̂) + (B

R = (Ax + Bx) 𝑖̂ + (Ay + By)𝑗̂

R = Rx𝑖̂+ Ry𝑗̂where, Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By

Ex: If ⃗A= 8𝑖̂+ 6𝑗̂and ⃗B= 2𝑖̂+ 3𝑗̂ then R = 10𝑖̂+ 9𝑗̂
Ry
R = √R2𝑥 + R2y = √181 and tanθ = = 0.9 or θ = 420
Rx

Motion in a plane: A particle moving in x-y plane.

Position vector: It is a vector drawn from the origin of coordinate system to the position of the
particle. The position vector 𝑟 of a particle P located in a plane at time t with reference to the origin
of an x-y plane is given by,
⃗ = x𝑖̂ + yĵ
𝒓
where, x and y are the components of 𝑟 along x and y-axes
respectively.

Displacement vector:
The displacement vector of a moving particle in a given interval of
time is the difference between two positions vectors.
Suppose a particle moves along the curve as shown in the figure. Let
the particle is at P at time t and P' at the time t'. Then the
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗
displacement is ∆𝑟 𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and is directed from P and Q.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (x2𝑖̂ + y2𝑗̂) - (x1𝑖̂ + y1𝑗̂)

∆𝑟
r  xî  yĵ
Where, x = x2 – x1 and y = y2 – y1
Average velocity:
The average velocity of the particle is the ratio of total displacement and corresponding time
interval.
 r xî  yĵ  x   y 
Vav    î    ĵ
t t  t   t 

Vav  Vx î  Vy ĵ

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 x x
Where, Vx  and Vy 
t t
The direction of average velocity is the same as that of ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝒓
Instantaneous velocity:

The instantaneous velocity ( V ) is the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches to zero.
 
 r dr
V  lim 
t 0 t dt
=
d
dt

x î  yĵ =
dx
dt

î 
dy
dt
ĵ

V = Vx î  Vy ĵ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Where, Vx = and Vy = are the instantaneous velocities along x and y components.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The direction of instantaneous velocity at any point on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of motion.
The magnitude and direction of instantaneous velocity at any point are given by
Vy
V  Vx2  Vy2 and tan  
Vx

𝑎𝑎𝑣 of an object for a time interval t moving in x-y plane is

Acceleration: The average acceleration ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the change in velocity to corresponding time interval.

a av  
ˆ ˆ
r  Vx i  Vx j 

Vx ˆ Vy ˆ
i j

t t t t

a av  a x î  a y ĵ
Vx Vy
Where a x  and a y  .
t t
The direction of average acceleration is same as that of average velocity and is determined by
triangle law of vector addition.
Instantaneous acceleration:
The instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of the average acceleration as the time interval
approaches to zero

a  lim
V


 lim
 
Vx î  Vy ĵ
t 0 t t 0 t

 Vx   Vy  dVx dV
a  î lim   ĵ lim   î  ĵ y
 t0 t   t0 t  t t

a  a x î  a y ĵ
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣𝑦
Where, ax = 𝑑𝑡𝑥 and ay = 𝑑𝑡
Direction of instantaneous acceleration:
Thus, for motion in two- or three-dimensions velocity and acceleration vectors may have any angle
between 0 and 180o between them.

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Equation of motion in a plane with constant acceleration:

Suppose an object is moving in X-Y plane and its acceleration a is constant. Now let the velocity of
  
the object be Vo at time t = 0 and V at time t. Then the velocity V is given by,
  
V = Vo  a t -------------1(a)
In terms of components,
Vx  Vox  a x t
-----------1(b)
Vy  Voy  a y t
 
Let r0 and r are the position vectors at t = 0 and t = t respectively. Then the displacement is given
by
   1 2
Let r  ro  Vo t  at
2
   1
r  ro  Vo t  a t 2 ----2(a)
2
In terms of components,

1
x  x 0  v ox t  a x t 2
2
-----2(b)
1
y  y 0  v oy t  a y t 2

From the above equations, it is clear that the motion in x and y directions can be treated
independently of each other. Thus, motion in a plane (two dimensions) can be treated as two
separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with constant acceleration along two
perpendicular directions.

