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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street,
NW Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The workshop that is the subject of this workshop

summary was approved by the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.

This activity was supported by the University of Massachusetts

Amherst and Contract Nos. HHSN26300002 (National Institutes of
Health), HHSP233201200333P (Office of Disease Prevention and
Health Promotion), and 59-1235-2-114, CNPP_IOM_FY2013_01,
FS_NAS_IOM_FY2013_01, and AG-3A94-P-13-0074 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture) with the National Academy of Sciences.
Additional support came from Abbott Laboratories, The Coca-Cola
Company, ConAgra Foods, General Mills Inc., Kellogg Company, Kraft
Foods, Mars Inc., McDonald’s, Monsanto Company, Nestlé Nutrition,
PepsiCo, and Tate & Lyle. The views presented in this publication do
not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies
that provided support for the activity.

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-36683-0

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-36683-6
Epub ISBN: 0-309-36686-0

Additional copies of this workshop summary are available for sale

from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Keck 360,
Washington, DC 20001; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313;
http://www.nap.edu.

For more information about the Institute of Medicine, visit the IOM
home page at: www.iom.edu.

Copyright 2015 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights

reserved.
Printed in the United States of America

The serpent has been a symbol of long life, healing, and knowledge
among almost all cultures and religions since the beginning of
recorded history. The serpent adopted as a logotype by the Institute
of Medicine is a relief carving from ancient Greece, now held by the
Staatliche Museen in Berlin.

Cover credit: Design by Casey Weeks.

Suggested citation: IOM (Institute of Medicine). 2015. Relationships

among the brain, the digestive system, and eating behavior:
Workshop summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies
Press.
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-

perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific
and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science
and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the
Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal
government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone
is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964,

under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel
organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its
administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the
federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also
sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs,
encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior
achievements of engineers. Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., is president of the
National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National

Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of
appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters
pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its
congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government
and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care,
research, and education. Dr. Victor J. Dzau is president of the
Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National
Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of
science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering
knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the
Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of
Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and
the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is
administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of
Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., are chair and
vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.

www.national-academies.org
 PLANNING COMMITTEE FOR A
WORKSHOP ON THE
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE
BRAIN AND EATING BEHAVIOR:
KNOWLEDGE GAPS AND POLICY
IMPLICATIONS1

ERIC DECKER (Chair), University of Massachusetts Amherst

FERGUS M. CLYDESDALE, University of Massachusetts Amherst
DANIELLE GREENBERG, PepsiCo, Purchase, New York
JOSEPH HERSKOVIC, Omaha, Nebraska
SOPHIE KERGOAT, Wrigley Company, Chicago, Illinois
CATHERINE KWIK-URIBE, Mars Inc., Germantown, Maryland
SYLVIA B. ROWE, SR Strategy, LLC, Washington, DC
PAMELA STARKE-REED, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville,
Maryland
MAHA TAHIRI, General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota

IOM Staff
HEATHER DEL VALLE COOK, Co-director
LESLIE J. SIM, Co-director
GERALDINE KENNEDO, Administrative Assistant

_____________
1 Institute of Medicine planning committees are solely responsible for organizing
the workshop, identifying topics, and choosing speakers. The responsibility for the
published workshop summary rests with the workshop rapporteur and the
institution.
 FOOD FORUM1

FRANK BUSTA (Chair), University of Minnesota, St. Paul

NELSON ALMEIDA, Kellogg Company, Battle Creek, Michigan
MARK ANDON, ConAgra Foods, Omaha, Nebraska
DAVID J. BAER, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
PAUL M. COATES, Office of Dietary Supplements, National
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
DAVID B. COCKRAM, Abbott Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio
ERIC A. DECKER, University of Massachusetts Amherst
CAROLINE SMITH DEWAAL, Center for Science in the Public
Interest, Washington, DC
SAMUEL GODEFROY, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
DAVID GOLDMAN, Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC
DANIEL A. GOLDSTEIN, Monsanto, St. Louis, Missouri
CINDY GOODY, McDonald’s Corporation, Oak Brook, Illinois
DANIELLE GREENBERG, PepsiCo, Purchase, New York
SONYA A. GRIER, American University, Washington, DC
BRENDA HALBROOK, Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Alexandria, Virginia
KATE J. HOUSTON, Cargill Incorporated, Washington, DC
VAN S. HUBBARD, Division of Nutrition Research Coordination,
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
LEE-ANN JAYKUS, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
GORDON L. JENSEN, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
HELEN JENSEN, Iowa State University, Ames
RENÉE JOHNSON, Library of Congress, Washington, DC
WENDY L. JOHNSON-ASKEW, Nestlé Nutrition, Florham Park,
New Jersey
MICHAEL M. LANDA, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition,
Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland
S. SUZANNE NIELSEN, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
ERIK D. OLSON, Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington,
DC
RICHARD OLSON, Office of Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Rockville, Maryland
LUCY REID, The Coca-Cola Company
CLAUDIA RIEDT, Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Plano, Texas
STEVEN W. RIZK, Mars Inc., Hackettstown, New Jersey
SARAH ROLLER, Kelley Drye & Warren LLP, Washington, DC
SHARON A. ROSS, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of
Health, Bethesda, Maryland
SYLVIA B. ROWE, SR Strategy, LLC, Washington, DC
KARI HECKER RYAN, Kraft Foods, Glenview, Illinois
PAMELA STARKE-REED, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville,
Maryland
ANGELA TAGTOW, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, U.S.
Department of Agriculture
MAHA TAHIRI, General Mills Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota
PATRICIA WILLIAMSON, Tate & Lyle, Hoffman Estates, Illinois

Forum Staff
HEATHER DEL VALLE COOK, Co-director
LESLIE J. SIM, Co-director
GERALDINE KENNEDO, Administrative Assistant
ANN YAKTINE, Director, Food and Nutrition Board

_____________
1 Institute of Medicine forums and roundtables do not issue, review, or approve
individual documents. The responsibility for the published workshop summary
rests with the workshop rapporteur and the institution.
 Reviewers

This workshop summary has been reviewed in draft form by

individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical
expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National
Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this
independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that
will assist the institution in making its published workshop summary
as sound as possible and to ensure that the workshop summary
meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and
responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft
manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the
process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review
of this workshop summary:

