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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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This article is about the electrical device. For other uses, see Transformer
(disambiguation).

An O-core transformer consisting of two coils of

copper wire wrapped around a magnetic core

In electrical engineering, a transformer is a passive component that

transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or
multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the
same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils
without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two
circuits. Faraday's law of induction, discovered in 1831, describes the
induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled
by the coil.

Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being

termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level,
respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic
isolation between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-processing
circuits. Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in
1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution,
and utilization of alternating current electric power. [1] A wide range of
transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to
interconnect the power grid.
Principles

[edit]

Ideal transformer equations

By Faraday's law of induction:

(Eq. 1[a]
[2]
)

(Eq.
2)

where is the instantaneous voltage, is the number of turns in a winding,

dΦ/dt is the derivative of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding
over time (t), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary.

Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2:

(Eq.
Turns ratio
3)

where for a step-up transformer a < 1 and for a step-down transformer a >
1.[3]

By the law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power are
each conserved in the input and output:

(Eq.
4)

where is apparent power and is current.

Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote [b][4] gives the ideal
transformer identity:

(Eq.
5)

where is winding self-inductance.

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity:

(Eq.
6)

(Eq.
 7)

where is the load impedance of the secondary circuit & is the apparent load
or driving point impedance of the primary circuit, the superscript denoting
referred to the primary.

Ideal transformer

[edit]

An ideal transformer is linear, lossless and perfectly coupled. Perfect

coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and
winding inductance and zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. ipnp − isns = 0).[3]
[c]

Ideal transformer
connected with source VP on primary and load impedance ZL on secondary,
where 0 < ZL < ∞.
Ideal transformer and induction law[d]

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying

magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the
secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a
varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This
electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action
and, in accordance with Lenz's law, the secondary current so produced
creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding.

The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic

permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary
winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer
currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive force
cancels to zero.

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage
is induced in each winding proportional to its number of turns. The
transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio. [6]

An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical commercial

transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely
proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to the turns ratio
squared times the secondary circuit load impedance. [7]

Real transformer

[edit]

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer

[edit]

The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real
transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies. [8]

(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of [9]

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer

core, and

 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are
proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.

(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero
resistances and inductances associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings [9]

 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one
winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance

phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic
capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are
provided[10]
  Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

 Capacitance between adjacent layers;

 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;

Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is

rarely attempted; the 'real' transformer model's equivalent circuit shown
below does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance
effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the
inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a
short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.

Leakage flux

[edit]

Main article: Leakage inductance

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary
winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some
flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. [11] Such flux is
termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings.[12] Leakage flux results in energy
being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with
each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in
inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly
proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.
[11]
Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage
inductance.

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths,

air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a
transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky
transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance,
such as electric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or
for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such
as electric arc welders.[9]: 485

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially
audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing
in the windings.[13] A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core to
control alternating current.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are
operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance[e] and
associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two
transformers were the same, the transformers would share the load power in
proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of
commercial transformers are significant. Also, the impedance and X/R ratio
of different capacity transformers tends to vary.[15]

Equivalent circuit

[edit]

See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be

represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal
transformer.[16]

Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by the following
series loop impedances of the model:

 Primary winding: RP, XP

 Secondary winding: RS, XS.

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in

practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these
impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.

Real transformer
equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg

impedances of the model:

 Core or iron losses: RC

 Magnetizing reactance: XM.

RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the
core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a
given frequency.[9]: 142–143 The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing
current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase
with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to
saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown
are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically
reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.[9]: 142 With sinusoidal supply, core
flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding,
magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no-load current.[16]

Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1

markings on low-voltage ("LV") side terminal

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit

based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of approximations.
[16]
Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch
impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the
primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary
and referred secondary resistances and reactance by simple summation as
two series impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters

can be derived from the following tests: open-circuit test, short-circuit test,
winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.