Projectile motion:
Projectile: A particle which is thrown into the space with some initial velocity, moves thereafter
under the influence of gravity alone is called a projectile.
Trajectory: The path traced by a projectile is called its trajectory.
The velocity with which the particle is projected is called velocity of projection.
Example: A javelin thrown by an athlete, A football kicked by a player, A cricket ball hit by a
batsman, A bullet fired from a gun, An object dropped from an aeroplane, A stone thrown
horizontally from the top of a building etc.
Trajectory of a projectile when it is fired at angle  with the horizontal:

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 Consider a body projected with initial velocity v0, making an angle  with the horizontal. The
velocity v0 has two rectangular components.
(i) The horizontal component vox = vocos, which remains constant throughout the motion.
(ii) The vertical component voy = vosin which changes with time under the effect of gravity. This
component first decreases, becomes zero at the highest point A after which it again increases,
till it hits the ground.
Under the combined effect of the above two components, the projectile follows the parabolic path
OAB as shown in the figure.

Expression for trajectory of a projectile:

Let the projectile reaches the point P(x, y) after time t. The horizontal distance (x) covered by the
body in time t is given by
x = (horizontal velocity) x (time) = (v0cos)t
x
t= ---------- (1)
v 0 cos 
For vertical motion which is accelerated motion,
1
S = v oy t  a yt2
2
Here, s = y, Voy= v0sin and a =  g
1 2
y = (v0sin)t  gt
2
2
 x  1  x 
y  v0 sin     g 
 v0 sin   2  v 0 sin  
x 1 𝑔
y = v0sin( ) - ( 2 2 )x2
v 0 cos  2 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

1 𝑔
y = (tan)x - ( )x2--------(2)
2 𝑣02𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

Since g,  and v0 are constant, the above equation is of the form y = ax + bx2 in which a and b
are constant. This is the equation of a parabola i.e., the path of the projectile is a parabola.
Time of maximum height(tm):
Let tm be the time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum height H.
v = v0 + at
Along vertical,
vy = v0y+ayt
At highest point vy = 0, ay= -g, t = tm,
0=(v0sin) – gtm
v 0 sin 
tm =
g
Time of flight (Tf): It is the time taken by the projectile to complete its trajectory from the instant it
is projected.
 Net vertical displacement covered during time of flight = 0
1
y  voy t  ay t 2
2
When t = Tf, y = 0 and a =  g
0 = Voy Tf 
1
 g Tf2
2
gT 2
= v o sin Tf  f
2
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 gTf2
= v o sin  Tf
2

2v 0 sin 
 Tf 
g
 v o sin  
Tf = 2tm  Tm  
 g 
This is expected because the time of ascent is equal to the time of descent for the symmetric
parabolic path.

Maximum height of a projectile (H):

It is the maximum vertical distance reached by the projectile
during its flight.
At the highest point A, vertical component of velocity is zero.
for vertical motion, v2y  voy
2
 2ay
2
0 – voy  2(g)H
At A, Voy = Vo2sin2θ,

 v o sin   2gH
2

vo2 sin 2 
H
2g

Horizontal range (R):

It is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile during its time of flight.
(horizontal range) = (horizontal velocity) x (time of flight)
R = v o cos Tf
 2v sin  
 v o cos   o 
 g 
2
= o 2 sin cos 
v
g

vo2 sin 2
R
g
Note:
(i) For a given velocity of a projectile, the projectile has the same horizontal range for the
two angles of projection,  and (90 –).
Ex: R is same for  = 15o and (90 - 15o) = 75o.

(ii) For a given velocity of projection, the range of the projectile is maximum when it is
Vo2
projected at an angle of 45o with the horizontal i.e., when  = 45o, R = Rmax = .
g
(iii) For a given velocity of projectile, the height is maximum when it is projected vertically
Vo2
i.e., when  = 90o, H = Hmax = .
2g

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 (iv) When the angle of projection is (90 o – ) with the horizontal, the angle of projection
with the vertical is . This indicates that horizontal range is same whether  is angle of
projection with the horizontal or with the vertical.