Miguel Alonso-Alonso, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

Joseph E. Herskovic, Sensory Insights Professional
Pamela Starke-Reed, U.S. Department of Agriculture
Patricia Williamson, Tate & Lyle

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive

comments and suggestions, they did not see the final draft of this
workshop summary before its release. The review of this workshop
summary was overseen by Caswell A. Evans, Jr. Appointed by the
Institute of Medicine, he was responsible for making certain that an
independent examination of this workshop summary was carried out
in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review
comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final
content of this workshop summary rests entirely with the rapporteur
and the institution.
 Contents

1 INTRODUCTION

2 INTERACTION BETWEEN THE BRAIN AND THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
Overview of Interactions Between the Brain and the Digestive
System
How Taste Receptors in the Gut Influence Eating Behavior
Gastrointestinal Peptides, Vagal Afferent Synapses, and Neural
Mechanisms of Satiation
Contextual Influences on Eating Behavior
Discussion with the Audience

3 ASSESSING THE SCIENCE BEHIND METHODOLOGIES BEING USED

TO CHARACTERIZE FOOD AS ADDICTIVE
A Brief History of Food Intake Research
What Imaging Technologies Reveal About Food Behaviors:
Perspective 1
What Imaging Technologies Reveal About Food Behaviors:
Perspective 2
Assessing the Validity of Questionnaires for Food Behaviors and
Addiction
DSM-5: Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
Discussion with the Audience
4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS: IS THE ADDICTION MODEL FOR DRUGS
AND ALCOHOL APPROPRIATE FOR FOOD?
The Addiction Model Is Appropriate for Use with Food
The Addiction Model Is Not Appropriate for Use with Food
Discussion with the Audience

5 INTEGRATING THE EVIDENCE

Food Reward, Appetite, Satiety, and Obesity
Concluding Discussion with the Audience

REFERENCES

APPENDIXES

A Abbreviations and Acronyms

B Workshop Agenda
C Speaker Biographical Sketches
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Especial care is necessary to avoid using common steel wires, or
strands which have a frayed or broken wire, or wire that has been
kinked and then straightened or wire that has been locally heated or
wire that has been bruised. All these factors weaken steel rope much
more than is supposed ordinarily.
Wire Fastening or Terminal Connections.—Wire terminals are
of four classes:
1. Ferrule and dip in solder, then bend back the end. With or
without thimble; used on single wires or on strand; 50 to 94 per
cent. as strong as the wire.
2. Thimble and End Splicing.—The splice must be long and
complete. Used on cable; 80 to 85 per cent. as strong as the strand;
breaks at last tuck in the splice.
3. Socket.—Nearly 100 per cent. strong.
4. End Wrap and Solder.—Simple and serviceable; not used for
hard wire.
Present practice is rather toward elimination of acid and solder,
imperfect bends, flattening of cable on bends, and toward care in
avoiding all injury as kinking to wire, strand and cord due to
unskillful handling of material in the field.
Other Metals.—Other metals as aluminum, brass, bronze,
copper, monel metal (copper and nickel) are used for certain airplane
fittings for the reasons of lightness, non-corrosive qualities, or ease
of bending, etc. The trouble with these metals is that they are not
uniform and reliable in strength and in an important part the great
strength combined with minimum weight given by steel is not
equalled by any of these metals. Aluminum is used on the engine
hood and also for control levers and for the backs of the seats. In
other words, for parts and castings which require light metal
construction, but which are under no particular stress. Tin and
copper are used for ferrules of wire joints and for tankage. Copper
or brass wire are used for safety wires. Special Tobin bronze is used
for turnbuckles as the part must not only be strong but free from
any tendency to rust. Monel metal (nickel 60 per cent., copper 35
per cent., iron 5 per cent.) is strong and has the special property of
being acid- and rust-resisting. It has been used for metal fittings and
even for wires and for the water jacket of the motor. Until more
strength tests show greater uniformity of strength, it is to be
recommended with caution.
In dealing with metals like steel, it should be remembered that
they are subject to crystallization and fatigue.
Repeated jarring may cause a bar of steel to break easily at a
particular point, when the metal is said to have crystallized there.
Fatigue of a metal may be defined as loss of springiness which
may come from repeated bending and which lessens the strength of
metal. Above all, however, corrosion of steel must be guarded
against.
The above points should be clear, as in airplane work you are
dealing with a structure which is safe with perfect materials and
workmanship. The factor of safety, however, is not great enough to
permit carelessness, or defective material.
Linen.—The almost universal wing covering is fine, unbleached
Irish linen, stretched rather loosely on the wing frames and then
treated with dope.
The linen used weighs 3¾ to 4¾ oz. per square yard, and should
have a strength with the length of the cloth or “warp” of at least 60
lb. per inch of width. The strength in this direction is slightly greater
than that taken crosswise of the cloth or on the filler or weft. There
is a gain of strength and tautness by varnishing or “doping.”
In general, it is desirable to have wing material which will not sag
easily and have the fabric yield rather than break. This often reduces
stress and saves complete failure.
Dope.—The linen must be coated with a more or less waterproof
dope. Some form of cellulose acetate or nitrate with more or less
softening material is used and to these some suitable solvent as
acetone is added.
The cellulose acetate or nitrate in the dope acts as a waterproof
sizing, shrinks the cloth tight, and prevents it from changing in
tightness due to moisture. Spar varnish protects this layer from
peeling and makes the wing more waterproof. In service, varnish or
dope must be applied every few weeks.
The U. S. Army practice calls for four coats of cellulose nitrate
dope followed by two coats of spar varnish to prevent inflammability.
Cellulose nitrate is more elastic and durable than the acetate but is
also more inflammable.
Commercial dopes with various desirable properties are: Cellon,
Novavia, Emaillite, Cavaro, Titanine, etc.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] But has very high elastic limit.