Transformer EMF equation

[edit]

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding
between its rms voltage Erms of the winding, and the supply frequency f,
number of turns N, core cross-sectional area A in m2 and peak magnetic flux
density Bpeak in Wb/m2 or T (tesla) is given by the universal EMF equation: [9]

Polarity

[edit]

A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or

terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings.
Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's
'dot' end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's
'dot' end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have
a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals.
This may be in the form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code
to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.

Effect of frequency

[edit]

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. [9] By

operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more
compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without
reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin
effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ
400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. [17] Conversely,
frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower
(e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50–60 Hz) for
historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric
traction motors. Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high
overhead line voltages were much larger and heavier for the same power
rating than those required for the higher frequencies.
 Power transformer overexcitation condition
caused by decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic
characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency

than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency,
the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at
other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses,
and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may
require protective relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at
higher than rated frequency.

One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple

unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different
electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers
have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from
as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV).

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops

dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels that
would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of
switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode power
supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level
with a small transformer.

Transformers for higher frequency applications such as SMPS typically use

core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses than
those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite cores. The
lower frequency-dependant losses of these cores often is at the expense of
flux density at saturation. For instance, ferrite saturation occurs at a
substantially lower flux density than laminated iron.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient
voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by
lightning.

Energy losses

[edit]

Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses.

Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer
capacity.[18] The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between
about 98 and 99 percent.[18][19]

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load

loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while
winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant,
so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply.
Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core,
good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker
wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-
off between initial cost and operating cost.[20]

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating due to

the resistance of the wire. As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity
effect causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.

Core losses

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost
due to hysteresis within the core, caused by motion of the magnetic
domains within the steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy
due to hysteresis is given by

and,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the

maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about
1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron. [20] For more detailed analysis,
see Magnetic core and Steinmetz's equation.

Eddy current losses

Eddy currents are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the
changing magnetic field, and this current flowing through the resistance of
the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy current loss is a
complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the
material thickness.[20] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core
of a stack of laminations (thin plates) electrically insulated from each other,
rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use
laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to

physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field,
an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces
an audible noise known as mains hum or "transformer hum".[21] This
transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied
at power frequencies and in high-frequency flyback transformers associated
with television CRTs.

Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its

magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However,
any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the
transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be
converted to heat.[22]

Radiative

There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these
are usually small.

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes

fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy
incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying
audible transformer hum.[23]

Construction
[edit]

Cores

[edit]

Core form = core type; shell form = shell

type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When

windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are
surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. [24] Shell form design
may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer
applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding
coils.[24] Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical,
and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power
transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating
ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher
voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more
prevalent.[24][25][26] Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high
voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to
manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently
better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and
higher immunity to transit damage.[26]

Laminated steel cores

[edit]
 Shell type transformer with laminated core
showing edges of laminations at the top of the photo

Interleaved E-I transformer laminations showing

air gap and flux paths

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores

made of high permeability silicon steel.[27] The steel has a permeability many
times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the
magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the
windings.[28] Early transformer developers soon realized that cores
constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and
their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of
insulated iron wires.[29] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers
of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each
lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of
insulation.[30] The transformer universal EMF equation can be used to
calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux.
[9]

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths

that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations
reduce losses,[27] but are more laborious and expensive to construct. [31] Thin
laminations are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of
very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.
 Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-

shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of E-I
transformer.[31] Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very
economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding
a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together.
It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by
binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. [31] They have the
advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains,
reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause
a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced,
usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. [32] Overcurrent
protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless
inrush to pass.

On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,

induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can
cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.
[33]

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores

made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-
crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset
over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load. [34]

Solid cores

[edit]
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies
that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz.
These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk
electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores
made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are
common.[31] Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores
(sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling
coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal cores

[edit]

Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending

on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[35] A strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The
closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I
core.[9] : 485 The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but
more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The
primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the
entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and
provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from
generating electromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types
for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include
smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum
(making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field
(about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby
circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main
disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification
parameters below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic
path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current,
compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few
tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size,
and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer
construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is
necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core
aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence,
toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Relatively
few toroids are offered with power ratings above 10 kVA, and practically
none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the
benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a
bobbin containing primary and secondary windings. [36]

Air cores

[edit]

A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other, an

arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core transformer
eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. [12] The magnetizing
inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a magnetic core, resulting in
large magnetizing currents and losses if used at low frequencies. Air-core
transformers are unsuitable for use in power distribution, [12] but are
frequently employed in radio-frequency applications. [37] Air cores are also
used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils, where they can achieve
reasonably low loss despite the low magnetizing inductance.