(v) Velocity of projectile at any instant: Let V be the velocity of projectile at any point. This
velocity has two rectangular components.
Vx = vocos and Vy = vosin - gt (using v = u+at).
The resultant velocity is given by V= Vx2  VY2
Vy
If ‘’ is the angle made by v with respect horizontal, then tan =
Vx
(vi) Velocity of a projectile at end point: At the end of flight, it can be easily shown that
V  Vx2  Vy2  Vo
And, tan = tan (-)
i.e.,  = -
Where,  is the angle made by V with horizontal. The negative sign shows that the projectile is
moving downwards. Thus, in projectile motion, a body returns to the ground at the same angle and
with the same speed at which it was projected.

Uniform circular motion:

Uniform circular motion: when a body moves along a circular path with constant speed, then its
motion is said to be uniform circular motion.
Terms related to circular motion:
Radius vector: When a particle moves along a circular path, the line joining the particle to the axis of
rotation is called radius vector.
Angular displacement (): The angle swept by the radius vector in a given time when a particle
moves along a circular path is called angular displacement.
It is denoted by  and the unit is radians (rad).
Angular velocity (): The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.
It is denoted by  and the unit is rads-1
If  is the angular displacement of a particle in time t, then the average angular velocity is given
by

av 
t
The instantaneous angular velocity is the limiting value of average velocity when t0
 d
   lim 
t  0 t dt
Angular acceleration (): The rate of change of angular velocity of a particle moving along a circular
path is called angular acceleration. It is denoted by  and the unit is rads-2. If  is the change in
angular velocity in time t, then the average angular acceleration is

 av 
t
The instantaneous angular acceleration is the limiting value of average acceleration when t0.
 d
   lim 
t  0 t dt
Period of revolution/ time period (T): The time taken by the particle to complete one revolution
along the circular path is called time period. It is denoted by T and the unit is second.
Frequency(f): The frequency of a particle in circular motion is defined as the number of revolutions
completed per second.

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It is denoted by f and the unit is hertz. The relation between time period and frequency is given by
1 1
f  or T=
f f
Relation between , f and T:
By definition of time period, a particle completes one revolution in time T. ie., it traverses an
angle of 2 radians in time T.
 When t = T,  = 2 radian
angular displaceme nt
 Angular velocity =
time
2
  2f
T
Relation between linear and angular quantities:
 V= r ω i.e., Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius.
 a = r α i.e., linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius.

Centripetal acceleration: When a particle is having uniform circular motion, the acceleration of the
particle, acting along the radius towards the centre of the circular path is called centripetal
acceleration.

Expression for centripetal acceleration.

Consider a particle moving on a circular path of radius r and centre O, with a constant speed v as
shown in figure. Suppose at time t, the particle is at O and at time (t + t), the particle is at Q. Let
 
v1 and v 2 be the velocity vectors at P and Q directed along the tangents at P and Q respectively.

The direction of change and magnitude of velocity  v is obtained by constructing a triangle
 
ABC external to the circular path such that AB and AC represent v1 and v 2 both in magnitude
and direction.
Direction of v : Applying triangular law of vector addition to ABC
v1  v  v 2
v  v 2  v1
From the above equation, it is clear that the direction of change in velocity is always towards the
   
centre of the circular path. As the path is circular v1 and v 2 are perpendicular to r and hence  v

is perpendicular to  r .
From the above, it is clear that the change in velocity acts along the radius and towards the centre of
the circular path. The time rate of this change in velocity is called centripetal acceleration.

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Magnitude of centripetal acceleration:
If t is small, the chord PQ becomes equal to arc PQ. Let  be angle between the two radii
 
at P and Q. As the velocity v1 and v 2 are always perpendicular to the radius, the angle between
them is also . Therefore, the triangle OPQ formed by position vectors and the triangle ABC formed
  
by the velocity vectors v1 , v 2 and  v are similar.

OPQ  ABC
PQ BC
 
OP AB
r v

r v
v  r 
v
r
Dividing both sides by t,
v v r

t r t
Taking the limit t0 on both sides,
v v r
lim  lim
t  0 t r  t  0 t
dv v dr

dt r dt

v
Centripetal acceleration = .v
r

v2
ac 
r
v
As 
r
2
v2 r  v 
ac  .   r
r r r

a c  2 r

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