 CHAPTER VIII
ERECTING AIRPLANES
Airplanes shipped from the manufacturer or from another field
almost always suffer more or less from shipment or packing. Care
must be exercised in unpacking in order not to do any more
damage. Boxes should be placed with the part marked “Top”
uppermost. Cables and wires must be handled carefully in order not
to bend or twist them. Every bent or kinked wire or damaged
turnbuckle must be replaced, or at least brought to the attention of
an inspector.
The order of erection is as follows:
1. Assemble landing gear to fuselage and align landing gear
before putting on main panels.
2. Assemble tail.
3. Assemble engine section and align before attaching main
panels.
4. Assemble main panels.
1. Landing Gear Assembly to Fuselage.—The landing gear is
assembled by mounting the wheels on the axle, and bolting wheels
in place. The fuselage should now be elevated to receive the landing
gear. This may be accomplished in one of two ways—either by tackle
or by shims and blocking. For either method, first connect up the tail
skid. This is accomplished by pinning up the front end of the skid to
the spring-fitting, and then pinning in the other end to the tail-post
socket.
If block and tackle are used to raise the fuselage, pass a line
under the engine-bed supports or sills just to the rear of the radiator.
To this line attach hook of block. To avoid damaging or crushing
some part do not attach lifting device to any other point.
With the fuselage now resting on its attached tail skid, lift the front
end until the lower longeron clips clear the landing gear. When the
clips on the longerons line up with the clips on the ends of the struts
of the landing gear the bolts are passed down through the holes
thus aligned. This places the nuts on the down side of the
connection thus facilitating assemblies and inspection of
connections. The castellated nuts are then put on the bolts and
drawn up tight, until the drilled hole in the bolt is visible through the
castle of the nut. Then insert cotter-pin and spread the two leaves
backward over the nut. This locks the nut in place. When the landing
gear has been completely assembled to the fuselage, the tail of the
machine should be elevated and supported by a horse and blocking
until the upper longeron is level. This can be determined by placing
a spirit level on the upper longeron at the tail or on the two engine-
bed sills in machines where these sills are parallel to the top
longeron, as in Curtiss JN-4B.
2. Horizontal Stabilizer.—After the upper longeron is levelled
up, the horizontal stabilizer is assembled to the tail of the fuselage.
The horizontal stabilizer is fastened by means of bolts in the top
longeron and the tail post. The nuts are all drawn up tight and
cotter-pinned. The vertical stabilizer is next erected in place.
3. Vertical Stabilizer.—The vertical stabilizer is now fastened to
the horizontal stabilizer, first by means of the bolt which passes up
through the forward part of the horizontal stabilizer and then by
means of the flexible stay lines running from the top of the vertical
stabilizer. The forward bolt passes through the clip at the lower front
point of the vertical stabilizer. Draw the nuts up tight and lock with
cotter-pins. Flexible wire cables are attached to vertical stabilizer,
and turnbuckles are used to align and tighten cables. The vertical
stabilizer is further aided in its alignment by the bolt clip at its toe
and by the double clip at its heel. This rear double clip passes over
the two bolts which are attached to the tail post and which hold
down the horizontal stabilizer.
 4. Rudder.—The control braces are first attached to the rudder.
These braces are so placed that the upper tips point toward the
hinge line. In this fashion the holes will match up. The rudder is
mounted on the tail post and vertical stabilizer by means of the
hinges. The hinge pins are inserted in the hinges, and cotter-pins
passed through the drilled holes in the bottom of the pins. The
cotter-pins should be spread backward as usual.
5. Elevators or Flaps.—These are first equipped with the control
braces which are also arranged so that the upper tips point toward
the hinge line. The elevators are mounted to the horizontal stabilizer
by means of the hinges and hinge pins. The hinge pins are kept in
their bearings by the cotter-pins, inserted through the drilled holes in
the bottom of the hinge pins.
6. Panel Assembly.—The panels are now to be assembled.
Before the main panels can be connected to the fuselage, the engine
section panel must be erected.
Engine Section Panel.—The engine section struts are first set into
place in their sockets on the engine section. Then the whole thing is
lifted up to place and the four struts are set into their sockets on the
upper longeron. The bracing wires are attached and the engine
section aligned by means of them (see alignment).
7. Main Panels.—The main panels are now to be assembled to
the machine. There are two methods for accomplishing this: first,
assemble panels, struts and wires, before attaching to fuselage;
second, assemble the upper plane to the engine section, and
complete assembly. The first method is the most advantageous,
since it permits the setting of the main panels at the correct stagger
and dihedral, and does not require as much adjustment as the
second method, which will be omitted.
Assembling Panels Together Before Fastening Them to
Fuselage.—All the main struts will be found to bear a number.
These numbers run from 1 to 8, on Curtiss JN-4. The numbers on
the Standard run from 1 to 12 including the center section struts.
The method used in numbering the posts is as follows: Starting at
post No. 1, with the outer post, on the left-hand side of the pilot, as
he faces his direction of travel, the posts are numbered successively
from No. 1 to No. 4; Nos. 1 and 2 being on the left side and Nos. 3
and 4 being on the right side. The rear posts are similarly numbered
from No. 5 to No. 8, Nos. 5 and 6 being on the left and Nos. 7 and 8
being on the right. This system of numbering does not include the
engine section struts. The plan shows the system graphically (see
Fig. 39).
The system of marking also insures that the struts are not
inverted in their sockets. This is accomplished by painting the
number on the strut, so that when viewed from the pilot’s seat, all
numbers can be read, i.e., the numbers are painted on that side of
the strut intended to face the fuselage. If a strut is inverted by
mistake, it can thus be quickly detected. The procedure of
assembling panels is as follows:
1. The upper left-wing panel is first equipped with mast, by
inserting the mast into its socket on the upper surface of the wing.
The mast wire is then connected up to the clips to the right and left
of the mast. Adjust the tension in this wire, by means of
turnbuckles, until the spar becomes straight.
2. Stand the upper left-wing panel and lower left-wing panel on
their “leading” or “entering” edges, properly supporting the panels in
cushioned blocks to prevent damage to the nose. Space the panels
apart, at a distance approximately equal to the length of the struts.
3. Next connect up the diagonal cross wires. These must be
loosely connected up, to permit the easy entering of the posts into
the sockets. The wires are connected before the posts or struts are
set in place, since with the latter in place, the connecting of the
wires to the lugs of the sockets is accomplished only with difficulty.
After these wires are thus connected, insert the posts and bolts into
place.
 4. Connect up closely the “landing” (single) wires, and “flying”
(double) wires of the outer bay to hold the wings together as a unit.
The outer bay is thus completely wired, though but loosely.
5. The posts that are used for this left side are, according to the
diagram, No. 1, No. 2, No. 5, No. 6. No. 1 is the outer front; No. 2 is
the inner front; No. 5 is the outer rear; No. 6 the inner rear.
6. The wings, as above assembled, are now erected to the
fuselage. Extreme care should be exercised in transferring the wings
to the fuselage, not to strain or break them. In carrying the wings,
use wooden boards placed under the wings, and block up under the
wing beams (which can be easily located), so that these take the
strain of the load. Do not attempt handling assembled wings, using
the posts as carriers; or by attachments to the trailing or leading
edges. The wings should be suitably supported temporarily by
suitable sling at the outer upper post point (not beyond this point) or
by a horse, properly blocked under lower wing at outer lower post
point (not beyond this point) during fitting of wing to machine. The
wings will have the approximate stagger if assembled as above,
since the posts are in place, and the tension cross wires are adjusted
to almost correct length when shipped. Insert the hinge pins through
the hinges as now coupled up, lower hinges first.
The machine is now ready for alignment, perhaps the most
important of the rigger’s duties.
Alignment of Airplanes.—The proper alignment of a machine
largely determines the flying qualities of that machine.
The alignment of the fuselage should be done at the factory or in
the repair shop. However, the alignment of the whole machine
depends upon the correctness of the fuselage. Directions for aligning
and checking fuselage are, therefore, given.
The order in which the different parts of a machine should be
aligned is as follows:
1. Alignment of landing gear.
2. Alignment of center section.
 3. Alignment of leading edge.
4. Getting both wings the same height.
5. Dihedral angle, if any.
6. Alignment of trailing edge (angle of incidence).
7. Stagger.
8. Droop.
9. Tightening and safetying all wires.
10. Length of struts, positions and fittings, warp in planes.
11. Alignment of ailerons.
12. Alignment of stabilizer.
13. Alignment of elevator flaps.
14. Alignment of rudder.
The tail of the machine should be raised until the fuselage is
nearly horizontal before starting the alignment.
1. Alignment of Landing Gear.—When a machine is being
assembled, it is easier to align the landing gear before the wings are
put on.
Take the weight off the landing gear by supporting the fuselage on
sawhorses.
The axle should be parallel with the lateral axis of the machine.
The center of the axle should be directly under the center of the
fuselage. This can be secured by either of two methods:
(a) By Measuring Cross Distances.—Loosen and tighten the cross
wires until the cross distances are exactly the same. Take all
measurements from similar points on the fittings to which the wires
are attached.
(b) With Level and Plumb Bob.—Level the fuselage crosswise.
Mark the exact center of the fuselage and drop a plumb bob. Mark
the exact center of the axle. Adjust the cross wires until the plumb
bob is over the center of the axle. Tighten the wires until fairly tight,
and safety them.
2. Alignment of the Center Section.—When assembling a
machine, the center section should be aligned before the wings are
put on.
 When a machine is already assembled, the first thing to do is to
loosen all wires except the landing wires. This is very important, for
if one wire is tightened against another wire, an unnecessary and
possibly a dangerous strain may be put upon some member. The
bracing wires connecting tops of center section struts should be tight
enough to hold the shape of the center section when bracing wires
are tightened up.