Windings

[edit]
 Windings are usually arranged concentrically to

minimize flux leakage. Cut view through

transformer windings. Legend:
White: Air, liquid or other insulating medium
Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel
Black: Primary winding
Red: Secondary winding

The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the application,
but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each
other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small
transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between
adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet
wire. Larger power transformers may be wound with copper rectangular strip
conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.[38]

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz

often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-
effect and proximity effect losses.[39] Large power transformers use multiple-
stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-
uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current
windings.[38] Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are
arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole
winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete
conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of
the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The
stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar
size, aiding manufacture.[38]

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray

capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections,
and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the

winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment.
Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be
provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in
electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc
furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads.
Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public
address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each
speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an
audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers
in AM transmitters are very similar.

Cooling

[edit]

Cutaway view of liquid-immersed transformer. The

conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquid-to-atmosphere isolation as
coolant level and temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required
heat dissipation.
It is a rule of thumb that the life expectancy of electrical insulation is halved
for about every 7 °C to 10 °C increase in operating temperature (an instance
of the application of the Arrhenius equation).[40]

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by

natural convection and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase,
transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-
cooling, or combinations of these.[41] Large transformers are filled
with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings.
[42]
Transformer oil is often a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings
and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil
and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more
than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive
50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers is
about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer failures are
due to insulation and overloading failures.[43][44] Prolonged operation at
elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation
and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can
ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.[40] With a great body of
empirical study as a guide, transformer oil testing including dissolved gas
analysis provides valuable maintenance information.

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled

transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or
be installed in fire-resistant rooms.[18] Air-cooled dry transformers can be
more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant
transformer room.

The tank of liquid-filled transformers often has radiators through which the
liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large
transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-
liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling.[42] An oil-immersed
transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay, which, depending on
severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either trigger
an alarm or de-energize the transformer.[32] Oil-immersed transformer
installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil
containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have properties that once favored their use
as a dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environmental
persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.[45] Today, non-toxic,
stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where
the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a
transformer vault.[18][46] However, the long life span of transformers can mean
that the potential for exposure can be high long after banning. [47]

Some transformers are gas-insulated. Their windings are enclosed in sealed,

pressurized tanks and often cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.[46]

Experimental power transformers in the 500–1,000 kVA range have been

built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings, which
eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses. [48][49]

Insulation

[edit]

Substation transformer undergoing testing.

Insulation must be provided between the individual turns of the windings,

between the windings, between windings and core, and at the terminals of
the winding.

Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating

varnish on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted
between layers of windings, and between primary and secondary windings. A
transformer may be coated or dipped in a polymer resin to improve the
strength of windings and protect them from moisture or corrosion. The resin
may be impregnated into the winding insulation using combinations of
vacuum and pressure during the coating process, eliminating all air voids in
the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may be placed in a mold, and resin
cast around it as a solid block, encapsulating the windings. [50]
Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with insulating
paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the transformer. Oil-
filled transformers use highly refined mineral oil to insulate and cool the
windings and core. Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the
insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture
before the oil is introduced. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around
the core, by circulating externally heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase
drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on
the coil and core. For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of
current into the windings is used.

Bushings

[edit]

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made

of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it
must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the
transformer leak oil.[51]

Classification parameters

[edit]

An electrical
substation in Melbourne, Australia showing three of five 220 kV – 66 kV

transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA

Camouflaged transformer in Langley City, Canada
Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

 Power rating: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand

MVA.

 Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic,

varying.

 Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-

frequency.

 Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.

 Cooling type: Dry or liquid-immersed; self-cooled, forced air-

cooled;forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.