Fig. 38.—Center section and undercarriage alignment.

(a) Machines Having No Stagger.—In machines having no stagger,

the struts of the center section should be perpendicular to the
propeller axis. As the upper longerons are usually parallel to the
propeller axis, they may be used as a base line.
Align one side of the center section first, then the other side, and
lastly the front.
From a point at the lower end of one of the front center section
struts (the center of a bolt head for example), measure forward on
the longeron a certain distance. From the same point (center of bolt
head) measure back on the longeron exactly the same distance.
Move the upper end of the strut forward or backward by loosening
one of the bracing wires and tightening the other, until the distance
from the two points on the longerons to some point on the center
line at the top of the strut (center of bolt head) are exactly the
same. The strut will then be perpendicular to the propeller axis.
Tighten both wires evenly until fairly tight. Measure the cross
distances (the diagonal distances between similar points at the
upper and lower ends of the front and rear struts), and align the
other side of the center section until its cross distances are the same
as those on the opposite side.
Align the front of the center section by loosening one cross wire
and tightening the other, until one cross distance is exactly the same
as the other cross distance.
(b) Machines Having Stagger.—In machines having stagger, the
shape and position of the center section strut fittings usually
determines the amount of stagger the machine was designed to
have (Fig. 38-a). The JN-4 has 10⅝-in. stagger, i.e., a plumb line
dropped from the leading edge of upper panel should be 10⅝-in.
from leading edge of lower panel.
Adjust the wires on one side of the center section until the struts
and that side are in their correct positions as shown by the shape of
the fittings. Tighten the wires, measure the cross distances, and
adjust the wires on the other side of the center section until the
cross distances are exactly similar to the first set.
A more accurate method is to drop a plumb line from the leading
edge of the center section and adjust until the line is at the correct
distance ahead of the point on the fuselage where the leading edge
of the lower wing meets it. This point may be determined by
measuring the distance from the inside of the front hinge to the
leading edge of the lower wing and then laying off this distance on
the body from the front of the hinge on the lower longeron. Better
still, if the hinges are at the same distance from the leading edge on
both top and bottom wings, the plumb line may be dropped from the
front side of the hinge on the center section and the stagger
measured back to the hinge on the lower longeron (Fig. 38-b). This
has the advantage of setting the plumb line out far enough to clear
the fuselage. Also the measurements are easily made.
Next, adjust the two front wires until one cross distance is exactly
the same as the other cross distance (Fig. 38-c).
3. Alignment of Leading Edge.—(a) Upper Plane.—The leading
edges of the upper and lower planes of one wing should next be
made perfectly straight. By standing on a step ladder, placed 15 to
20 ft. to one side, and sighting along the leading edge of the upper
plane, any bow or warp can be easily seen. This should be
straightened out by loosening or tightening the front landing wires.
The edge should be brought in exact line with the leading edge of
the center section.
(b) Lower Plane.—After the leading edge of the upper plane has
been made straight, sight along the leading edge of the lower plane.
If there is no warp in the plane, this edge should also be straight.
(c) Align the opposite wing in the same manner.
4. Getting Both Wings the Same Height.—Place a small tack
exactly in the middle of the leading edge of the center panel.
Measure from this tack to similar points at the lower ends of the
intermediate and outer struts (Fig. 39). Make these distances the
same on each side by raising or lowering one wing or the other, or
by raising one wing and lowering the other wing, all the while
keeping the leading edges of both wings perfectly straight.
5. Dihedral.—The method of setting the wings of a machine at a
dihedral angle is as follows:
Place two tacks in the leading edge of the upper plane, one tack
near the tip of each wing and exactly the same distance out from
the tack in the center section. Stretch a string tightly between the
two outer tacks, until there is no sag in the string.
A dihedral angle of 178° means that each wing has been raised
1°. To set the wings of a machine at a dihedral angle of 178° for
example:
(a) Find the natural sine of 1° (0.0175).
(b) Multiply this by the distance in inches between the center tack
and one of the outer tacks. The result will give the rise, in inches, of
the string over the tack in the center section.
Raise the wings equally, keeping the leading edges perfectly
straight, until the proper rise shows over the center section.
 Fig. 39.—Alignment diagrams.

6. Alignment of Trailing Edge (Angle of Incidence).—(a)

Lower Plane.—The trailing edge should be brought parallel to the
leading edge. This can be done by bringing the rear spar in line with
the leading edge.
Stand squarely in front of the center of the machine 15 to 20 ft.
away. Sight under the leading edge of the lower plane; move
forward or backward until the fittings under the rear spar are just
visible. Raise or lower the trailing edge by loosening or tightening
the rear landing wires, until all of the fittings on the rear spar appear
equally under the leading edge.
 (b) Upper Plane.—After aligning the trailing edge of the lower
plane, place a ladder in front of the center of the machine, and sight
under the leading edge of the upper plane. If there is no warp in this
plane, the trailing edge should align with the leading edge.
The objection to this method is that since there are no fittings
next the body on the rear spar, there is room for considerable error
in the angle of incidence.
Reversing the process and finding the angle of incidence at each
set of struts secures the alignment of the trailing edge and removes
the liability to error. To set wings at correct angle of incidence
proceed as follows (Fig. 39): Place the airplane in rigging position,
i.e., level up the top longeron or engine bearers. Set the corner of
the straight-edge against the center of the rear spar, level up the
straight-edge, and measure from the top of the straight-edge to the
center of the front spar or to the lowest point of the leading edge.
This must be done next the body and under each set of struts. (It is
useless to make such a measurement between the struts because of
possible warping of the wings.) Unless the wings have a washout or
washin the measurements must agree, thus making the angle of
incidence the same all along the wing. Then the trailing edge must
necessarily be parallel to the leading edge.
7. Stagger.—The stagger should be the same all along the wing
as it is for the center section. With the machine in rigging position
drop a plumb line from the leading edge of the upper wing in front
of each set of struts. The distance from the plumb line to the lower
edge should equal the stagger. If there is too much, tighten the
diagonal wire running from the lower rear socket to the upper front
socket, being sure that the other diagonal wire is loosened
somewhat. For too little stagger tighten the latter and loosen the
former wire.
Check up the dihedral and alignment of the trailing edges to see if
these have been disturbed while setting the stagger. If not, the
droop may be put in.
 8. Droop.—To correct for the torque of the propeller, one wing of
a machine is slightly drooped.
In single-motored tractor types, if the propeller turns to the right,
when looking from the rear, the left wing is drooped, and vice versa.
The outer rear landing wire of the wing to be drooped should be
loosened until the trailing edge, between the outer and intermediate
struts, appears to be about an inch (for machines of not more than
100 hp.) lower than the rest of the trailing edge. The practice with
the Curtiss JN-4B is to loosen the inner rear landing wire on the left
wing ¼ in. and loosen the outer rear landing wire ½ in. after the
angle of incidence and stagger have been adjusted so that
corresponding wires on the right and left wings are the same length.
9. Tightening and Safetying All Wires.—(a) After the wing is
drooped, all flying wires should be tightened to the same tension,
and just taut enough to take out all sag.
(b) Next tighten all drift or cross wires between the front and rear
struts to the same tension.
(c) Drift wires from the wings to the fuselage, and from the wings
to the landing gear, if any, should be tightened last.
(d) Safety all turnbuckles. A wire too loose will vibrate when the
machine is in the air.
The flying and drift wires should be so tightened that when they
take the weight of the machine in the air, there will be no sag in the
landing wires.
10. Length of Struts, Positions of Fittings, Warp in Planes.
—The above instructions are given for machines that are true, that
is, machines having no bends, warps, or bows in the spars and
leading or trailing edges.
(a) Similar struts should be of the same length.
(b) Similar fittings occupying similar positions should be spaced
the same. If difficulties are encountered in getting the
measurements to tally, check up the lengths of the struts and the
positions of the fittings.
(c) If the planes of a machine are warped, the machine should be
so aligned that the warp is equally divided between both planes.
11. Alignment of Ailerons.—Before aligning ailerons, place the
shoulder yoke or wheel controlling the ailerons in the center of its
path of movement.
(a) Trailing-edge Ailerons.—Trailing-edge ailerons should be set ¾
inch lower than the trailing edge of the plane to which they are
attached.
(b) Interplane Ailerons.—Interplane ailerons should be set so that
they are both in the same plane, when in neutral position.
In machines having interplane ailerons, nose heaviness and tail
heaviness may be corrected by setting the trailing edges of the
ailerons up or down.
The proper amount to raise or lower the trailing edges can be
determined only by experimenting with each particular type of
machine.
(c) The control wires should be just tight enough to eliminate any
lost motion.
12. Alignment of Stabilizer.—Support the weight of the tail on
the tail skid.
The rear edge of the stabilizer should be perfectly straight, and
should be parallel with lateral axis of the machine.
Stand behind the center of the stabilizer, and align its rear edge on
the leading edge of the upper plane by sighting. Tighten wires and
safety turnbuckles.
13. Alignment of Elevator Flaps.—Set the elevator control in
its mid-position. Adjust the elevator control wires until the flaps are
in their neutral position and both are in the same plane. The wires
should be just tight enough to eliminate any lost motion. Safety
turnbuckles.
14. Alignment of Rudder.—Set the rudder control (wheel, foot
pedals, or foot bar) in its mid-position. Adjust the rudder control
wires until the rudder is in its neutral position. The control wires
should be just tight enough to eliminate any lost motion. Safety the
turnbuckles.
15. General.—All connections having been made, carefully go
over each shackle, pin, and turnbuckle, and see that all pins are
properly in place, all nuts on bolts tight and all cotter-pinned. Try out
all controls for action and freedom of movement. See that no brace
wires are slack, yet not so taut that when plucked they “sing.”
16. Overall Adjustments.—As a final check, the following
overall measurements should be taken (see Fig. 39).
The straight lines AC and BC should be equal to within ⅛ in. The
point C is the center of the propeller, or in the case of the pusher the
center of the nacelle. A and B are points on the main spar and must
be at the same distance from the butt of the spar. They must not be
merely the sockets of the outer struts as these may not be
accurately placed. AC and BC must be taken from both top and
bottom spars; two measurements on each side of the airplane.
Similarly FD and FE should be equal to within ⅛ in. F is the center
of the fuselage or rudder post. D and E are points marked on both
top and bottom rear spars just as A and B were marked on front
spars.
If these measurements are not correct, it is probably due to some
of the drift or antidrift wires being too tight or too slack. These must
then be located and corrected.