 Application: power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and

current stabilizer, pulse, circuit isolation, power
distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc..

 Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form, concentric, sandwich.

 Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-

down, isolation.

 General winding configuration: By IEC vector group, two-winding

combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star,
and zigzag; autotransformer, Scott-T

 Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-

winding, 12-pulse; . . ., n-winding, [n − 1]·6-pulse; polygon; etc..

Applications

[edit]

Transformer at the Limestone Generating

Station in Manitoba, Canada
Main article: Transformer types

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer

types. Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles,
they are customized in construction or electrical properties for certain
installation requirements or circuit conditions.

In electric power transmission, transformers allow transmission of electric

power at high voltages, which reduces the loss due to heating of the wires.
This allows generating plants to be located economically at a distance from
electrical consumers.[52] All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power
has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the
consumer.[22]

In many electronic devices, a transformer is used to convert voltage from the

distribution wiring to convenient values for the circuit requirements, either
directly at the power line frequency or through a switch mode power supply.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to
match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of
amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-
way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a
signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to
ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Isolation
transformers prevent leakage of current into the secondary circuit and are
used in medical equipment and at construction sites. Resonant transformers
are used for coupling between stages of radio receivers, or in high-voltage
Tesla coils.
 Schematic of a large
oil-filled power transformer 1. Tank 2. Lid 3. Conservator tank 4. Oil level
indicator 5. Buchholz relay for detecting gas bubbles after an internal fault 6.
Piping 7. Tap changer 8. Drive motor for tap changer 9. Drive shaft for tap
changer 10. High voltage (HV) bushing 11. High voltage bushing current
transformers 12. Low voltage (LV) bushing 13. Low voltage current
transformers 14. Bushing voltage-transformer for metering 15. Core 16. Yoke
of the core 17. Limbs connect the yokes and hold them up 18. Coils 19.
Internal wiring between coils and tapchanger 20. Oil release valve 21.
Vacuum valve

History

[edit]

Discovery of induction

[edit]

Faraday's experiment with induction between

coils of wire [53]

Electromagnetic induction, the principle of the operation of the transformer,

was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph
Henry in 1832.[54][55][56][57] Only Faraday furthered his experiments to the point
of working out the equation describing the relationship between EMF and
magnetic flux now known as Faraday's law of induction:

where is the magnitude of the EMF in volts and Φ B is the magnetic flux
through the circuit in webers.[58]

Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire,

including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the
first toroidal closed-core transformer.[57][59] However he only applied individual
pulses of current to his transformer, and never discovered the relation
between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings.

Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhaven, Germany

Induction coils

[edit]

Main article: Induction coil

Faraday's ring transformer

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented
by Irish-Catholic Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836.
[57]
He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the
secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the
induced secondary EMF will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and
inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries
produce direct current (DC) rather than AC, induction coils relied upon
vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the
primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the
1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial
and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers.

First alternating current transformers

[edit]

By the 1870s, efficient generators producing alternating current (AC) were

available, and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly, without
an interrupter.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based

on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a
source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several 'electric
candles' (arc lamps) of his own design. The coils Yablochkov employed
functioned essentially as transformers.[60]

In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Hungary, began producing equipment

for electric lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in Austria-
Hungary. Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps, generators,
and other equipment.[57][61]

In 1882, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an
initially widely criticized laminated plate open iron core called a 'secondary
generator' in London, then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the
United States in 1886.[29] They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in
1884, where it was highly successful and adopted for an electric lighting
system.[62] Their open-core device used a fixed 1:1 ratio to supply a series
circuit for the utilization load (lamps). The voltage was controlled by moving
the iron core in or out.[63]

Early series circuit transformer distribution

[edit]

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring

power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmission
from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-
core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries
in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a
low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning
off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all
others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were
introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series
circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or
bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil. [62] Efficient, practical
transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the
transformer would be instrumental in the war of the currents, and in seeing
AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in
which they have remained dominant ever since. [64]

Shell form transformer. Sketch used by

Uppenborn to describe ZBD engineers' 1885 patents and earliest articles. [62]