WING COVERING AND PATCHING

The wings are covered with best quality Irish linen which must
have a tensile strength of at least 50 lb. per inch width, undoped,
and 70 lb. when doped.
The linen strips are sewed together on a sewing machine in such a
way that when folded together they form a sort of bag which just
slips over the wing frame. The seams then run diagonally across the
wing. The bag is stretched up loosely and tacked temporarily along
the leading edge. The edges are folded under a little and sewed
together along the leading edge of the wing and the temporary tacks
are removed. To hold the covering up to the ribs, thread is looped
through from one side of the panel to the other around the ribs. The
rough surfaces made by the thread along the ribs and the edges are
covered over with strips of linen pasted on with dope. To make a
smooth job, the edges of these strips are frayed out ⅛ in.
Three or more coats of dope are applied and rubbed down after
each coating is dry. This is then covered over with one or two coats
of varnish to make it more weatherproof and smooth. Varnish also
prevents the dope from peeling off.
Dope shrinks the linen and makes it fit up tight to the framework.
Breaks in the fabric are patched by first removing the dope around
the break with dope remover and then sticking on a patch with
dope. This is applied with a rag instead of a brush in order to
prevent the patch from becoming white. Ten to sixteen coats of
dope are then applied over the patch, each coat being allowed to dry
before the next is applied.
FAULTS IN FLIGHT, DUE TO IMPROPER ALIGNMENT AND HOW TO
CORRECT THEM

An airplane pilot may experience difficulty with the flying qualities

of his machine. Consequently he should know something about the
conditions which are responsible for the various kinds of
unsatisfactory flying qualities which are more or less characteristic of
airplanes.
In the chapter on “Principles of Flight” the reader has been made
acquainted with such terms as stability, instability, longitudinal
stability, etc. For the purposes of rigging, however, it will be well to
review these terms again.
Stability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural
tendency to return to its first and normal position. Example: a
weight suspended by a cord.
Instability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has a natural
tendency to move as far as possible away from its first position, with
no tendency to return. Example: a stick balanced vertically on your
finger.
Neutral stability is a condition whereby an object disturbed has no
tendency to move farther than displaced by the force of the
disturbance, and no tendency to return to its first position.
Now in order that an airplane may be reasonably controllable, it is
necessary for it to possess some degree of stability longitudinally,
laterally and indirectionally.
Longitudinal stability is its stability about an axis transverse to the
direction of normal horizontal flight, and without which it would pitch
and toss.
Lateral stability is its stability about its longitudinal axis, and
without which it would roll sideways.
Directional stability is its stability about its vertical axis, and
without which it would have no tendency to keep its course.
Whenever an airplane does not fly properly, aside from conditions
arising from engine or propeller trouble, either its longitudinal,
lateral, or directional stability is affected. When its longitudinal
stability is affected we call this condition longitudinal instability;
likewise, regarding lateral stability and directional stability, referring
to these conditions respectively as lateral and as directional
instability. The effect of alignment errors will be treated under the
foregoing respective heads.
Alignment Errors, Longitudinal.—
 1. The Stagger May Be Wrong.—The top surface or wing may have
drifted back a little owing to some of the wires, probably the
incidence wires, having elongated their loops or having pulled the
fittings into the wood. If the top surface is not staggered forward to
the correct amount, then consequently the whole of its lift is too far
back, and it will then have a tendency to lift up the tail of the
machine too much. The airplane will then be said to be nose-heavy.
A ¼-in. error in the stagger will make a very considerable difference
in the longitudinal stability.
2. The Angle at Which the Main Surfaces Are Set Relative to the
Fuselage May Be Wrong.—This will have a bad effect especially in
the case of an airplane with a lifting tail plane or horizontal stabilizer.
If the angle of incidence is too great, the machine will have a
tendency to fly “tail-high.” If the angle is too small the airplane may
have a tendency to fly “tail-down.”
3. The Fuselage May Have Become Warped Upward or Downward.
—This would give the tail plane or horizontal stabilizer an incorrect
angle of incidence. If it has too much angle, it will lift too much, and
the airplane will be “nose-heavy.” If it has too little angle, it will not
lift enough and the airplane will be “tail-heavy.”
4. The Tail Plane May Be Mounted upon the Fuselage at a Wrong
Angle of Incidence.—If this condition exists, it must be corrected by
making a change at the fittings. If nose-heavy, the tail plane should
be given a smaller angle of incidence. If tail-heavy, it should be
given a greater angle of incidence; but care should be taken not to
give it too great an angle, because the longitudinal stability entirely
depends upon the tail plane being set at a smaller angle of incidence
than is the main surface, and if that difference is decreased too
much, the airplane will become uncontrollable longitudinally.
Sometimes the tail plane is mounted on the airplane at the same
angle as the main surface, but it actually engages the air at a lesser
angle, owing to the air being deflected downward by the main
surfaces.
 Alignment Errors, Lateral.—The machine manifests a tendency
to fly one wing down. The reason for such a condition is a difference
in the lifts of the right and left wings, assuming the motor torque is
already taken care of by washout. That may be caused as follows:
1. The Angle of Incidence of One Wing May Be Wrong.—If it is too
great, it will produce more lift than on the other side of the airplane;
and if too small, it will produce less lift than on the other side—with
the result, in either case, the airplane will try to fly one wing down.
2. Distorted Surfaces.—If some part of the surface is distorted, the
lift will not be the same on both sides of the airplane, which, of
course, will again cause it to fly one wing down.
3. The Ailerons May Be Set Slightly Wrong.—This may be due to
one control cable being longer than the other, or one of the aileron
horns being bent or twisted. This condition can easily be detected by
setting the aileron control—in neutral and checking up the position
of the ailerons.
Alignment Errors, Directional.—If there is more resistance on
one side of the airplane than on the other the airplane will, of
course, tend to turn to the side having the most resistance. This may
be caused by the following conditions:
1. The Angle of Incidence of the Right and Left Surfaces May Be
Unequal.—The greater the angle of incidence, the greater the
resistance. The less the angle, the less the resistance.
2. If the Alignment of the Fuselage, Vertical Stabilizer, the Struts
or Stream-line Wires Is Not Absolutely Correct.—That is to say, if
they are turned a little to the right or left instead of being in line
with the direction of flight—then they will act as a rudder and cause
the airplane to turn off its course.
3. If Any Part of the Surface Is Disturbed It Will Cause the
Airplane to Turn off Its Course.—If, owing to the leading edge, spars,
or trailing edge becoming bent, curvature is spoiled, that will result
in changing the amount of resistance on one side of the airplane,
which will then develop a tendency to turn off its course.
 Additional Flight Defects.—In addition to the foregoing the
following conditions may also exist which cause trouble when flying
as well as when landing:
Airplane Climbs Badly.—Such a condition, apart from engine or
propeller trouble, is probably due to excess resistance somewhere.
Flight Speed Poor.—This condition apart from engine or propeller
trouble, is probably due to (1) distorted surfaces, (2) wrong angle of
incidence, or (3) dirt or mud, resulting in excessive skin friction and
weight.
Inefficient Control.—This is probably due to (1) wrong setting of
the control surfaces, (2) distortion of control surfaces, or (3) control
cables being badly tensioned.
Will Not Taxi Straight.—If the airplane is uncontrollable on the
ground it is probably due to (1) alignment of the undercarriage
being wrong, (2) unequal tension of shock absorbers, (3) tires
unequally inflated, (4) axle bent, (5) tight wheel and axle, (6) loose
spokes causing wheel to wobble.
 CHAPTER IX
TRUING UP THE FUSELAGE
Before an airplane is assembled for the first time after leaving the
factory, and especially after it has made its first few “breaking-in”
flights, the fuselage or basic framework should be carefully
examined and checked up. This is done in order to determine
whether or not the fuselage became distorted from rough usage
during shipment (which is always likely) or from taking sets due to
the flying stresses to which it was subjected for the first time during
the “breaking-in” flights. It frequently happens that rough landings
and “stunt” flying cause distortions of the fuselage frame and other
parts of the airplane so that it is very necessary to make a careful
inspection immediately after to ascertain not only what twists, bows
and stretching of vital parts have resulted, but also to detect fittings,
wires, etc., which may have been pulled loose or broken. The
extreme importance of having your airplane adjusted correctly and
carefully, and to know that it is in the proper condition can not be
reiterated too often. And, since the fuselage is the foundation from
which, so to speak, the entire apparatus is built up, it is doubly
important that it should always be in correct adjustment.
When the fuselage is built in the factory it is placed on a long
table whose surface is perfectly horizontal and which has metal
strips inlaid. This table in reality is a big face plate especially
arranged, as described, for fuselage truing in the factory. The
fuselage, of course, has had none of its coverings applied when it is
placed on the table, nor are the accessories such as controls and
engine in place. On this table then the builders begin to do the
necessary adjusting and this is no simple or quick job. Working from
a perfectly smooth horizontal surface it is, of course, easy to detect
warpings, twists, etc., of the framework. These are first remedied by
tightening or loosening of cross wires, etc., as the case may be.
Then, when the fuselage is reasonably square and level, lengthwise
and crosswise, as determined by the eye, check measurements are
taken by rule, trams and level and final adjustments made to bring
the various parts in final proper relation to one another. For instance,
the rudder post must be perfectly vertical, as determined by a plumb
line, when the engine bearers or the top longerons are level. The
various fittings such as those for horizontal and vertical stabilizers
and the engine sections and side panels must all conform accurately
to one another so that the airplane as a whole, when it is
assembled, will not contain any inherent defects such as tail planes
with slightly distorted angles of incidence, left main panels ahead of
right or over or under right main panels, fittings so located that an
initial strain must be imposed upon them by forcing them together,
etc.
After the fuselage has been lined up in the factory as described
briefly above, it is permitted to set for a week or so and then it is
checked up again and such additional slight corrections made which
would be necessitated by the sets which had occurred. The
additional fittings required are then applied and the fuselage finally
covered and sent away to have the engine and instruments applied.
When checking and truing a fuselage on the flying field after the
airplane has been assembled and flown the process is not quite so
simple as when the fuselage is checked up and trued in the factory,
largely owing to the lack of ideal factory facilities and also because
so many fittings, coverings, etc., are in the way which one must
always be cautious about removing. In general, the method of
procedure may be outlined as follows, but it must be obvious that
one can not in a series of written notes touch upon all the possible
queries and combinations of fuselage distortions which may occur
and the ways for detecting and correcting them. A certain amount of
experience in the field accompanied with some fixed habits of
inspection, and everlasting curiosity about the perfections of your
machine, and a willingness and readiness always to pitch in and help
correct the defects found, will soon develop in you the ability to
diagnose easily and quickly and remedy intelligently whatever
trouble you may run across.
For satisfactory fuselage checking and truing let us say in the field
shop, a certain minimum equipment of tools is necessary. This
equipment is:

At least two sawhorses about 3 to 4 ft. high for mounting the fuselage in flying
position.
Several wooden wedges (show taper) for easy adjustment of fuselage for cross
and lengthwise level.
About 25 yd. of strong linen line for checking center lines.
2 carpenter levels about 2 to 3 ft. long.
4 perfectly formed steel cubes about 1¼ to 1½ in. in size.
1 plumb bob.
1 small screw jack.
1 pair of wood clamps.
1 straight edge about 12 ft. long.
Several small Crescent adjustable wrenches.
Several pliers with wire-cutting attachment.
Pins for manipulating turnbuckles.
1 steel tape.
1 foot rule, 6 ft. long.
1 small brass hammer.
A small work bench equipped with a 3-in. or 4-in. vise.