Core form, front; shell form, back. Earliest

specimens of ZBD-designed high-efficiency constant-potential transformers

manufactured at the Ganz factory in 1885. The

ZBD team consisted of Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri
 Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap open-
core induction coils

Closed-core transformers and parallel power distribution

[edit]

In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa

Déri (ZBD), three Hungarian engineers associated with the Ganz Works, had
determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were
incapable of reliably regulating voltage.[61] The Ganz factory had also in the
autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency AC
transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on September 16,
1884.[65] This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications:
1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form.
[65]
In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called
ZBD transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits
where copper windings were either wound around an iron wire ring core or
surrounded by an iron wire core.[62] The two designs were the first application
of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day,
termed "core form" or "shell form" .[66]

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary
windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no
intentional path through air (see Toroidal cores below). The new transformers
were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard
and Gibbs.[67] The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated
innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series
connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high
turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much
higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V
initially preferred).[68][69] When employed in parallel connected electric
distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and
economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes,
businesses and public spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores,
Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and Déri
had performed the experiments;[70] In early 1885, the three engineers also
eliminated the problem of eddy current losses with the invention of the
lamination of electromagnetic cores.[71]

Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three

engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to describe a device
for altering the EMF of an electric current[72] although the term had already
been in use by 1882.[73][74] In 1886, the ZBD engineers designed, and the
Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for, the world's first power
station that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common
electrical network, the steam-powered Rome-Cerchi power plant. [75]

Westinghouse improvements

[edit]

E-shaped plates for transformer cores developed

by Westinghouse

Building on the advancement of AC technology in Europe, [76] George

Westinghouse founded the Westinghouse Electric in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
on January 8, 1886.[77] The new firm became active in developing alternating
current (AC) electric infrastructure throughout the United States. The Edison
Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD
transformers, requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the
same principles. George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs'
patents for $50,000 in February 1886.[78] He assigned to William Stanley the
task of redesign the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for commercial use in
United States.[79] Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with
single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in
the secondary winding (see image). This design [80] was first used
commercially in the US in 1886[81] but Westinghouse was intent on improving
the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to
produce.[80]
Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed a core that was easier
to manufacture, consisting of a stack of thin 'E-shaped' iron plates insulated
by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Pre-wound copper coils
could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to create a
closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse obtained a patent for the new low-
cost design in 1887.[70]

Other early transformer designs

[edit]

In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the

first three-phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-
Gesellschaft ('General Electricity Company') in Germany.[82]

In 1891, Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned

resonant transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency.[83]

Audio frequency transformers ("repeating coils") were used by early

experimenters in the development of the telephone.[84]

See also

[edit]

 High-voltage transformer fire barriers

 Inductive coupling

 Load profile

 Magnetization

 Parametric transformer

 Polyphase system

 Power inverter

 Rectiformer

 Voltage converter

Notes

[edit]

1. ^ With turns of the winding oriented perpendicularly to the

magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux
 density and the core area, the magnetic field varying with time
according to the excitation of the primary. The expression ,
defined as the derivative of magnetic flux with time , provides a
measure of rate of magnetic flux in the core and hence of EMF
induced in the respective winding. The negative sign in eq. 1 &
eq. 2 is consistent with Lenz's law and Faraday's law in that by
convention EMF "induced by an increase of magnetic flux
linkages is opposite to the direction that would be given by
the right-hand rule."

2. ^ Although ideal transformer's winding inductances are each

infinitely high, the square root of winding inductances' ratio is
equal to the turns ratio.

3. ^ This also implies the following: The net core flux is zero, the
input impedance is infinite when secondary is open and zero
when secondary is shorted; there is zero phase-shift through an
ideal transformer; input and output power and reactive volt-
ampere are each conserved; these three statements apply for
any frequency above zero and periodic waveforms are
conserved.[5]

4. ^ Direction of transformer currents is according to the Right-

Hand Rule.

5. ^ Percent impedance is the ratio of the voltage drop in the

secondary from no load to full load.[14]

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[edit]

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External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Transformers.

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 This page was last edited on 18 December 2024, at 17:39 (UTC).