The fuselage which is to be trued is mounted on the horse with

the wedges between the top horse rails and the lower longerons.
These horses or trestles should be so arranged that about three-
fourths of the fuselage toward the tail sticks out unsupported. In this
way it will take, as near as possible, its normal flying position. It is
always desirable, in fact quite necessary, especially when checking a
fuselage for the first time, to have the airplane’s specifications as
well as a detailed drawing of the fuselage and an assembly of the
airplane as a whole available. The reason for this, of course, is quite
obvious.
The engine bearers and the top longerons are the basic parts from
which the fuselage as a whole is lined up. Consequently the first
thing which is done, when inspecting the fuselage for alignment, is
to test the truth of these parts. This is done by sighting the top
longerons lengthwise to see if they are bowed downward, upward,
inward or outward. As near as possible the fuselage is made level on
the trestles. The steel blocks or cubes referred to in the tool list
above are placed on the longerons and the straight edge and level
placed on these, first crosswise and then lengthwise. A string is
stretched over the top of the fuselage touching the top cross braces
and brought as close as possible to the center of these pieces. This
string should stretch from the rudder post as far forward as possible.
Then the cross wires or diagonal brace wires are sighted to see how
close their intersections agree with this center-line string.
Furthermore, the level is placed on the engine bearers and they are
tested for cross level and longitudinal level. If the engine is mounted
in place, but one point on the bearers will be available for this
purpose, but the check should nevertheless be made. It may also be
found that the longitudinal level of the engine bearers can be tested
from underneath by placing the steel cubes mentioned above on the
top of the level and then holding the level up against the bottom of
the bearers. As a rule, if the fuselage is warped it should be possible
to detect this with the eye, but when engine bearers are out of line
this can only be detected with certainty by the use of the level.
Let it be assumed that the fuselage is out of true. The first parts
to tackle are, of course, the engine bearers. If they should not be in
line they must first be brought so, and afterward kept in this
condition. The diagonal wires at the front of the fuselage should be
adjusted to make this correction. If the bearers are badly out of line
it will, perhaps, be wisest to remove the engine, or at least loosen it
up from the bearers before doing any adjusting for the reason that it
may become strained by serious pulling on the bearers. After the
bearers are in place, it will be safe to bolt the engine fast again.
With the engine bearers temporarily disposed of, the fuselage
proper is tackled. Here the first thing to do is to get the top surfaces
of the longerons level crosswise. Use the spirit level and the two
steel cubes mentioned in the tool list for this purpose. Start at the
front of the fuselage in the cock pit. Adjust the internal diagonal
wires until the level bubble is in its proper place. Then measure
these first two sets of diagonal wires, getting them of equal length.
Continue this process throughout the length of the fuselage until the
rear end is reached, always working from the front.
Lastly, before proceeding to the next operation, try the engine
bearers for level again. If out, make the proper adjustments.
If the centers of the crosswise struts are not marked, this should
first be done before going further. Then stretch a string from No. 1
strut, or as far forward as possible to the center of the rudder post.
All center points on the cross struts, if the fuselage is true
lengthwise, should lie exactly on this string. If not, adjust the
horizontal diagonal wires, top and bottom, working from the front,
until the center-line points all agree. Always check by measuring
diagonal wires which are mates. These should be of equal length. If
not, some wire in the series may be overstressed. In order to pull
the center points on the cross struts over, always stop to analyze the
situation carefully, determining which are the long diagonals and
which the short ones from the way the fuselage is bowed. Then
shorten the long ones and ease off on the short ones, being careful
never to overstress any of the wires.
The last thing to do is to bring the longerons or the center line of
the fuselage into level lengthwise. For this purpose a long straight-
edge, the two cubes, and a spirit level are of advantage, although
simply stretching a string closely over the top of the longeron may
suffice. Then as in the case of removing a crosswise bow in the
fuselage, here too, we manipulate the outside up and down diagonal
wires in bringing the top longerons into their proper level position
lengthwise, always working from the front.
After all this is done it is well to make some overall checks with
steel tape or trams to see how various fittings located according to
the drawings, agree with one another. Since there is a right and a
left side, distance between fittings on these sides may be compared.
And, finally, the engine bearers should be tried again. In short no
opportunity should be neglected to prove the truth of the fuselage
as a whole and in detail.
It might be pointed out that an excellent time to check the
fuselage is when engine is being removed or changed. In fact this
time in general is a good one to give the airplane as a whole, a
careful inspection.
After all the necessary corrections have been made and all the
parts of the fuselage brought into correct relation with one another,
the turnbuckles are safety wired and then served with tape to act as
a final protection. The linen covering is reapplied if it had previously
to be removed and the level, empennage wires, panels etc., are
placed in position and aligned as pointed out in the notes on
assembly and alignment.
 CHAPTER X
HANDLING OF AIRPLANES IN THE FIELD
AND AT THE BASES PREVIOUS TO AND
AFTER FLIGHTS

No unimportant part of the operation and maintenance of

airplanes is their handling in the field, and at the various bases
previous to, between, and after flights. This phase of the entire
subject contemplates the transportation of airplanes in knockdown
condition either by railway or truck, their unloading and unpacking,
to a certain extent their assembly, their storage in hangars and
sheds, their storage and disposition in the open, their disassembling
and packing for transportation, etc.
The Unloading and Unpacking of Airplanes.—The personnel
required to unload an airplane properly boxed and crated from a
railway car, is 15 men and two non-commissioned officers. The tools
needed for this purpose are:

1 ax.
2 crowbars.
6 lengths of iron pipe about 2 in. in diameter, 3 ft. long.
6 lengths of iron pipe about 2 in. in diameter, 4 ft. long.
100 ft. manila rope, 1 in. in diameter.

A regular flat-bed moving truck or ordinary truck with a flat-bed

trailer should be provided for handling the machine from the car to
the field erecting shop.